Digital Currency Systems: Emerging B2B e-Commerce Alternative During Monetary Crisis in the United States

Digital Currency Systems: Emerging B2B e-Commerce

Alternative During Monetary Crisis in the United States

Author: Constance J. Wells, constance@businessintelltechnology.com

Submitted to Aspen University MS Program

Capstone Advisor: Dr. Sam Hijazi

February 8, 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Barter Exchange Software Systems ............................................................................................ 4
Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment Systems ........................................................................... 5
Digital Precious Metal Systems .................................................................................................. 6
Online Value Transfer Software Systems ................................................................................... 7
Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems .................................................................. 7
The Problems that Drive Digital Currency Systems ....................................................................... 8
Anti-Money Laundering.............................................................................................................. 8
Privacy and Sovereignty............................................................................................................ 10
Legal Tender Laws .................................................................................................................... 11
Quantitative Easing Measures ................................................................................................... 13
Electronic Commerce through Digital Currency Systems ............................................................ 15
Part One ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Part Two .................................................................................................................................... 21
Double-Spending................................................................................................................... 23
Types of Digital Currency Systems ...................................................................................... 24
Conclusions Drawn from the Work .............................................................................................. 38
Summary of the Contributions .................................................................................................. 39
Prospect of Future Research...................................................................................................... 40
References ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 49
Glossary of Terms ......................................................................................................................... 57

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Abstract

Digital currency systems form the triumvirate nexus of government policies, money, and

technology. Each has a global reach and responds to the needs of business and consumers. E-

commerce depends on private and government financial institutions to enable payment

transactions, the basis of e-commerce. As the United States financial crisis continues B2B

enterprises may need to abandon traditional payment transaction systems and look to alternatives

in the form of Web-based digital currency systems accessed via the Internet. The various types of

digital currency systems generally fit into five categories: barter exchange software systems,

non-bank digital currency payment systems, digital precious metal systems, online value transfer

software systems, and online stored value transaction software systems. Digital currency systems

are not online banking. Digital currency systems use private electronic monies: electronic tokens,

barter-exchange currencies, digital cash, and stored value e-cash vouchers.

We explore the history of money against a backdrop of banking and government policies

that cause cyclic monetary crises, how these current digital systems operate, how business can

thereby benefit in their use, and why digital currency systems are such an underutilized service in

the United States.

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Digital Currency Systems: Emerging B2B e-Commerce Alternative

During Monetary Crisis in the United States

Introduction

This paper is presented in two major sections addressing the problems and advantages of

business using digital currency systems in times of currency instability in the United States. The

first section will give context to digital currency systems by providing historical and background

information of what is already used for e-commerce payments and the economic environment

that is driving the need for businesses to adopt the newer digital currency systems (DCSes). The

second section concentrates on the available and newest DCSes, solutions that address traditional

disadvantages and advantages to businesses in adopting a DCS during the current economic

climate in which they find themselves.

Background on the Digital Currency System

Digital currency systems (DCSes) cross boarders as do credit card companies such as

MasterCard, PayPal, VISA, and others but surprisingly, there are few promotional efforts being

conducted on DCSes. Each credit card company’s system allows merchants to conduct

commerce globally and transact payments amongst various currencies but only DCSes allow

commodities (gold and silver) and currencies, for payment of products and services. To date,

DCSes are mostly underutilized by business in conducting e-commerce in the United States but

are a major payment system used in Russia. DCSes allow business to use the highest valued

currency and money that best suits their needs, thereby escaping the detrimental repercussions of

a currency that is inflated and loses its value. For instance, gold, like the Internet, transcends

borders: its value as a commodity and the conventions for its use are internationally recognized

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and accepted. Due to the nature of commodities, DCSes provide business with an easy,

affordable and safe way to continue conducting e-commerce in unstable business environments.

Historical problems of U.S. banking instability, sometimes blamed on the gold standard,

is on closer inspection rooted in banking regulations that unwittingly weakened private U.S.

banks. In a study covering many decades in a large sample of countries, Federal Reserve Bank

economists found that “money growth, in terms of inflation, are higher” under fiat debt

instruments than under currency anchored to gold and silver standards. Hence, businesses are left

in a quandary by being unaware of the advantages of using digital currency systems in times of

hyper-money growth, as an alternative in helping them circumvent instability and bankruptcy.

The status of the United States’s unsubstantiated fiat currency is anticipated to have a

severely damaging effect on business and e-commerce if only the traditional payment systems

continue to be used. An alternative is required, in effect, a ‘plan B’. This is evidenced by the fact

that legislators in at least ten states have introduced bills in the past few years to allow state

commerce to be conducted with gold and silver. Legislators have proposed resolutions, mostly

since 2009, to include gold and silver in its accepted currency forms. As of January, 2011, the

states seeking this legislation are Georgia, Virginia, Montana, Missouri, Colorado, Idaho,

Indiana, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Utah, and Washington. In addition, suddenly

JPMorgan Chase Bank has jumped into the act (Satter, 2011). John Rivett, collateral

management executive for J.P. Morgan Worldwide Securities Services, said in a report,

“Many clients are holding gold on their balance sheets as an inflation hedge and are looking to

make these assets work for them as collateral. By combining our collateral management and

vaulting capabilities, we provide clients with greater flexibility in how they mobilize collateral

(including ETFs backed by gold bars).” The move will permit its clients to mobilize collateral

across borders (Satter).

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We will discuss ‘vaulting’ in more detail and in relation to particular digital currency

systems, called digital precious metal systems, later in the paper.

Digital Currency System Sources and Research

There are few current research white papers available specifically on digital currency

systems' functionality within the United States. Therefore, it fell to a large extent on the

publication called Digital Gold Currency (DGC) Magazine, edited by Mark Herpel, to provide

analysis and documentation on today’s available systems within the digital currency system

industry. Generally, the various types of digital currency systems fit into five categories:

1. Barter Exchange Software Systems

2. Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment Systems

3. Digital Precious Metal Systems (requiring ‘vaulting’)

4. Online Value Transfer Software Systems

5. Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems

Unlike traditional credit card payment and central bank systems, digital currency systems

use four private electronic monies: electronic tokens, barter-exchange currencies, digital cash,

and stored value. The words precious metals, gold, silver, asset, and commodity, are equivalent

terms and are used interchangeably. The words Federal Reserve Bank, Federal Reserve Banks,

and central banks, are also used interchangeably

Barter Exchange Software Systems

The time-worn practice of barter continues to contribute billions of dollars in commercial

transactions each year to businesses within the United States. Digital currency barter systems

deal in tokens or ‘trade dollars’ and commodities that are pegged to the U.S. dollar and silver.

Barter systems are the most numerous of digital currency systems found today in the United

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States. The few barter system sites that also accept silver assets in addition to US dollars, are the

gathering place of merchants who prefer to be paid in precious metals (Trudell, 2010).

In speaking with Free World Market founder, Jeremy Trudell, some barter sites, for

example, can pay in silver. They peg the value of their transactions to the American Open

Currency Standard (AOCS). The IRS code section on barter states that whatever is paid in

exchange must be equivalent, hence barter obviates gains paid on “gold or silver assets” when

they are used, per current legal tender laws. In addition there is no way barter sites can be

monitored and audited, as most traditional payment systems can be today. If or when the IRS

attempts to audit the small business owner of a barter system, there may be no merchant accounts

to audit. With some barter systems, the B2B or B2C transactions are recorded but the

transactions are not accumulated and posted in merchant accounts. Smaller barter systems only

calculate the transactions in real-time (Trudell) while larger barter systems, in terms of members,

do in fact, report monthly account balances to their merchant members and are easily audited by

the IRS.

Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment Systems

For conducting Internet business, these multi-functional payment tools handle multiple

issued currencies and precious metals. These systems are popular with Internet users that do not

have bank accounts and where no bank accounts are required (Herpel, 2009a). They provide a

multi-currency “z-purse” or “e-wallet,” online financial services, P2P (peer-to-peer) payment

solutions, Internet based trading platforms, merchant services, and online billing processes. As a

software platform, digital payment systems hold no assets; they merely provide all of the

functionality to connect users to their purses or “e-wallets” and transact business via the Internet

(Herpel).

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Though not used to any extent in the United States, these digital currency accounts offer

the worldwide electronic movement of funds using a personal computer or mobile device. For

business these payment systems support local payment solutions for Internet merchandisers and

service providers. The sites generally publish participating merchants' information on the

website, exposing them to all consumers of the payment system. This encourages the building of

long-term business relationships. For business transactions, it gives an automated platform that

allows a business to produce and sell, offer services and pay suppliers, contractors, and personnel

via the Internet. The system also allows members to buy goods and services on credit or borrow

funds from other users.

Digital Precious Metal Systems

Digital precious metal currency, also referred to as digital gold currency (DGC), is actual

gold or silver ownership combined with the latest Internet technology (Herpel, 2009a; Herpel,

2009b). DGC is not a paper certificate or a promise of gold; DGC is allocated gold held in a

vault on behalf of the customer. Digital precious metal combines the sound money properties of

gold and other precious metals with the Internet (Herpel). These systems’ functionality is not

dependent upon a network of traditional financial institutions. Therefore, these payment systems

are an alternative to the banking system. Digital precious metals systems allow users to buy,

own, and store precious metals (GoldMoney, 2011).

These asset-backed digital systems give customers the ability to use monetary

commodities as currency by making payments to the digital system's vaults. Members can make

gold and other precious metal payments to other customers electronically. These systems allow

members around the world to make instant payments to each other, at a fraction of the cost of a

standard bank transfer.

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These systems, too, conduct a rigorous verification process before a member can transfer

money to fund their holding and start buying metals.

Online Value Transfer Software Systems

This type of system is cutting-edge in terms of technology and business model, and uses

digital cash assets and usage tokens stored in an “e-wallet.” Such systems allow various methods

of private value transfer and privacy features (Herpel, 2009a).

A particular online value transfer system, known as Loom.cc, is both a general-purpose

digital accounting software and an informal online value transfer software system. The system

offers users the ability to create, send, and receive digital units (assets). The Loom.cc site is

designed using open source software (Herpel).

Another new peer-to-peer (P2P) anonymous digital currency system is Bitcoin.org

(Herpel). As stated on the Bitcoin site, peer-to-peer means that there is no central authority to

issue new money or keep track of transactions. Instead, these tasks are managed collectively by

the nodes of the network. Bitcoin.org’s value transfer software system is a free, open-source

system that uses a network-based digital “cryptocurrency” and all transactions are non-recourse.

Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems

Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems are the most cutting-edge next

generation technology (Herpel, 2009a). One of these systems is even Voucher-Safe. It is an

online mechanism used for the secure, anonymous exchange of digital vouchers and peer-to-peer

interaction between users. It is implemented as an extension to XMPP (Jabber); an instant

messaging protocol. The P2P Voucher System is designed to emulate the model of circulating

cash in the digital world. The voucher payment system itself is transactionally unconditional, just

as it is entirely open as to the nature of the backing asset.

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A stored value software system like this operates entirely independently from digital

precious metal currency systems, i.e., digital gold currency (DGC) systems. This is important to

a successful business model in that it is not a branch of, or related to, any DGC. But an online

stored value system does partner with a DGC system in order to facilitate a reputable issue,

similar to how barter exchange systems peg their tokens and transactions to the American Open

Currency Standard (AOCS) for silver.

The Problems that Drive Digital Currency Systems

The problems lie around government policy, money and technology. The money problem

lies with the economic instability brought to us by fiat money, and in particular with government

policies that enforce only its use. This is driving the evolving and maturing DCS industry, and

how business can use DCSes in their e-commerce efforts to stem the tide of losses. The U.S.

dollar has no defined value in terms of a commodity or basket of commodities, there is no

convertibility principle operating and there is no monetary rule to ensure strategic price stability.

This economic policy inevitably results in inflation and, sooner or later, hyperinflation or

depression. Inflation distorts markets due to misdirected capital investment (Hazlitt, 1946). It

leads business owners to make investments they might not otherwise have made, and these

decisions can easily result in widespread business bankruptcy.

Anti-Money Laundering

Fear that digital currency systems will be used by foreign or domestic money laundering

firms to hide their gains find tough anti-money laundering rules enforced in the United States.

Disclosure statements from investor accounts contain anti-money laundering verbiage as follows:

“to help the government fight the funding of terrorism and money laundering activities, Federal

law requires all financial institutions to obtain, verify, and record information that identifies each

person who opens an account. The U.S. Department of the Treasury, Securities and Exchange
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Commission, Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), and NYSE regulation require

you to provide additional information, such as net worth, annual income, occupation,

employment information, investment experience and objectives, and risk tolerance.”

The disclosure continues by stressing the fact that unless the information is provided, the

business firm cannot open an account or process transactions, and if the firm has an account, it

will be closed.

Section 312 of the USA PATRIOT Act stipulates that financial institutions must

(FinCEN, 2005):

1. Determine the identity of all nominal and beneficial owners of the private banking account.

2. Determine whether any such owner is a senior foreign political official and, thus, is subject to

enhanced scrutiny.

3. Determine the source(s) of funds deposited into the private banking account and the purpose

and expected use of the account.

4. Review the activity of the account to ensure that the activity is consistent with the

information obtained about the source of funds, the stated purpose, the expected use of the

account, and to report any suspicious activity (FinCEN).

In addition, anti-money laundering suspicious activities may be further investigated due

to Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act which allows the Federal Bureau of Investigation to

compel anyone, including banks, investor custodians, doctors, libraries, bookstores, universities,

and Internet service providers, to relinquish records on their clients or customers. What is more,

it should be remembered, that if or when a firm’s records are relinquished by their custodian

organization, the custodian is prevented from notifying the business firm that their records are

being searched by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

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But somehow, all of these laws, rules, and guidelines seem to not be enough to assuage

the fear of banks and government enforcement agencies.

Privacy and Sovereignty

Another problem for business today is that the government desires, and in many cases

does, monitor monetary e-commerce transactions. Governments hunger for control of the

resources and citizens within their boarders (Gordon, 2010). This hunger is seen today in the

United Kingdom. The United Kingdoms tax collection agency is putting forth a proposal that all

employers send employee paychecks to the government, after which the government will deduct

what it deems as the appropriate tax and pay the employees by bank transfer (Knight, 2010).

Here, the United Kingdoms system will exploit the economic crisis to completely dominate and

control the lives of their citizens.

Unlike the United States's current financial systems, online cash payment systems would

deprive the government of a great deal of surveillance information (Harper, 2007). But, due to

the nature of technology, digital currency transfers always leave a detailed transaction record. In

the United States, privacy and anonymity war with the commercial viability for a fully private

system; therefore, as these digital currency system providers expand, they become highly

regulated enterprises. And due to the traceability of transactions, digital currency issuers require

a high degree of user identification in order to comply and compete in today's online e-commerce

marketplace (Herpel, 2009a). This, by and large, negates the wholesale use of these systems by

terrorists and money launderers.

True digital cash, the fully untraceable private form, will allow some new channels for

criminal activity (May, 1997). Privacy and sovereignty for free citizens has its price. The ability

of people to plot crimes and commit crimes behind privately closed doors is obvious, and yet we

do not demand that cameras and microphones be installed in homes, apartments, kitchens,

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bathrooms, bedrooms, and hotel rooms. While there may be no specific mention of privacy in the

U.S. Constitution, many would argue that the First and Fourth Amendments make private

economic transactions not subject to government intrusion.

Legal Tender Laws

The Legal Tender Act of February 25, 1862, declared Treasury notes of the United States

to be legal tender for the payment of public and private debts. The 1862 Act was enacted to issue

paper money to only temporarily finance the Civil War without raising taxes. Article I, Section 8

of the Constitution specifically gives Congress the power to "borrow money," "coin money,"

"regulate the value" of both U.S. and foreign coins, and regulate interstate commerce, but it does

not explicitly and absolutely endow Congress with the power to print paper money or make it

legal tender in place of gold and silver coin.

Today, legal tender laws are enforced by the IRS and the Federal Reserve Bank for the

United States government. Dr. Ron Paul, a Congressman of Texas, serves on the House Financial

Services Committee and is a distinguished counselor to the Ludwig von Mises Institute. Dr. Paul

states on his website that

“Sound money (backed by gold and silver coin) keeps government spending in check,

keeps trade fair and honest, which reduces the temptations, and many underlying causes,

for governments to wage wars. So if sound money is such a good thing, what is stopping

people from simply trading with each other in gold and silver? Why are you still being

paid in fiat dollars, and why can’t you pay for gas in gold? The answer is that the

government has enacted policies that provide considerable stumbling blocks to such

transactions.”

One of the main stumbling blocks are these Federal legal tender laws, which state that

government-controlled fiat currency must be accepted for most monetary transactions (Paul,

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2008). In the absence of government legal tender laws, people are free to accept the medium of

exchange of their choice, and are likely to insist on payment in something of real value.

Legal tender laws in the United States dissuade business from transacting e-commerce

payments in commodities, for they must pay sales tax on the purchase of gold. This is identical

to paying sales tax at the bank if a person was to convert dollars into quarters (Paul). The

privately owned and run Federal Reserve Bank uses the IRS to enforce payment of “capital

gains” tax on gold when redeemed for U.S. dollars. This is in fact proof that said gains on gold

represent the decline in the value of the dollar and the fact that legal gold and silver coin are

considered assets not money, by the IRS. Therefore, to mitigate the detrimental effect to business

that our legal tender laws incur, Ron Paul has introduced House Resolution (HR) 4248, The Free

Competition in Currency Act.

A conversation with Dr. Bill Greene, content writer of the Constitutional Tender Act, as

cited on Congressman Dr. Ron Paul’s website, states that since gold and silver American Eagles,

as well as pre-1965 silver coins, are all officially "legal tender" under Title 31- Money and

Finance, U.S.C. Section 5112- General Authority, 5112(a) (7) through (a) (10), 31 U.S.C.

Section 5112(e) and 5112(h), and the Coinage Act of 1965 (Pub. L. 89, 81, 79 Stat. 254), state

that any transaction conducted using those coins as money cannot be considered a taxable

"purchase" or "sale" of those coins, any more than using Federal Reserve Notes is a "purchase"

or "sale". Greene further explained it is correct that under most circumstances, if a person

attempted to use gold or silver coins as current money, they would only be accepted at "face

value" and not at "melt value".

Hence, Dr. Greene continued, by the same reasoning; if a business owner chose to pay

their employees in Silver Eagles, then that employee could legally declare on their taxes that they

were paid $10 face value, per week. These types of business transactions are conducted today,

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but they are not publicized because people understand that the IRS will prosecute them on the

“gains”, regardless of the U.S. Legal tender laws.

Nevertheless, under the current legal tender laws, using digital currency systems (DCSes)

are not feasible in the United States. But, states Dr. Greene, under the proposed Constitutional

Tender Act, it would become feasible within the United States, since it would "nullify" federal

legal tender laws in transactions with the State and would allow the residents of the State to use

gold and silver coins and their electronic equivalents via DCSes, or any other currency agreed to

by parties involved, at the currency’s current market value.

Moving to a gold standard or some other asset-backed currency would limit the supply of

dollars and prevent a response to a rapid increase in the demand for dollars caused by increased

uncertainty about the value of other assets (Niskanen, 2007a). Because of this, the source of the

fiat currency, the Federal Reserve Banks, will resist these efforts.

Quantitative Easing Measures

Quantitative easing (QE) means the Federal Reserve central banks can switch their focus

from the price of reserves (interest rates), to the quantity or growth of reserves (fiat currency)

(Bernanke and Reinhart, 2004). The central bank can expand the quantity of reserves beyond the

level required to hold the overnight rate at zero but quantitative easing is not compatible with a

positive overnight rate (Bernanke and Reinhart). This means overnight loans between banks will

range from zero to 0.25 percent (Chapman, 2009). Economists hope that quantitative easing will

stimulate the economy even when interest rates are near zero, but historically when attempted,

this has yet to ever show evidence of success.

With each new effort to increase reserves, by printing more fiat currency, it causes QE2,

meaning the second (2nd) round of printing and infusing new reserves into the banking system

and hence into the overall business and consumer economy. The new currency ultimately trickles

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down to business and consumers in the form of fractional reserve loans and credit. Consequently,

without also increasing the amount of new goods available, in parallel with the increase in new

currency, the price of goods must increase, which is known as inflation. Some economists say

the QE2 round of newly printed currency is over a trillion dollars in addition to the already

disbursed TARP money of roughly $700 billion (Kiyosaki, 2010). As of February, 2011,

government officials are now talking of QE3, i.e., round three of printing more dollars.

In addition to the trillions of dollars flooding the economy is the fact that a lot of the new

fiat money is being used by the Federal Reserve central banks to directly buy United States

treasury bonds from the Treasury, which in effect, means the government is buying its own debt

with newly printed dollars (Kiyosaki, 2010; Bowley, 2011). This monetary policy usually results

in hyperinflation. Hence, this problem can be mitigated by the proactive moves of business to

protect themselves by being aware of alternatives, such as digital currency systems that preserve

their buying and purchasing power.

Fiat currencies have collapsed time and time again throughout history causing businesses

to close their doors due to bankruptcy (Harper, 2007; White, 1959). When citizens of the United

States begin to lose confidence as to whether others will recognize the value a government has

assigned to fiat money, they demand more and more of it for the things they sell. Hyperinflation

results as the value people recognize for fiat money falls closer and closer to zero (Harper). This

is strongly anticipated as of 2010 and 2011, as the government enacts QE2 measures. Due to the

volume of debt the United States government has incurred, economists anticipate hyperinflation,

the likes of which we have not seen in the United States. Today, all major world currencies are

fiat currencies (Harper) and monetary policy must maintain stable purchasing power, avoid

deflationary excess demands for money, and avoid inflationary excess supplies of money (Jordan

and Stevens, 1997).

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Electronic Commerce through Digital Currency Systems

Part One

Electronic commerce continues to expand in terms of its openness, speed, anonymity,

digitization, and global accessibility (Lee, Yu and Ku, 2001). Electronic payment transactions

are conducted in different e-commerce categories; Business-to-Business (B2B), Business-to-

Consumer (B2C), Consumer-to-Business (C2B) and Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C). Electronic

commerce enables real-time, online business activities. Generally, the term electronic payment

includes any payment to businesses, banks, or public services, from citizens or businesses, which

are executed through a telecommunications or electronic network (Internet) (Sumanjeet, 2009).

Using e-commerce for online payment finds us concerned about security during

transactions. This is nothing new, as the credit card industry is fraught with identity theft and

fraud. Many of us already know the risks of conducting e-commerce transactions using major

credit card companies such as VISA, MasterCard, and PayPal, as well as wire transfer services.

Despite the risks, these traditional payment systems have conducted payment transactions for

many decades. This indicates how acceptable this model is by merchants and consumers.

Lee, et al., indicate that “if even the slightest possibility exists that electronic payment

systems may be insecure, consumers', merchants', and bankers’ confidence in this system might

erode”. This is true, as we already know that despite consistent evidence of insecure electronic

payment systems, we continue to accept and use credit card companies' transaction services

globally, with our eroded confidence securely in place as a certain percentage of fraud is

accepted as unavoidable (Nakamoto, 2008), as is money laundering.

It is true that an electronic payment system must deliver many performance criteria,

especially security. An electronic payment system must fulfill the requirements of authenticity,

privacy, integrity, and non-repudiation (Lee, et al., 2001), all four of which cannot be wholly
15

fulfilled by our well-established credit card, debit card, and online banking systems. Electronic

commerce has created new financial needs that cannot be effectively fulfilled by traditional

payment systems (Sumanjeet, 2009). Currently, business and consumers use electronic payment

systems that are electronic versions of existing payment systems such as checks and credit cards.

Security for large-value e-commerce transactions of $1,000 and greater generally require

highly secure protocols whose implementations are costly (Sumanjeet, 2009). Digital currency

payment systems have the same advantages as paper currency payment: that of anonymity and

convenience. Of particular note is, again, that credit cards present the highest possibilities of

fraud. Therefore, both buyers and sellers are shifting from credit cards to other innovative

payment products, such as smart cards and electronic money (Sumanjeet).

With this in mind, electronic payment systems can be broadly divided into four general

types:

Online credit card payment systems

Electronic cheque systems

Electronic cash systems

Smart card based electronic payment systems (Lee, et al).

Since these systems have been researched in depth by others, this project will not spend a lot of

time in further analyzing them. They will be used only as a springboard to comparing digital

currency system functionalities and benefits. See Appendix A, Figure 1, for a table comparing

contemporary payment systems.

Next are the quandaries found with traditional U.S. banks and financial institutions, as

well as with the government that regulates them. Historical problems of U.S. banking instability,

sometimes blamed on the gold standard, emerge on closer inspection to have had been rooted in

banking regulations that inadvertently weakened U.S. banks (White, 2008). Moving to a gold

16

standard or some other asset-backed currency would limit the supply of dollars and prevent a

rapid increase in the demand for dollars. The relentless demand for dollars is fueled by the

increased uncertainty about the value of other assets (Niskanen, 2007a).

Addressing the privacy and sovereignty of citizens and business, we find that historically,

true bank anonymity and sovereignty was based on the Austrian Sparbuch, which translated to

English, means savings book (Starchild, 2000). In Austria only, today it requires no name,

identification, or address. The issuing bank will not require any references, passport, or other

identifying information. The account may be issued to merely a ‘passbook holder’. The account

bearer is the presumed owner and the physical savings book may be transferred to anyone of the

bearer's choosing, and the bank need not be informed of the transfer. What is more, the Sparbuch

is as negotiable and liquid as cash and leaves no paper trail.

The central banks of the United States today play five major roles: monopoly issuer of

currency, bankers' bank, regulator of commercial banks, lender of last resort, and conductor of

monetary policy (White, 2002). The central banks issue currency today not because they have

outcompeted many other private banks at attracting and keeping loyal customers but because

their sponsoring government has outlawed private competition, thereby creating the Federal

Reserve Bank’s monopoly as the only note-issuer (White).

As the price of remote access to offshore banking services falls toward zero, depositors

will find it increasingly easy to avoid any and all inefficient restrictions on domestic banks. To

prevent shrinkage of the domestic banking industry, regulators must abandon interest rate

ceilings, geographic limits, reserve requirements, portfolio restrictions (e.g. the Glass-Steagall

Act), binding capital requirements, and high-priced deposit insurance (White).

Transparency has sprung up as the new watch-word during the current U.S. financial

crisis, starting mostly in 2007, continuing through into 2011 and assuredly, into 2012. Our

17

central banks, financial institutions, and other commercial banks want their members to display

full transparency and require that they be able to monitor members' banking transactions, but this

appears to be a one-way street. As of 2011 The Federal Reserve Bank has consistently refused to

disclose all of its gold-related records; records that include gold swap arrangements with foreign

banks (Powell, 2011), as well as to whom they dispersed the TARP bail-out money. Secrecy

should not be the normal order of things with central banks and gold (Powell). Previous to this,

the citizens of the United States and their representatives wanted to know who received the

billions in bailout money due to the mortgage crisis that hit in 2007. This information was not

forthcoming for a while but was finally reported in 2008. See Appendix C, Figure 3 for a list of

the 2008 recipients.

Financial instability and steeply rising taxes (Belkin, Etter and Brat, 2011; Christie, 2010)

continue to impact business and consumers. The current climate has prompted legislators in at

least ten states to introduce bills in the past few years to allow state commerce to be conducted

with gold and silver (Rayfield, 2011). Starting in 2009, legislators have proposed state legislation

to include gold and silver in its accepted currency forms. As of 2011, the states are Georgia,

Virginia, Montana, Missouri, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Utah,

and Washington (Rayfield). Gold is money, and as such, demand for gold is spiking upward, not

down (Kientz, 2010). Industrial demand is negligible compared to central bank demand. What is

more, China is publicly asking their citizens to purchase gold as uneasiness sets in about the U.S.

problems with debt, which China holds a lot of (Kientz) in the form of U.S. Treasury bonds.

The Commonwealth of Virginia introduced House Resolution No. 557 to establish a joint

subcommittee to "to study whether the Commonwealth should adopt a currency to serve as an

alternative to the currency distributed by the Federal Reserve System (of banks) in the event of a

major breakdown of the Federal Reserve System" (Marshall, 2011). In other words, Virginia will

18

study the fall-back plan of a "timely adoption of an alternative sound currency that the

Commonwealth's government and citizens may employ without delay in the event of the

destruction of the Federal Reserve System's currency." Further, "Americans may employ

whatever currency they choose to stipulate as the medium for payment of their private debts,

including gold or silver, or both, to the exclusion of a currency not redeemable in gold or silver

that Congress may have designated ‘legal tender’” (Marshall).

Today, the United States is on a pure fiat money standard with a discretionary (Dorn,

2009) central bank. The dollar has no defined value in terms of a commodity or basket of

commodities; hence the QE2 measures in effect today. Consequently, the price level has drifted

upward (inflation) without the solid anchor of gold or silver. This anchor was removed by

President Richard M. Nixon in 1971 (Takayama, Kitamura and Yoshida, 1998).

James Madison, the chief architect of the Constitution, recognized that convertibility is a

more certain way to protect the value of money than reliance on a central bank—even if that

central bank were tied to a quantity rule. In 1820, Madison wrote:

“It cannot be doubted that a paper currency, rigidly limited in its quantity to purposes

absolutely necessary, may be made equal and even superior in value to specie (gold/silver

coin). Whenever the paper has not been convertible into specie, and its quantity has

depended on the policy of Government, depreciation has been produced by an undue

increase, or an apprehension of it.”

The depreciation produced in using paper currency takes the form of inflation and

ultimately hyperinflation. Sound money is a prerequisite for financial stability and the efficient

operation of a free-market price system (Dorn). The question of who is to control the monetary

system is usually considered only within the context of some government system, since business

and consumers have grown up assuming that money must be produced by governments. There

19

are, however, numerous historical examples of private commodity or fractional reserve systems,

such as the Scottish free banking system of the 18th and 19th centuries, which functioned

successfully for more than 100 years (Friedman, 1982).

The simplest private monetary system is commodity money produced by a number of

private firms and used, if need be, by digital currency systems. With multiple firms as well as

multiple digital currency systems, businesses then have the option of choosing the most reliable,

dependable, and trustworthy coins or system, hence the opportunities for fraud would be rare.

Such a system is very much like the competing international monies of the Middle Ages

(Friedman).

To alleviate the global recession, the G-20 group of nations recently agreed to authorize

the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to allocate $250 billion worth of Special Drawing Rights

(SDRs), the IMF's unit of account, to its member states (Anklesaria, 2009). This may point to

endeavors by the IMF to make the SDR a new international currency, rivaling the U.S. dollar.

Speculation was further fueled by the suggestions of Chinese officials that SDRs could displace

the U.S. dollar in foreign exchange reserves. However, economist point out that the SDR is not a

currency and has no chance of becoming one (Anklesaria).

However, the newly proposed Amero or ANZAC dollar may be the old SDR legal tender.

A study initiated with support from commercial banks explored and surveyed businesses in New

Zealand regarding the creation and use of an ANZAC international currency (Grimes, 2000). The

study propounds that there is no necessary economic rationale for independent countries to

maintain independent currencies. Further, the study claims that multiple currency arrangements

are sub-optimal for banks and possibly businesses. For the United States and Canada, on March

25, 1999, the Senate Committee on Banking, Trade, and Commerce heard five economists give

their views on the prospects for a common currency for North America (Grubel, 1999) dubbed

20

the Amero. During the hearing the economists agreed that there were micro-economic benefits;

however, the macro-economic costs could be greater than anticipated to North America.

These various current monetary machinations by governments should give business

owners pause as to the current and future viability of the U.S. dollar, and hence give impetus to

plan accordingly.

Part Two

B2B transactions account for about 95 percent of e-commerce credit card transactions

(Turban, King and Viehland, 2004) which occur using the traditional payment systems discussed

in Part One. Currently, in the United States, there is almost no demand for digital currency

products and there is a stigma attached to those people who do not have a U.S. bank account and

credit card (Herpel, 2011). Digital currency systems (DCSes) use various forms of digital

currency. Since ‘digital currency system’ is a newer term, there is no description of it yet in

traditional online sources such as the Encyclopedia Britannica. However, as stated on Wikipedia,

names for digital currency are electronic money, e-currency, e-money, electronic cash, electronic

currency, digital money, digital cash, and cyber currency. Further, Electronic Funds Transfer

(EFT), direct deposit, digital gold currency (DGC), and virtual currency are all examples of

electronic money, and it is a collective term for financial cryptography and technologies enabling

it.

For the purposes of this paper, digital currency systems are those computer systems that

deal in digital currency as a form of e-money or scrip which is only exchanged electronically to

support business owners. Typically, this involves the use of computer networks, the Internet, and

digitally stored value systems. Since the technology model and the words that describe the

functionality are still new and unfamiliar, refer to the Glossary on page 57 in this document.

Digital currency is distinct from traditional online banking and Internet payment systems

21

(Zerzan, 2010). Where credit cards charge businesses fees and high interest rates, digital

currency users usually prefer cash. Research shows that in a digital currency network, cash is

often the preferred way to pay. No bank account or credit card is ever required (Herpel, 2011),

thereby relieving businesses of onerous credit card transaction fees and interest rates.

After a decade of use, digital currency systems are available for business to use as an

alternative to traditional banking products. What is more, digital currency systems are not simply

the name given to the network systems. Through the past decade it has been found that

commercially successful systems are successful because they are closed account systems. Digital

currency systems for B2B mean computer systems transact e-commerce using privately issued

electronic money in the form of officially issued currency and commodity money, such as gold

and silver (Herpel, 2011). Today, firms such as GoldMoney.com enable customers to make

metal payments from an iPhone (GoldMoney, n.d).

It is estimated that less than 1 percent of the U.S. population has ever used a digital

currency account (Herpel, 2011). In fact, the concept of privately issued digital currency is so

foreign from conventional ideas of money that its everyday use may be difficult to comprehend

by business owners. Digital currency transcends the credit card payment model and offers a safe,

inexpensive e-commerce option to all Internet users, worldwide.

Government-issued fiat currency moves through traditional banks and financial

institutions. Digital currency, on the other hand, is issued by private parties and only circulates

over the Internet and may originally have had its source from government-issued currencies,

privately issued currencies, gold, silver, or other precious metals. What is more, digital currency

transactions are not fraught with fraudulent charge backs, high fees or a 72- to 96-hour wait time

before the funds are made available (Herpel. 2011) to the business.

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It is an unmonitored, non-government-based unit of value. Digital currency is also

referred to as digital precious metal because its value is linked to a valuable commodity such as

gold; hence, is based on the value of precious metals and not fiat currencies. This currency is

exchanged between account holders of the service. As digital currency systems operate outside

of any one jurisdiction, it makes government oversight and tampering impossible. The systems

have existed for years and research has not discovered any proof of their particular appeal to

terrorist supporters (Zerzan).

Digital currencies require two intermediaries when cashing-in or cashing-out to a national

currency (Zerzan, 2010). Users acquire the currency through a dealer. The dealer acquires this

currency through an exchange that takes national currency for digital currency and vice versa.

After the digital currency is acquired, users may then transfer it without the use of

intermediaries. This means that settlement is instantaneous and some users can immediately and

physically retrieve the precious metal upon which the digital currency is based (Zerzan).

Double-Spending

Double-spending is a problem for online digital cash currency systems owing to the ease

of copying bits (e-cash), compared to physical bills or coins. It is easy to spend a digital coin

twice. The design of digital currency software systems seeks to alleviate this problem, and many

successfully solve the problem by verifying the identity of the double spenders.

Generally, the way to identify the double-spender is through a cut and choose protocol

technique. However, Stefan Brands, in his 1995 article, “Electronic Cash on the Internet,”

proposes a system which employs a PCMCIA card (Saarela, n.d.). The PCMCIA card is now

referred to as a PC Card, which is not the same as a smart card. The PCMCIA card system

incorporates all of the most important features for electronic money: privacy, off-line payments,

multi-part security, efficiency, and open system.

23

In the e-cash scheme a user or member may withdraw, and then anonymously and

untraceably, spend an unlimited number of coins, as long as they do not double-spend a coin, or

exceed the spending limit with any merchant (Camenisch, Hohenberger and Lysyanskaya, 2006).

If a member does overspend, then these digital currency schemes detect these violations and

identify the misbehaving member. Once a misbehaving member is identified, the system traces

all of the user’s previous e-coins (Camenisch et al.) and corrects their account.

In addition to a member double-spending, the service provider is also prevented from

double-spending digital coin. If the service provider attempts to cash the e-cash twice, the bank

will be alerted by the uniqueness string twice. If the stings are different, it is the member who has

copied the coin and the member is identified as the double-spender (Saarela, n.d.).

Types of Digital Currency Systems

As with traditional electronic payment systems there are many contemporary digital

currency systems (DCSes). For the purposes of this paper, some DCSes are in name only. They

are actually just a traditional electronic check system using various input devices such as

scanners, cameras, and MICR readers as displayed on the site named Digital Currency Systems

at http://www.dcsorg.com/. As they use only government issued U.S. dollars to transact e-

commerce, they are not digital currency systems.

When using DCSes, currency and commodity exchange rates are a natural question that

arises when transacting e-commerce payments. Exchange rate policies often originate in

polemical politics (Hanke, 2002). There are three types of exchange rate regimes: floating, fixed,

and pegged rates. Each type has different characteristics and generates different results. Although

floating and fixed rates appear to be dissimilar, they are members of the same family. Both are

"automatic" free-market mechanisms for international payments. If a country wants monetary

autonomy and free capital mobility, it must adopt a floating exchange rate. If a country has a

24

pegged exchange rate, it must restrict capital mobility to avoid balance of payments and currency

crises. In the case of the U.S. dollar, a floating exchange rate regime is in effect (Hanke).

But why the great concern about gold and silver money and exchange rates? The gold-

silver ratio is used by precious metals traders across the world (Finweb, n.d.) It has been used

for centuries and continues to be relevant to digital currency systems. The gold-silver ratio is

essentially the number of ounces of silver that it takes to buy an ounce of gold. In essence, it

actually provides investors and business owners with a lot of value (Finweb). See Appendix D,

Figure 4, for a list of why the gold-silver ratio is important to business e-commerce.

As mentioned earlier, contemporary digital currency systems can be demarcated into

these categories:

1. Barter Exchange Software Systems

2. Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment Systems

3. Digital Precious Metal Systems

4. Online Value Transfer Software Systems

5. Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems

Barter Exchange Software Systems

In an interview, Mark Herpel, editor of Digital Gold Currency Magazine, finds that barter

exchange Internet-based businesses are dominant digital currency systems in the United States

but for tax reasons, most base their barter units on the U.S. dollar. Barter-exchange currencies

are another type of privately issued currency. These currencies are just trade credits or tokens

that allow barter systems to overcome the ‘double-coincidence-of-wants’ problem. They exist

today in paper and electronic form and are becoming increasingly common. The trade

association of barter organizations referred to as The Universal Currency of the International

Reciprocal Trade Association is an example of an electronic barter-exchange currency that is

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facilitating bartering via the Internet. Many barter systems work much like an online savings

account that allows a business to control their barter operations from the Internet (Barter

Systems, 2011). Some barter systems provide a list of each member's monthly transactions and

the current trade balance, similar to a monthly checking account statement. Bartering is a taxable

activity. Making eligible business purchases through barter is tax-deductible. Hence, barter

systems provide IRS form 1099 to their merchant members (Barter Systems).

The cost of joining barter exchange networks is low. Often, a barter agent opens an

account online for the new merchant. Then merchants download interfacing software.

Consequently, these electronic money networks are growing rapidly, and the rapid growth itself

is increasing the benefits of membership because of the critical mass of positive network

externality (Barter Systems, 2011). The introductions of various electronic tokens and barter-

exchange currencies have been relatively successful as a result.

Barter systems peg the value of their transactions to the American Open Currency

Standard (AOCS) for silver and copper. The AOCS site provides an evolving and current list of

participating AOCS-approved silver and copper coin. The AOCS delivers the “standard” for

ensuring that all medallions produced are of the highest quality providing participants confidence

that what is represented is at least the declared weight and grade.

In an interview, Mark Herpel continues by pointing out that indeed, barter exchange

systems peg one barter unit to one U.S. dollar. The disadvantage here is that bartering with a

piece of silver, when its face value is pegged at 50 or 100 "units" for the purpose of simplifying

the barter process, is clearly circumventing the tax laws as far as the IRS is concerned. But

because many barter exchange systems are small the IRS ignores them. However, the IRS has

made examples out of the few larger web businesses as of 2009 and 2010. Herpel points out one

non-digital, non-online barter exchange business case in 2007 that came to light because the

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company was paying employee wages with U.S. minted gold and silver coins at face value

(Whitely, 2007; Whitely 2009) in the amount of roughly $114 million dollars (Bogden, n.d.).

These barter operators won their first case because government prosecutors could not explain

how a U.S. coin face value of $50 had a U.S. dollar worth of $1,000 for tax purposes. This made

evident that face value, no matter how seemingly random or specific, when used to label a

precious metal an “asset” does not stand up in court. Hence, spot value or daily value always

appears as the certified value. Herpel further comments that there are many barter exchange

operations and most of the tokens come from AOCS. For a short list of flourishing barter

exchange websites, see Appendix E, Figure 5.

Jeremy Trudell has other views regarding barter exchange systems. Trudell is the creator

and owner of Free World Markets, a barter site. Trudell states that the U.S. barter networks have

become too self-serving, and are not doing the best for their members (CCMag, 2010). Free

World Markets website avoids the current IRS tax laws that mandate silver money is an asset by

using it as a medium of barter, i.e., like-for-like transactions.

Unfortunately for traditional barter networks, says Trudell, they are still making the

mistake of backing their barter currency with mutual credit, rather than substance, like physical

silver and copper. Because of this type of backing, a typical pattern ensues, where, as more

merchants leave the network in debt than in credit, the unit of value of barter suffers inflation.

And like in any economy, this hurts the people who have savings (CCMag).

In any barter network even the unbacked currencies are supposed to be accepted at face

value. In Free World Market, states Trudell, all the merchants agree to take the silver at face

value, and that draws more users into the system because they effectively get a discount when

they start. People who are not interested in the products offered are only going to value the

medallions for their silver content, while others will value them more for what they can buy with

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them. Yet, businesses are more willing to trust the value of silver than trust the debtors in their

barter networks. Free World Markets' virtual silver can be spent on a much wider range of high-

quality goods. Therefore this effectively sets up a nationwide barter network, with a medium of

exchange backed by silver (CCMag).

Another facet of most commercial barter exchanges is that they need an aggressive sales

force to compete in a highly monopolized market because banker’s dollars control the market of

general-purpose exchange (Brock, n.d.). Here, Mr. Brock of the Threebles barter site operates as

an e-commerce marketplace for goods from local small businesses, independently of traditional

banking channels. As barter exchange sites like Threebles expand, they introduce additional

business products to their merchant members such as business loans and lines of credit.

Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment Systems

The importance of e-commerce in today’s economy forces business to adapt their

behavior towards the different actors of the market. Hence the global marketplace offers many

different payment systems, some of which are relatively better than others. One of the better non-

bank digital currency payment systems is WebMoney™, located in Russia. WebMoney was

created after the Russian banking collapse of 1998. At the height of this crisis many large

Russian banks closed, including Inkombank, Oneximbank, and Tokobank, which are a close

equivalent of the Federal Reserve Banks in the United States. As a result, millions of Russians

saw their savings disappear and lost money when the banks shut them out. After this collapse,

local citizens and businesses turned to non-bank Internet alternatives (Herpel, 2011).

PayPal's target market is adults who possess a bank account and credit card.

WebMoney’s target market is all people shopping or doing business online that have a bank

account in addition to all Internet users that do not have a bank account or credit card (Herpel,

2010c). WebMoney is a dominant part of everyday life for many Russians (Herpel, 2009a).

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WebMoney provides 200,000 cash-in terminals throughout Moscow that accept cash and

instantly credit a PayPal account, or pay a utility bill, which is a far superior system to anything

found in the United States (Herpel). What is more, business cooperation with existing financial

companies enables these types of systems to offer non-bank products.

The digital payment system uses “e-wallets” or “z-purses” that require users to use an

independent money exchanger to convert the multiple currencies before funding a new “z-purse”

or “e-wallet” (Herpel, 2009a). P2P payments and B2B payments are automatically supported

through a standard WebMoney account. No bank account, no credit check, and no expensive

merchant services are needed. As of October 2010, WebMoney has in excess of 12 million

account registrations in their system, customers and agents in 8,069 cities throughout 70

countries, along with 59,000 places where customers can fund a WebMoney “z-purse” (Herpel).

But interestingly, this global system is mostly unknown in the United States.

Next, during the height of the mortgage crisis in the United States, WebMoney Gold

opened in mid 2007, which is backed by gold. WebMoney Transfer™ operates the software

platform responsible for transacting all digital payments. The various “e-purses” are formed as

completely separate corporate entities from the software transaction platform. The software

platform will not perform any exchanges between purses. This is dissimilar to PayPal or

traditional bank credit cards which will automatically swap currencies as the payment requires,

which then automatically charges the customer a non-negotiable exceptionally high currency

conversion fee.

To join a non-bank digital payment system, the merchant or service provider must obtain

Verified Merchant Status verification. Upon passing a rigorous background check, the merchant

receiving clearance gets access to the system's API and merchant interfaces free of charge. Once

29

the relationship is established, ongoing security and verification checks are conducted to keep the

business relationship secure.

Digital Precious Metals Systems

With the advent of high technology and computers, a new era has engulfed us. The digital

age provides opportunities and threats to previous ideas and methods. The government and the

banking system are working hard to rid us of cash and precious metal coin, a commodity that

empowers us as individuals by allowing us anonymity and sovereignty, in order to replace it with

a digital system that can record all financial transactions (Barber, 2007).

However, since 2006 the digital precious metals business in the United States has been

repressed or legally attacked (Kaplan, 2008). Therefore, most digital gold currency (DGC)

systems tend be registered and operated as offshore businesses. Fortunately, outside of the

United States international digital currency companies such as WebMoney Gold™,

GoldMoney™, e-dinar, Pecunix™ and others, have been growing (Herpel, 2011). Moreover,

unlike the non-transparency of the Federal Reserve Banks and other financial institutions, most

DGC companies publish a list of the actual precious metal bars from the quarterly audited bar

count because these systems are backed by physical precious metals and are privately owned and

operated by non-bank entities. With the backing of precious metals, the systems use

“cybermoney” or digital currency.

Gold, like the Internet, transcends borders: its value and conventions for its usage are

internationally recognized and accepted (Pecunix, 2002). Digital precious metals systems are an

alternative payment system to the federal banking system for asset diversification, providing

asset protection and consideration of the geopolitical aspects with regard to banking and

investments (Barber, 2007).

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Small business owners that make regular purchases overseas and worry about currency

fluctuations use GoldMoney.com (Karmin, 2005). Services like GoldMoney are not for

everyone. For example, Jeff Wright, a director for the software development company

TimeWarp in Colorado Springs, Colorado, indicates that the first thing he had to do was

persuade his suppliers to accept payments in gold and then set up online accounts with

GoldMoney (Karmin). Small business owners also use WebMoney Gold (WMG) for day-to-day

personal or business transactions (Benson, 2008). The gold purse WMG, in conjunction with the

Pecunix system, enable business owners to pay bills and more (Benson).

Several Caribbean-based digital precious metals web companies have begun storing gold

in places like Dubai, Zurich, and London, as J.P. Morgan has, and allowing Internet users to own

pieces of the metal and use it as an online currency (Ballve, 2001). Consumers and businesses

can opt for bullion-based “cybermoney,” which proponents claim is a cheap and private

alternative. This means transactions conducted over the Internet involve national currencies,

fraught with the risk of fluctuating exchange rates and the cost of bank commissions (Ballve).

Internet entrepreneurs have attempted without success to devise digital payment schemes

that would simplify online purchasing. The creators of the digital gold system, GoldMoney,

provide a stable, cashless currency that offers instant purchasing power across borders. "Just like

every country had its own national currency, the Internet needs its own money too," says

GoldMoney's founder James Turk, a former Chase Manhattan international banker, "right now

we're just a speck in the world economy" (Ballve).

When the World Wide Web began to blossom, ideas were hatched for anonymous digital

currencies. Two businesses, Digicash and Cybercash, failed to sell online merchants on the idea.

Both companies have filed for bankruptcy (Ballve, 2001).

31

In the May/June issue of Foreign Affairs magazine, Brenn Steil, a senior fellow and

director of International Economics on loan from the parent Royal Institute in London since

1996, says of digital gold, “although a niche business at present, gold banking has grown

dramatically in recent years in tandem with the dollar’s decline.” Mr. Steil was the Illuminist

who drew up the plans for the North American Union and the Amero (dollar).

Most DGSes operate as offshore businesses. A case in point is the prosecution of E-

Gold.com that conducts business out of Melbourne, Florida, and is registered as an offshore

corporation but operates within the United States. E-Gold was created to provide a system that

withstands swings in business cycles and gives people of all incomes a means to transfer money

(Kaplan, 2008).

E-Gold.com operates by buying and holding quantities of gold in their vaults, based on

dollar amounts that customers put into their accounts. Then, ownership of the gold in a customer

account may be transferred to others (Harper, 2007). Using E-Gold is analogous to using cash.

Because it is like cash but unlike U.S. currency, E-Gold has been in legal trouble since 2007.

Federal enforcers charged E-Gold with operating an unlicensed money transmitting business and

facilitating transfer of criminal proceeds. At the end of the trial, it was found the company simply

had failed to file the correct forms indicating they were a money transmitting business.

Another precious metals digital gold system (DGC) is Pecunix, registered offshore in the

Republic of Panama. Pecunix Inc. (Pecunix Currency) is a database management company that

provides the beneficiaries of The Pecunix Gold Foundation the ability to track and transfer their

beneficial interest. The Foundation is a private interest foundation. Pecunix stores physical gold

in its vaults and provides a digital gold currency based on gold, not on paper value, dollars, yen,

lira or pounds, but on physical gold. Pecunix Inc. does not have a bank account and is not a

financial institution (Pecunix, n.d.; Herpel 2011). Pecunix facilitates only the transfer of gold

32

assets between account holders, does not have a “bank account," and consequently is incapable

of any type of transaction with "cash economies." What is more, Pecunix has a free shopping cart

that enables merchants to accept Pecunix payments only. Pecunix account holders can:

convert national currencies (i.e. cash) to Pecunix, convert Pecunix to most national

currencies, and convert Pecunix to gold and gold to Pecunix.

Both the conversion to national currencies (i.e. cash) to Pecunix and the conversion of

Pecunix to most national currencies, are functions performed entirely by independent exchange

operators (Pecunix, 2002). Pecunix never deals in fiat currency or conventional banking, or

conversions to or from fiat currencies. Regarding the conversion of Pecunix to gold and gold to

Pecunix, Pecunix allows a customer to place gold in the vault and receive Pecunix in exchange

or vice versa under very strict controls (Pecunix).

European Trust, a Private Banking and Trust organization observes and verifies the

details of all movement of Pecunix Gold into or out of the vault. The crux of Pecunix security is

the "one to one" rule: every unit of value present in the Pecunix database has, at all times, a

corresponding value of gold stored in an internationally approved vault (Pecunix). See Appendix

F, Figure 6 for a list of other DGC companies who also permit direct payments to the currency

issuer's bank account.

The system developers of the Pecunix system come from Siddley Inc. They are

contracted to develop every aspect that would help merchants, investment houses, casinos, and

any other user of Pecunix to seamlessly integrate their websites with the Pecunix system

(Pecunix). As of January 2011, the Siddley team offers an online beta test site for testing their

new security software found at http://www.voucher-safe.com. See Appendix B, Figure 2, for a

diagram of the Pecunix system structure.

33

Exploring the iGolder.com online DGS, it is clear that iGolder provides a website to its

members for exchanging electronic gold with each other and does not offer banking services.

iGolder facilitates only gold-denominated private trade and exchange between members and

stores their gold for them in a vault. iGolder is a closed system, which means it simply records

electronic gold ownership titles. iGolder is not a money transmitter, and accepts no currency.

In the spirit of the Austrian sparbuch, precious metal based digital systems can be

unlicensed, unsupervised, and unregulated by any industry or government body. Moreover,

unlike some DGC systems, iGolder does not endorse any gambling or high-yield investment

programs (HYIP). And like many digital currency system businesses, iGolder is not a U.S.

registered corporation and has no relationship with the United States government (iGolder).

As Congressman Ron Paul of Texas has suggested; allow competing currencies and gold,

and have the state accept payments in those currencies. This is what digital currency systems

allow business to do if the entity on the other side of the transaction accepts the arrangement.

Online Value Transfer Software Systems

Online value transfer software systems utilize digital currency representing stores of cash

that can be spent online in anonymous peer-to-peer transactions without involving the use of a

bank or other traditional payment system (Anastasio, 2001). The most popular version of this

stored value transfer is electronic money or e-cash. E-cash allows items to be purchased by credit

card, check, and money order. It is a system for making anonymous electronic payments using

digital coins.

A business or consumer opens an account with a financial institution, and then

electronically submits the coins to the enterprise for assignment of value. The enterprise debits

the account, and then the coins are used to anonymously purchase goods and services. The coins

are backed by an obligation from the financial institution that assigned the value to the coins. As

34

with debit-based systems, the coins embody claims against the issuer when they are used to

transfer preexisting funds to designated accounts (Anastasio).

The value transfer software system, Bitcoin.org, is a peer-to-peer digital currency system

that uses electronic coin. This is how Bitcoin explains their operation:

“The software system uses public/private key digital signatures. A coin has its owner's

public key on it. When a coin is transferred from user A to user B, A adds B’s public key

to the coin and signs it with his own private key. Now B owns the coin and can transfer it

further. To prevent A from transferring the already used coin (double-spending) to

another user C, a public list of all the previous transactions is collectively maintained by

the network of Bitcoin nodes, and before each transaction the coin’s ‘unusedness’ will be

checked.”

Information from one of Bitcom’s developers states that Bitcoin is an electronic payment

system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust, allowing any two commerce trading parties

to transact directly with each other without the need for a trusted third party transactor entity

(Nakamoto, 2008). Further, the Bitcoin value transfer payment system “sustains a solution to the

double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server to generate

computational proof of the chronological order of transactions. The system is secure as long as

honest nodes collectively control more CPU power than any cooperating (DDoS) group of

attacker nodes” (Nakamoto). See Appendix F, Figure 7, for illustrations of the Bitcoin timestamp

server and the proof-of-work process.

The structural changes in these payment networks seem to be a reactive response to the

recent U.S. prosecution of digital currency companies. Bitcoin.org development is hosted at

SourceForge and currently is the most robust model of an emerging digital currency system

(Herpel, 2011).

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Loom.cc is another value transfer software system. This software system enables people

to transfer ownership of assets; however, entry into the system is by invitation only (Loom,

2010). This system too, is a private and closed system that uses digital asset tokens and an “e-

wallet.” The “e-wallet” stores the set of asset types which the user recognizes and values, and a

set of "contact" points where the user can move assets back and forth to other users.

An asset is an item of property, considered valuable. Typically assets are physical goods,

like land or a piece of art but are also stock certificates, property deeds, promissory notes, as well

as commodities. A Loom asset is a digital form of asset which gives its bearer certain rights.

Each Loom asset type has a unique and distinct identifier, referred to as an ID (Loom).

This site allows users to create a new asset type and assign any desired meaning to it. The

user can then issue new units of the asset type into existence. However, other Loom members

will value that asset only if they can trade it reliably for something valuable in the real world, or

for another valuable Loom asset (Loom).

For merchant transactions on the Loom system the merchant creates a Check Out form

which requires the customer to paste a contact ID into a text field. When the customer presses the

“Pay Now” button, the merchant sends a single “Move” command to the Loom server to debit

the charge amount from that contact ID. Transactions are this easy for business owners.

In speaking with a Loom.cc developer, the Loom operates by using the “Grid” function.

This function is the core operation of the entire Loom system. The primary function of the Grid

is to regulate use of various limited resources, such as the disk space used by the Grid itself.

Consequently, members must pay one usage token to buy a Grid location. If the member sells a

Grid location back to the system, the member receives a refund of one usage token. The Grid

administrator possesses the issuing location for usage tokens, and can thus regulate the supply of

those tokens based on supply and demand for Grid resources.

36

Online Stored Value Transaction Software Systems

Voucher-safe from Siddley, Inc., is the most cutting-edge next-generation technology

(Herpel, 2010a). A voucher is an encrypted digital representation which stands for or represents

something else. A voucher is said to be "backed" by whatever underlies it, such as gold or silver.

To clarify the actors, there are two: Issuer and Voucher Publisher. The Issuer of the

voucher is the party who stores the assets backing the vouchers. The Issuer is responsible for

keeping track of all vouchers in circulation, and ensuring that the aggregate weight or value of all

vouchers does not exceed the backing. The Issuer knows nothing about users or owners, only

voucher amounts and serial numbers (Herpel, 2010a).

The second actor, Voucher Publisher (VP), is the mechanism through which vouchers are

introduced or withdrawn from circulation. The VP processes all voucher transactions, assigns

voucher serial numbers, signs all vouchers with its private key, and encrypts each with the public

key of the owning voucher safe (Herpel, 2010a). The VP reports the assigned serial number to

the Issuer. The VP mechanism also issues signed usage tokens, purchased with vouchers, and

permits other system components to redeem accumulated tokens for vouchers (Pecunix, 2002).

Vouchers are digital bearer certificates created and validated by a Publisher. The Issuer

holds the stored value and instructs the Publisher to create vouchers up to but not exceeding, the

available backing. The Issuer has no knowledge of anything beyond the amounts and serial

numbers of the vouchers currently in circulation. Vouchers are circulated amongst users by direct

peer to peer (P2P) transfer of vouchers. Each transfer is validated by the Publisher to ensure the

integrity of the transaction and to prevent double spending (Pecunix, 2002). To ensure the secure

and seamless operation of the voucher-safe system, the Siddley team design goals, as listed on

their website, are:

37

the system must constitute a true digital bearer certificate exchange system, where digital

wallets exist but accounts do not, to engender user trust in the system, it must be 100-percent

open source for the Siddley team code and for any code packages or libraries which are

utilized, the system must be distributed in order to prevent shut-down by highly organized

crime such as DDoS attacks, all data must be encrypted and handled in such a way that the

user does not need to trust any of the system operators; the sole exception to this is the Issuer,

which must be trusted to store bona fide backing assets, payments must be irrevocable and

untraceable; it must be physically impossible for any component, even the VP, to provide a

transaction history for any user, the system architecture must provide inherent economic

benefits to its operators while minimizing costs to users, to mitigate the threats of DDoS,

spam and easy traffic analysis, the system avoids HTTP browser and email traffic, and the

voucher-safe system will be accessible to wireless, mobile devices.

Any Digital Gold Currency (DGC) company that backs a voucher is simply partnering

with voucher-safe to facilitate a reliable, trusted and reputable issue. This combination is a

business relationship that will allow evolved digital gold platforms to continue and operate

without taking on the associated P2P payment risks. This is an important issue as noted by the

problems experienced by E-Gold.com (Herpel, 2010b).

Conclusions Drawn from the Work

This paper examined the three elements that drive and mold digital currency systems:

government, money, and technology. Business owners conducting e-commerce would do well to

understand their alternatives during America’s current financial crisis. We touched on the

problems that hinder the use of digital currency systems in the United States by businesses in

terms of government policies and the types of money we currently use in America: fiat currency

and commodities. Instead of sticking to ‘good as gold’ backed money, the United States chose in

38

1971 to use financial metaphysics in the form of fiat currency and fractional reserve banking run

by a private banking cartel monopoly, The Federal Reserve (group of) Banks. The continual use

of the debt instrument, fiat currency, results in depression or hyperinflation. In this cyclic crisis,

indicators point to hyperinflation. This is evident by the second round of QE2 measures

occurring in 2011. For B2B planning purposes, we identified the available types of digital

currency systems: Barter Exchange Software Systems, Non-Bank Digital Currency Payment

Systems, Digital Precious Metal Systems, Online Value Transfer Software Systems, and Online

Stored Value Transaction Software Systems and the various types of digital monies they use:

electronic tokens, barter-exchange currencies, digital cash, and stored value e-cash vouchers. As

the U.S. financial crisis deepens, it is anticipated that money innovations probably will reduce

demand for central bank money even further. This will inevitably segue toward the availability

of a stable, privately-issued currency that is not convertible into a national currency.

Gold is the money of kings; silver is the money of gentlemen; barter is the money of

peasants; but debt (instrument) is the money of slaves.— quote by Norm Franz (Franz, 2001).

Summary of the Contributions

What became evident in researching and discovering the possibilities that digital currency

systems (DCSes) deliver, is that no monopolistic monetary policy is necessary to control the

value of money. This means no single central bank is necessary to ‘stabilize’ the economy. In

fact, the monopolistic Federal Reserve Banks are the perpetrators of this country's cyclic

financial crises. Russia experienced financial collapse in 1998 and a DCS, WebMoney, filled the

vacuum and continues to this day, to support e-commerce and payment transactions to an

efficient and secure level, without a central bank. Unfortunately, United States businesses accept

the monopolistic practice that only one central bank can issue money. This obviates their

awareness that DCSes can alleviate depreciating money problems and rising prices. What is

39

more, it causes DCSes to lack the critical mass of users necessary to staunch the current

monetary crisis experienced by business in the United States. This is exacerbated by the illegal

and unconstitutional activities the IRS and Federal Reserve Banks press upon business in their

continued attempts to control their monopoly over the sources of money used in the United

States. This is why the majority of DCS businesses are registered and operated as offshore

corporations.

With QE2, America will experience hyperinflation (like Germany in 1923) not

depression, as we did in the 1930's – quote by Robert Kiyosaki (Kiyosaki, 2010).

Prospect of Future Research

We cannot predict or forecast the direction digital currency systems (DCSes) will take in

the coming years as business reacts to the evolving financial crisis. This is something that must

be monitored closely, because if history serves us, it indicates that the speed with which a fiat

currency value drops is alarming (White, 1959). Internet “free banking” needs further study, for

it deals with how an economic and financial system would operate in the absence of state

interventions such as a monopolistic central bank. Russia’s WebMoney should be explored more

as well, as that DCS has matured and continues to evolve and may prove to be the savior of

businesses in the United States as the US dollar continues its fatal descent. And finally,

investigation is needed in the area where DCSes allow anyone to become a private mint. This is

where human nature pushes the line drawn in the sand by a government of legality, acceptability,

and alleged morality, in using electronic money. These are the areas often pioneered by first

movers, by those motivated by risk-reward trade-offs to develop new technologies. These are the

incentivized users. And this is where law enforcement and national security communities are also

focusing (May, 1997).

40

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48

Appendices
APPENDIX A

TRADITIONAL ELECTRONIC PAYMENT SYSTEMS

Online Credit Card
Electronic Cash Electronic Checks Smart Cards
Payment
Actual Paid later Prepaid Paid later Prepaid
Payment Time
Transaction The store and bank Free transfer. No Electronic checks The smart card of
information checks the status of need to leave the or payment both parties make the
transfer the credit card name of parties indication must be transfer
involved endorsed

Online end
Offline transfers Offline transfers are
offline Online transactions Online transactions
are allowed allowed
transactions
Bank account Credit card account The bank account The smart card
involvement makes the payment No involvement makes the account makes the
payment payment
Any legitimate credit Anyone with a Anyone with a bank
Users Anyone
card users bank account or credit card amount
Party to which
payment is Distributing Bank Store Store Store
made out
Most of the risk is Consumer is at risk Consumer bears Consumer is a risk of
borne by the of the electronic most of the risk, the smart card getting
Consumer’s
distributing bank; cash getting stolen, but the consumer stolen, lost or
transaction
consumers only have lost, or misused. can stop check misused.
risk
to bear part of the payments at any
risk time.
Credit card Credit card
organizations check organizations check
Unable to meet
for certification then Cannot meet for certification then
financial internet
total the purchases. international total the purchases.
Current degree standards in the
Therefore it can be standards, Therefore, it can be
of popularity areas of expansion
used internationally, therefore it's not used internationally,
potential and
and is the most very popular and is becoming more
internationalism
popular payment widely used
type
Entirely anonymous,
but if needed, the
Partially or entirely central processing
Anonymity Entirely anonymous No anonymity
anonymous agency can ask stores
to provide
information about a

49

Online Credit Card
Electronic Cash Electronic Checks Smart Cards
Payment
consumer
Transaction costs are
Allows stores to
allowed. Allows
accumulate debts
stores to accumulate
Transaction costs are Transaction costs until it reaches a
Small debts until it reaches
high. Not suitable for are low, suitable for limit before
payments a limit before paying
small payments small payments paying for it.
for it. Therefore, it is
Suitable for small
suitable for small
payments
payments.
Safeguards regular Needs to safeguard Safeguards regular Safeguards regular
credit card account a large database and account account information
Database information maintain records of information
safeguarding the serial numbers
of used electronic
cash
Transaction Can be signed and Face value is often Can be signed and Can be deducted
information issued freely in set, and cannot give issued freely in freely in compliance
face value compliance with the change compliance with with the limit
limit the limit
Limited to virtual
world, but can
Real/ Virtual Can be partially used Can only be used in Can be used in real or
share a checking
world in real world the virtual world virtual worlds.
account in the real
world.
Limit on Dependent on the Dependent on how Dependent on how
transfer limit of the credit much is prepaid No limit much money is saved.
amounts card
Mobility Yes No No Yes

Figure 1. The table displays a comparison of the many traditional bank and financial institutions

electronic payment systems as retrieved from Lee, Yu and Ku (2001). These are simply online

payment transaction systems and tools. They are not digital currency systems.

50

APPENDIX B

PECUNIX SYSTEM

Figure 2. The Pecunix system structure as retrieved Pecunix (2002). The Pecunix Foundation

holds the gold bullion that underwrites the Pecunix currency as patrimony.

51

APPENDIX C

RECIPIENTS OF THE 2007 BAILOUT MONEY

The U.S. Treasury Department committed the following $700 billion Troubled Asset

Relief Program (TARP) (Global Research, 2008) funding to:

Morgan Stanley $10 SunTrust Banks $3.5 Zions Bancorp $1.4
AIG $40 billion
billion billion billion

PNC Financial BB&T Corp $3.1 First Horizon National
JP Morgan $25 billion
Services $7.7 billion billion $866 million

Bank of New York City National Corp
Citigroup $25 billion KeyCorp $2.5 billion
Mellon $3 billion $395 million

Wells Fargo $25 State Street Corp $2 Comerica $2.25 Valley National
billion billion billion Bancorp $330 million

Bank of America $15 Capital One Financial Marshall & Ilsley UCBH Holdings Inc
billion $3.55 billion Corp $1.7 billion $298 million

Merrill Lynch $10 Fifth Third Bancorp Northern Trust Corp Umpqua Holdings
billion $3.45 billion $1.5 billion Corp $214 million
Huntington
Goldman Sachs $10 Regions Financial Washington Federal
Bancshares $1.4
billion $3.5 billion $200 million
billion
First Niagara Financial HF Financial Corp $25 Bank of Commerce $17
$186 million million million
TOTAL: $203.08
billion

Figure 3. A list of recipients of the 2007 bailout money as retrieved from Global

Research (2008). In addition, the Federal Reserve is providing American International Group

(AIG) with up to $112.5 billion in separate loans and funds for asset purchases. The remaining

$350 billion in TARP funding can be accessed only after the White House formally notifies

Congress (Global Research). For a fully current and comprehensive list of recipients, see

Ericson, He and Schoenfeld, (2011).

52

APPENDIX D

THE GOLD-SILVER RATIO

Gold-Silver Ratio
The gold-silver ratio is commonly used by precious metals traders interested in trading
back and forth between gold and silver. If gold is trading at $500 per ounce and silver is trading
at $5 per ounce, the gold-silver ratio is 100. This means that 100 ounces are required of silver to
buy one ounce of gold. In today's market, the gold-silver ratio usually remains fairly constant.
Trading the Ratio
Extremes in the ratio between gold-silver are significant indicators for executing a
transaction. For example, if the gold-silver ratio increases to 200, the trader sells their ounce of
gold for 200 ounces of silver. At that point, the trader waits until the ratio comes back down
again. When the ratio comes down to 100, the trader might trade that 200 ounces of silver for 2
ounces of gold. By repeating this process the trader is able to accumulate more gold as they go
along.
Ignore the Dollar Figures
One of the unique features of trading the gold-silver ratio is that the dollar value of the
transaction is not taken into consideration. Instead, the trader is interested only in the ratio of
gold to silver. Even though the prices of both of these precious metals will fluctuate, their
inherent value is always in place. Therefore, if a business owner is cognizant about inflation,
this could present them with a valuable investment opportunity and a way to protect the value of
their assets.
How to Trade
There are available several options for trading the gold-silver ratio. One is the purchase
of the actual physical gold or silver bullion. This is typically the most difficult method of
executing this trade because the buyer must take delivery of the physically shipped gold and
silver bullion and protect it.

Figure 4. The gold-silver ratio used by precious metals traders across the world as retrieved from

Finweb (n.d.).

53

APPENDIX E

BARTER EXCHANGE SOFTWARE SYSTEMS

http://ncobarter.com/

http://delvalleysilver.com/cart/

http://sites.google.com/site/bartercoins/Home

http://www.creativemaking.com/work/Giro_Valid/sd$.html

Figure 5. Barter exchange software system websites as retrieved from interview with Mark

Herpel (2011).

54

APPENDIX F

DIGITAL GOLD CURRENCY COMPANIES

Figure 6. A list of DGC companies that permit direct payments to the currency issuer's bank

account as retrieved from Herpel (2011).

55

APPENDIX G

BITCOIN.ORG ONLINE VALUE TRANSFER SOFTWARE SYSTEM STRUCTURE

Figure 7. A timestamp server takes a hash of a block of items to be timestamped and widely

publishes the hash. The timestamp proves that the data must have existed at the time in order to

get into the hash. A distributed timestamp server is implemented with a proof-of-work system.

The proof-of-work system solves the problem of determining representation in majority decision

making; as retrieved from Nakamoto (2008).

56

Glossary of Terms
DDoS- A Distributed Denial-of-Service attack is one in which a multitude of
compromised and hijacked systems attack a single target, thereby causing denial of service for
users of the targeted system. The flood of incoming messages to the target system essentially
forces it to shut down, thereby denying service, i.e., access, to the system to legitimate users; as
stated on the dictionary site SearchSecurity.com

debt instrument- A document that serves as a legally enforceable evidence of a debt and
the promise of its timely repayment. Banker's acceptance, bills of exchange, bonds, certificates
of deposit, debentures, and promissory (including Federal Reserve Bank dollar) notes, all are
debt instruments; from Business Dictionary.com.

digital currency system- Non-bank, private currency systems that circulate the currency
via the Internet's computer systems (Herpel, 2009). These systems therefore, conduct e-
commerce transactions using many sources of money and currencies.

ETF- Electronic Traded Funds. A (paper) security that tracks an index, a commodity
such as gold/silver, or a basket of assets, like an index fund, but trades like a stock on an
exchange. ETFs experience price changes throughout the day as they are bought and sold; as
stated on the Investopedia.com site. J.P. Morgan Chase Bank now accepts gold ETFs backed by
physical gold commodities as collateral from counterparties.

fiat- The etymology of this word comes to us from the Latin, ‘let it be done,’ to become,
be done (because I have spoken it, it is to BE). An authoritative or arbitrary order-decree
<government by ~ >; from the online Encyclopedia Britannica.

fiat currency- A debt instrument, usually, that has value because a government decrees it
is so is called "fiat money" because it is valuable by "fiat," not because of anything intrinsic to it
(Harper, 2010). Today, most national currencies are fiat currencies, including the U.S. dollar, the
Euro, and all other reserve currencies, and have been since the Nixon Shock of 1971; from
Wikipedia.com.

fractional reserve- Fractional reserve banking is a banking system in which only a
fraction of bank deposits are backed by actual cash-on-hand and are available for withdrawal; as
stated on the Investopedia.com dictionary website. With the power of fractional reserve banking,
bankers can earn income out of nothing. This is true only as long as depositors leave their money
in the bank, and as long as borrowers are able to earn enough revenues from their business to
avoid defaulting on their loan (Murphy, 2010).

Glass-Steagall Act (GSA)- Of 1934 was a result of the 1929 initiated Great Depression
and rescinded in 1999. This act separated investment and commercial banking activities. At the
time, "improper banking activity," or what was considered overzealous commercial bank
involvement in stock market investment, was deemed the main culprit of the financial crash.
According to that reasoning, commercial banks took on too much risk with depositors' money.
Additional and sometimes non-related explanations for the Great Depression evolved over the

57

years, and many questioned whether the GSA hindered the establishment of financial services
firms that can equally compete against each other; as stated on the Investopedia.com dictionary.

HTTP browser- Is a HyperText Transfer Protocol browser cookie. The cookie is a small
piece of information sent by a web server to a web browser to be stored for future use. The data
in the browser cookie will be sent back to the web server whenever the browser reconnects to the
web site. Security issues surround browser cookies, as they are used to store authentication data,
such as user names and passwords; as stated on the Tech-FAQ.com website.

non-recourse- Situation where an obligation is entered into, or a transaction is
conducted, under the stipulation that it is without recourse to the borrower, endorser, or seller.
That is, he or she is not personally liable (beyond the specific collateral pledged, if any) to the
lender, holder, or buyer for any default, loss, or defect. Presence or absence of recourse
determines whether a sale is actually a sale for accounting purposes (hence non-taxable) or is a
transfer of ownership (hence taxable); stated on BusinessDictionary.com.

overnight rate- The overnight rate is the interest rate banks charge each other to borrow
and lend reserves from one another. At the end of the day, the overnight rate is the amount paid
to the bank lending the funds; as stated on BusinessDictionary.com.

P2P or peer-to-peer- Peer-to-peer, commonly abbreviated to P2P, is any distributed
network architecture composed of participants that make a portion of their resources (such as
processing power, disk storage, or network bandwidth) directly available to other network
participants, without the need for central coordination instances (such as servers or stable hosts).
Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server
model where only servers supply and clients consume; from Science & Technology Dictionary at
http://dictionary.babylon.com/science/.

PCMCIA card- Personal Computer Memory Card International Association card or PC
Card is a credit card-size memory or I/O device that connects to a personal computer, usually a
notebook or laptop computer. The Association consists of some 500 companies that have
developed a standard for small, credit card-sized devices, called PC Cards; as stated on
Webopedia.com.

peer-to-peer network- A local area network, usually using Network Interface Cards
(NICs) in each computer, that does not use a central dedicated server, but instead each computer
in the network shares the jobs; as taken from Computing-Dictionary.com.

PGP key- Pretty Good Privacy key. A commonly used encryption system developed by
Philip Zimmermann. It allows users to send messages to anyone in complete privacy. With PGP,
the user can send authentication with their messages so that the recipient can verify that the
message really came from the actual sender; as retrieved from the Philzimmermann.com website.

scrip- Paper currency or a token issued for temporary use in an emergency. Any of
various documents used as evidence that the holder or bearer is entitled to receive something (as
a fractional share of stock or an allotment of land); from Wikipedia.com.

58

SourceForge- Is a Web-based source code repository. It acts as a centralized location for
software developers to control and manage open source software development. The site provides
free access to hosting and tools for developers of free/open source software; as stated on
Wikipedia.com.

value system- Coherent set of values adopted and/or evolved by a person, organization,
or society as a standard to guide its behavior in preferences in all situations; as stated on
BusinessDictionaly.com.

XMPP- EXtensible Messaging and Presence Protocol is the Internet Engineering Task
Force’s (IETF) formalization of the base XML streaming protocols for instant messaging and
presence developed within the Jabber community starting in 1999; as stated on the
http://xmpp.org/ website.

59

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