![This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: A Book About Words
Author: G. F. Graham
Release date: July 25, 2017 [eBook #55200]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the
Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
file was produced from images generously made
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT
WORDS ***](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/60490-250411051015-6a054209/85/Digital-signal-processors-architecture-programming-and-applications-2nd-Edition-B-Venkataramani-26-320.jpg)
![animals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in the mouth to be
chewed.
Dael-an—to divide.
1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is used in English in a variety
of senses, all containing the idea of dividing into parts. 2. A certain
sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being easily divided, or cut into
planks. 3. To ‘deal’ cards is to divide them into packets or parcels. 4.
Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain articles when they sell them in small,
divided quantities. 5. We also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large
part divided from the mass. [‘Some-deal’ was formerly said, but it is
now obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ is a small part or share dealt out.
(Compare the German ‘theilen.’)
Dic-ian—to dig.
From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2. ‘Dike,’ a mound of
earth ‘dug’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ a line ‘dug.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an instrument used
for ‘digging;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘dug’ out on the side of a harbour
or bank of a river, where ships are repaired.
Drag-an—to draw.
This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ From this we have, 1.
‘Dray,’ a heavy cart drawn along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to draw off
water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to draw out money from a bank. 4. A
‘draught’ is a quantity of liquid drawn into the mouth. 5. To ‘drawl’ is
to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and 7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters,
&c.); both which express a dragging or drawing. (Compare the
German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’)
Dropi-an—to drop.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/60490-250411051015-6a054209/85/Digital-signal-processors-architecture-programming-and-applications-2nd-Edition-B-Venkataramani-46-320.jpg)
Digital signal processors architecture programming and applications 2nd Edition B. Venkataramani
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- 5. Digital signal processors architecture programming and applications 2nd Edition B. Venkataramani Digital Instant Download Author(s): B. Venkataramani; M. Bhaskar ISBN(s): 9780070702561, 007070256X Edition: 2 File Details: PDF, 34.90 MB Year: 2011 Language: english
- 6. DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS Architecture, Programming and Applications Second Edition
- 7. About the Authors B Venkataramani is presently working as Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering. He has been a faculty of the National Institute of Technology (previously referred to as Regional Engineering College), Tiruchirappalli, since 1987 . Prior to that, he worked for BEL, Bangalore, and IIT Kanpur for about three years each. He has executed various development and research projects in DSP and VLSI and has authored two books and published/presented several research papers in various international and national journals/conferences respectively. He has guided five PhD scholars and mentored several students in presenting their M Tech and MS theses. His research interests include design of FPGA as well as P-DSP based speech-recognition systems, software-defined radio and sensor networks. M Bhaskar is currently working as Associate Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering and teaches the subjects of low power VLSI and DSP architecture, programming and applications. He has been a faculty of the National Institute of Technology (previously referred to as Regional Engineering College), Tiruchirappalli, since 1997. He has authored one book and published/presented several research papers in various international and national journals/conferences respectively. He has guided several M Tech students in presenting projects on ‘C54X and ‘C6X based system designs. He has also executed several development projects in DSP. His research interests include design of FPGA based coprocessors for P-DSP and design of low-power interconnects for high-speed VLSI.
- 8. Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS Architecture, Programming and Applications Second Edition B Venkataramani Professor Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu M Bhaskar Associate Professor Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu
- 9. Tata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008 Digital Signal Processors, 2e Copyright © 2011, 2002, by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. ISBN (13): 978-0-07-070256-1 ISBN (10): 0-07-070256-X Vice President and Managing Director—McGraw-Hill Education, Asia Pacific Region: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan Manager—Sponsoring: SEM & Tech Ed: Shalini Jha Assoc. Sponsoring Editor: Suman Sen Development Editor: Manish Choudhary Executive—Editorial Services: Sohini Mukherjee Sr Production Manager: P L Pandita Dy Marketing Manager—SEM & Tech Ed: Biju Ganesan General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Asst. General Manager—Production: B L Dogra Information contained in this work has been obtained byTata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B1/56 Arawali Apartment, Sector 34, Noida 201301 and printed at Sheel Printers Pvt. Ltd., D-132, Hoisery Complex, Phase-II, Noida 201305 Cover Printer: Rashtriya Printers RAXQCRQZDRZAX
- 12. CONTENTS Preface xiii 1. An Overview of Digital Signal Processing and its Applications 1 1.1 Signals and Their Origin 1 1.2 Noise 1 1.3 Filters and Noise 1 1.4 Correlators 2 1.5 Convolution and Inverse Filtering 3 1.6 Fourier Transform and Convolution Theorem 3 1.7 Sampling Theorem and Discrete Time System 4 1.8 Linearity, Shift Invariance, Causality and Stability of Discrete Time Systems 4 1.9 Z Transform 5 1.10 Frequency Response of LTI Discrete Time System 7 1.11 Digital Signal Processing 8 1.12 Advantages of Digital Signal Processing (DSP) 8 1.13 DSP in the Sample and Transform Domain 9 1.14 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 10 1.15 Digital Filters 12 1.16 Finite Word Length Effect in Digital Filters 20 1.17 Power Spectrum Estimation 20 1.18 Short Time Fourier Transform 21 1.19 Multirate Signal Processing 22 1.20 Discrete Wavelet Transform 38 1.21 Adaptive Filters 43 1.22 Image Data Compression 44 1.23 Linear Predictive Coder and Speech Compression 50 Review Questions 51 Self Test Questions 55 2. Introduction to Programmable DSPs 57 2.1 Multiplier and Multiplier Accumulator (MAC) 57 2.2 Modified Bus Structures and Memory Access Schemes in P-DSPs 58 2.3 Multiple Access Memory 59 2.4 Multiported Memory 59
- 13. viii Contents 2.5 VLIW Architecture 60 2.6 Pipelining 60 2.7 Special Addressing Modes in P-DSPs 62 2.8 On-Chip Peripherals 64 Review Questions 68 Self Test Questions 69 3. Architecture of TMS320C5X 70 3.1 Introduction 70 3.2 Bus Structure 71 3.3 Central Arithmetic Logic Unit (CALU) 72 3.4 Auxiliary Register ALU (ARAU) 73 3.5 Index Register (INDX) 73 3.6 Auxiliary Register Compare Register (ARCR) 73 3.7 Block Move Address Register (BMAR) 74 3.8 Block Repeat Registers (RPTC, BRCR, PASR, PAER) 74 3.9 Parallel Logic Unit (PLU) 74 3.10 Memory-Mapped Registers 74 3.11 Program Controller 74 3.12 Some Flags in the Status Registers 75 3.13 On-Chip Memory 76 3.14 On-Chip Peripherals 77 Review Questions 79 Self Test Questions 79 4. TMS320C5X Assembly Language Instructions 81 4.1 Assembly Language Syntax 81 4.2 Addressing Modes 82 4.3 Load/Store Instructions 88 4.4 Addition/Subtraction Instructions 90 4.5 Move Instructions 91 4.6 Multiplication Instructions 93 4.7 The NORM Instruction 96 4.8 Program Control Instructions 97 4.9 Peripheral Control 100 Review Questions 108 Self Test Questions 108 5. Instruction Pipelining in C5X 110 5.1 Pipeline Structure 110 5.2 Pipeline Operation 110 5.3 Normal Pipeline Operation 110 Review Questions 118 Self Test Questions 119
- 14. Contents ix 6. Application Programs in C5X 120 6.1 ¢C50-Based DSP Starter Kit (DSK) 120 6.2 Programs for Familiarisation of the Addressing Modes 126 6.3 Program for Familiarisation of Arithmetic Instructions 130 6.4 Programs in C5X for Processing Real Time Signals 135 Review Questions 165 Self Test Questions 166 7. Architecture of TMS320C3X 168 7.1 Introduction 168 7.2 An Overview of TMS320C3X Devices 168 7.3 Internal Architechture 169 7.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 170 7.5 CPU Register File 172 7.6 Memory Organisation 177 7.7 Cache Memory 179 7.8 Peripherals 181 Review Questions 185 Self Test Questions 185 8. Addressing Modes and Language Instructions of ¢C3X 187 8.1 Data Formats 187 8.2 Addressing Modes 189 8.3 Groups of Addressing Modes 196 8.4 Assembly Language Instructions 198 Review Questions 216 Self Test Questions 217 9. Application Programs in C3X 218 9.1 TMS320C3X Starter Kit (DSK) 218 9.2 Example Programs for Addressing Modes 222 9.3 Generation and Finding the Sum of Series 230 9.4 Convolution of Two Sequences 233 9.5 Processing Real Time Signals with C3X Kit 236 9.6 Serial Port 240 9.7 Capture and Display of Sine Wave 248 Review Questions 255 Self Test Questions 255 10. An Overview Of TMS320C54X 257 10.1 Introduction 257 10.2 Architecture of 54X 257 10.3 ¢54X Buses 260 10.4 Internal Memory Organisation 260
- 15. x Contents 10.5 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 261 10.6 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 266 10.7 Barrel Shifter 268 10.8 Multiplier/Adder Unit 268 10.9 Compare, Select and Store Unit (CSSU) 270 10.10 Exponent Encoder 270 10.11 The C54X Pipeline 271 10.12 On-Chip Peripherals 271 10.13 External Bus Interface 272 10.14 Data-Addressing 273 10.15 Program Address Generation Logic (PAGEN) 273 Review Questions 289 Self Test Questions 289 11. TMS320C54X Assembly Language Instructions 290 11.1 Data Addressing in ¢C54X 290 11.2 Arithmetic Instructions 301 11.3 Move Instructions of ¢54X 309 11.4 Load/Store Instructions of ¢54X 310 11.5 Logical Instructions 311 11.6 Control Instructions 313 11.7 Conditional Store Instructions 314 11.8 Repeat Instructions of ¢54X 315 11.9 Instructions for Bit Manipulations 315 11.10 Some Special Control Instructions 316 11.11 I/O Instructions of ¢54X 318 11.12 Parallel Instructions 319 11.13 LMS Instruction 319 Review Questions 320 Self Test Questions 320 12. Application Programs in C54X 323 12.1 Pipeline Operation 323 12.2 Code Composer Studio 328 12.3 An Overview of the ¢C5402-Based DSK 334 12.4 Introduction to C54X Assembly Language Programming 335 12.5 Applications Programs in C54X 340 Review Questions 354 Self Test Questions 354 13. Architecture of TMS320C6X 356 13.1 Introduction 356 13.2 Features of ¢C6X Processors 356 13.3 Internal Architecture 357
- 16. Contents xi 13.4 CPU 357 13.5 General-Purpose Register Files 358 13.6 Functional Units and Operation 359 13.7 Data Paths 361 13.8 Control Register File 365 Review Questions 368 Self Test Questions 369 14. TMS320C6X Assembly Language Instructions 370 14.1 Functional Units and Its Instructions 370 14.2 Addressing Modes 373 14.3 Fixed Point Instructions 378 14.4 Conditional Operations 388 14.5 Parallel Operations 388 14.6 Floating Point Instructions 390 14.7 Pipeline Operation 395 14.8 Interrupts 397 Review Questions 400 Self Test Questions 401 15. TMS320C6X Application Programs and Peripherals 402 15.1 Code Composer Studio (CCS) 402 15.2 Application Programs in ¢C64X 407 15.3 Application Programs in ¢C67X 416 15.4 Internal Memory 428 15.5 External Memory 430 15.6 On-Chip Peripherals 430 Review Questions 436 Self Test Questions 436 16. Architecture of TMS320C55X Processors 438 16.1 Introduction 438 16.2 Features of ¢C55X Processors 438 16.3 CPU Architecture of ¢C55X 439 16.4 Memory Architecture 446 16.5 Addressing Modes 446 16.6 Assembly Language Instructions 455 16.7 Pipeline Operation 478 16.8 Interrupts 479 16.9 Peripherals 480 Review Questions 484 Self Test Questions 485
- 17. xii Contents 17. Recent Trends in DSP System Design 486 17.1 An Overview of the Application Notes on DSP Systems 486 17.2 An Overview of Open Multimedia Applications Platform (OMAP) 488 17.3 Evolution of FPGA Based DSP System Design 491 17.4 An Introduction To FPGA 491 17.5 Design Flow for an FPGA Based System Design 503 17.6 Cad Tools for FPGA Based System Design 504 17.7 Softcore Processors 506 17.8 FPGA Based DSP System Design 511 17.9 New Algorithms for Implementation of Filters in VLSI 515 17.10 Distributed Arithmetic Algorithm 515 17.11 Case Studies 519 17.12 Comparison of the Performances of the Systems Designed Using FPGAs and Digital Signal Processors 525 Review Questions 526 18. FPGAs in Telecommunication Applications 527 18.1 Evolution of the Radio Receiver 527 18.2 DDFS with Phase Accumulator and ROM 530 18.3 Coordinate Rotation Digital Computer (CORDIC) Algorithm and Its Applications 535 18.4 Case Study of an FPGA Based Digital Receiver 546 Review Questions 552 Answers to Selected Questions 554 Bibliography 559 Index 563
- 18. PREFACE Brief Overview Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) are microprocessors specifically designed to handle Digital Signal Processing tasks and are deployed in a variety of applications like hard-disk controllers, cellular phones, speech-recognition systems, image processing, wireless communication systems, and so on. They are replacing conventional microprocessors in several applications. DSPs from companies such as Analog Devices, Motorola and Texas Instruments are deployed in all these applications. This book presents details of DSPs from Texas Instruments (TI) in greater depth as compared to the DSPs from other vendors. The TI processors are used in major universities, institutes and in the industry. TI has been donating DSP kits and literature to universities periodically under the University Program called UNITI. The individual institutions have supplemented this with their own funding and have set up DSP labs. Courses on Digital Signal Processing have undergone a gradual change during the last decade. The focus is shifting gradually from the design of DSP systems and algorithms to efficient implementation of the systems and algorithms. To facilitate this, the subject of DSP Architecture and Programming is now included by many leading institutions in the main curriculum. However, students have to generally rely on the data manuals of various companies for their study since formal textbooks are not readily available. This book has fulfilled the student’s requirements and has been used extensively in universities and leading institutions. Aim of the Revision The first edition of this text was published eight years back in 2002. Since then, a lot of new DSPs have evolved due to continuous research and development in this field. The objective of this revision is to include the recent developments in the field of Digital Signal Processors including TMSC6X Series and FPGA based system design methodology. We also aim to bridge the gap in topical coverage in the current edition and improve the pedagogical features to meet the students’ requirements. New to this Edition In the revised edition, the introductory chapter is expanded with more real-world applications. This includes power spectrum estimation, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, algorithm for the computation of 1D and 2D discrete wavelet transforms and JPEG2000. Some of the digital signal processors such as 55X and 6X were treated in brief in the first edition. Since a large number of systems are implemented using these processors, a more detailed treatment of these chapters are given in this edition.
- 19. The last chapter in the previous edition had a brief introduction on the FPGA based system. However, FPGAs are now deployed in many high-speed applications such as network routers and front ends of software-defined as well as cognitive radio. In view of these, more details of the FPGA based system design including implementation of system on programmable chips are presented in this revised edition. In order to illustrate the use of FPGAs and PDSPs in Digital radio receiver, a separate chapter is devoted for the presentation of the design details of the various blocks of a radio receiver with digital hardware and the case study of a software-defined spread spectrum transmitter and receiver is presented. The pedagogy is also refreshed with inclusion of new review questions, multiple choice questions and new programs. The chapter on ‘Motorola DSP563XX Processors’ is uploaded on the website. To summarise, the changes made to this edition are the following: New Chapters v TMS320C6X Assembly Language Instructions (Chapter 14) v Architecture and Application Programs of TMS320C55X (Chapter 16) v FPGAs in Telecommunication Applications (Chapter 18) New Topical Inclusion v Convolution and real time filtering using FFT v OFDM Using FFT v Data Paths in TMS320C6X Organization of the Book Chapter 1 presents an overview of DSP principles, algorithms and applications. At the beginning of this chapter, a simple treatment on DSP theory, algorithms and applications is presented for students having no prior knowledge of DSPs. Introduction to DSP architecture and comparison of this with that of μPs, DSPs and RISC processors is given in Chapter2. Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6 present the detailed architecture, addressing modes, instruction sets, and pipelining and application programs on TMS320C5xDSP. The corresponding details on TMS320C3X are presented in chapters 7, 8, and 9. Chapter 10 introduces the TMS30C54X and presents a comparison of the features of 5X with that of 54X. The instruction set and addressing modes of 54X are discussed in Chapter 11. Application programs on 54X and program development using Code Composer Studio are presented in Chapter 12. Architecture, assembly- language instructions, application programs and peripherals of TMS320C6X are given in chapters 13, 14 and 15 respectively. Architecture of TMS320C55X is explained in Chapter 16. Chapter 17 gives a list of some of the recent DSP application case studies and introduces an alternate DSP system design approach using programmable logic devices and FPGAs. Examples of architectures of two leading FPGA families and hardcore as well as softcore processors for these families are explained in this chapter. Algorithms for efficient implementation of DSP systems in FPGA are also given here. Chapter 18 explains the different applications of FPGAs in telecommunication. Web Supplements The web supplements can be accessed at, http://www.mhhe.com/venkataramani/dsp2 and contain the following material: xiv Preface
- 20. Instructor Resources v Solution manual v PowerPoint lecture slides Student Resources v Interactive quiz v Chapter on Overview of Motorola DSP563XXX Processors Acknowledgements We are thankful to Texas Instruments for providing the DSP kits on various processors. We thank our alumni in TI who have been helping us to upgrade our DSP laboratory from time to time. A special note of thanks goes to the UNITI coordinator and his team for extending his wholehearted encouragement and necessary approval to use the data books of TI. Motorola was equally cooperative and allowed us to include the material on their DSPs. Hence, we would like to express our gratitude to the Motorola team. Xilinx and Altera also deserve a special mention for letting us use their material for the revised edition. We are indebted to our former principal, Dr M Arumugam, and former head of the department, Dr N Kalyanasundaram, who extended all the necessary support and encouragement to offer the laboratory course based on Digital Signal Processors not only to our undergraduate and postgraduate students but also to the students from other colleges under the continuing education programme twice a year. The first edition of this book is borne out of the experience we gained by offering this course for five years to the regular students and to the students under the continuing education programme. The projects carried out by them have been helpful in clearing many of the practical implementation issues. We would like to express our gratitude to all our students who in the process of learning have also taught us. In this regard, we would especially like to mention the names of Vaidyanathan,Amudha, Balaji,Arun, Praveen, Karthikeyan, Jeyendran, Radhakrishnan who have contributed to this project in many ways. Revision of this book has been made possible because of the experience gained by the implementation and study of various systems on both programmable DSPs and FPGAs by undergraduate, graduate, PhD students and project staff in addition to our experience through teaching. We would like to thank the following students and staff who have been responsible for carrying out the above work: Dr V Amudha, Dr G Seetharaman, Dr S Ramasamy, J Manikandan, S Mohanasundaram,AGeethanath, L Govinda Rao, G Chaitanya, T Dhirendrakumar, H Reshmi, D S Prasada Reddy and S Ashish. We would like to thank our Director Dr M Chidambaram for encouraging us to bring out the revised edition of this book. A number of experts have provided invaluable suggestions and feedback for the revision of this book. Our heartfelt gratitude goes out to all of them. Finally, we thank the editorial and production staff of Tata McGraw-Hill for the initiative and interest shown by them in bringing out this work in a short span of time. B Venkataramani M Bhaskar Feedback Tata McGraw-Hill invites comments, views and suggestions from readers, all of which can be sent to tmh.ecefeedback@gmail.com, mentioning the title and author’s names in the subject line. Preface xv
- 21. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 25. The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Book About Words
- 26. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: A Book About Words Author: G. F. Graham Release date: July 25, 2017 [eBook #55200] Most recently updated: October 23, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by Richard Hulse, John Campbell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BOOK ABOUT WORDS ***
- 27. TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book.
- 29. A B O O K A B O U T W O R D S. BY G. F. GRAHAM, AUTHOR OF ‘ENGLISH, OR THE ART OF COMPOSITION,’ ‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES,’ ‘ENGLISH STYLE,’ ‘ENGLISH GRAMMAR PRACTICE,’ ETC. LONDON: LO N G M A N S, G R E E N , A N D C O.
- 30. 1869.
- 31. PREFACE. The increased attention lately paid to our Language as a subject of Education, has induced the Author to state in the following pages his views on English (and other) Words. These views are the result of a long professional career in tuition, together with the study which such a calling naturally involves. Notwithstanding the rapid strides made of late years in the science of Words, much still remains unknown to the general reader; but if the following remarks be accepted as a small contribution to a more extended knowledge of this interesting subject, the Author will be amply compensated for any trouble it may have cost him to collect them. Kensington: May, 1869.
- 32. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction ix CHAPTER I. Origin of Words (Saxon)—Families of Words 1 CHAPTER II. Latin and French Words 23 CHAPTER III. Old and New Words 38 CHAPTER IV. Degeneracy of Words 63 CHAPTER V. Play upon Words 79 CHAPTER VI. Concrete and Abstract Words 96 CHAPTER VII. Grand Words 101 CHAPTER VIII. The Spelling of Words 107 CHAPTER IX. Flexibility, Variety, Contraction, etc. of Words 122
- 33. CHAPTER X. Different Views of the same Idea 141 CHAPTER XI. Compound Words 150 CHAPTER XII. The Pronunciation of Words 156 CHAPTER XIII. Slang Words and Americanisms 169 CHAPTER XIV. General Remarks on Words, etc. 185 CHAPTER XV. General Remarks on Words, etc., continued 202 CHAPTER XVI. Miscellaneous Derivations of Words 215
- 34. INTRODUCTION. What is meant by a Language? It is a collection of all the words, phrases, grammatical forms, idioms, &c., which are used by one people. It is the outward expression of the tendencies, turn of mind, and habits of thought of some one nation, and the best criterion of their intellect and feelings. If this explanation be admitted, it will naturally follow that the connection between a people and their language is so close, that the one may be judged of by the other; and that the language is a lasting monument of the nature and character of the people. Every language, then, has its genius; forms of words, idioms, and turns of expression peculiar to itself; by which, independently of other differences, one nation may be distinguished from another. This condition may be produced by various causes; such as soil, climate, conquest, immigration, &c. Out of the old Roman, or Latin, there arose several modern languages of Europe; all known by the generic name—Romance; viz. Italian, French, Provençal, Spanish, and Portuguese. These may be called daughters of ancient Latin; and the natives of all these countries down to the seventh century, both spoke and wrote that language. But when the Scandinavian and Germanic tribes invaded the West of Europe, the Latin was broken up, and was succeeded by Italian, French, Spanish, &c. The Latin now became gradually more and more corrupt, and was, at length, in each of these countries, wholly remodelled.
- 35. History has been called ‘the study of the law of change;’ i.e. the process by which human affairs are transferred from one condition to another. The history of a language has naturally a close analogy with political history; the chief difference being that the materials of the latter are facts, events, and institutions; whilst the former treats of words, forms, and constructions. Now, in the same way as a nation never stands still, but is continually undergoing a silent— perhaps imperceptible—transformation, so it is with its language. This is proved both by experience and reason. We need hardly say that the English of the present time differ widely from the English of the fourteenth century; and we may be quite sure that the language of this country, two or three centuries hence, will be very different from what it is at present. It would be impossible for a nation either to improve or decay, and for its language at the same time to remain stationary. The one being a reflex of the other, they must stand or fall together. What, then, is this law of change? On what principles is it based? How are we to study or follow out its operations? These questions are exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to answer definitively. But there are circumstances connected with the formation of certain languages which may throw some light on them. It may be received as a principle that, when one nation is overrun or conquered by another, the effect on the language of the conquered depends mainly on the condition of that which is brought in by the conquerors. If the victors be as superior to the vanquished in civilisation and improvement as they have proved themselves in physical power, they will impose their language on the conquered people. If, on the other hand, that of the vanquished be the more cultivated, the reverse will take place; the dialect of the conquerors will be absorbed into that of the conquered.
- 36. When the Visigoths settled in Spain in the fifth century, their dialect made but little impression on the language afterwards known as Spanish. The Latin element in the Peninsula, though at that time falling into decay, was far more refined and polished than the barbarous dialect then introduced; and it consequently remained, with some slight modifications, the language of the country. The same happened when the Northmen settled in France in the tenth century. It is astonishing how rapidly the language of Rollo and his followers was absorbed into French! This may have been assisted by the intermarriage of the conquerors with the women of the country; but it was produced chiefly by the different conditions of the two languages. On the other hand, when the Normans, under William the Conqueror, invaded England in the eleventh century, a different effect was produced. The Norman French after a time, though not immediately, enriched the English language with many words, but it did not, in the slightest degree, either then or afterwards, affect its grammatical forms or idioms. The cause of this was that the Saxon language was, at that epoch, already fixed, and fit for literary purposes. It was, indeed, much further advanced as a literary language than the invading Norman-French. It therefore resisted this external pressure; and though it afterwards admitted numerous French terms, the English language remains to this day Saxon, and not French, in its tone, character, and grammar. The climate of a country, or the temperament of a people, may also strongly influence the character of the language. Given an indolent and luxurious race, and we must expect that softness and effeminacy will appear in their spoken and written expression. No acute observer can fail to perceive a close connection between the national character of the Italians and the softness and beauty of
- 37. their harmonious tongue. Again: the simplicity and somewhat homely and rough vigour of the Teutonic race, are clearly shadowed forth in the sounds and forms of the German language. The climate, too, in both cases, may have contributed towards these results. A hot, enervating atmosphere produces languor of mind as well as body; whilst a bracing cold air, though it may assist in producing a phlegmatic temperament, at the same time infuses vigour, energy, and power into those who are subjected to its influence. There are also, no doubt, many hidden causes of gradual changes in language. These are difficult to ascertain; and some of them escape the sagacity of even the most acute observers. Political struggles, foreign wars, domestic habits, literary studies, &c., may all contribute to alter the character of a people, and so far to affect their language. But whatever may be these mysterious laws of change, they must be left to Nature herself, and no one must attempt to interfere with them. There are no more miserable failures recorded in history than the attempt by rulers to interfere with the laws of Nature. We are told (though not on very good authority) that William the Conqueror ordered the Saxons to speak Norman-French. He might as well have ordered his new subjects to walk on their heads—the one was quite as easy as the other. But no writer tells us with what success this decree was executed. Ordericus Vitalis, indeed, states that William endeavoured to learn Saxon, though he does not say how far he succeeded. Now it is not very likely that he should have studied a language which he was, at the same time, bent on exterminating. Indeed, there is an air of extreme improbability about the whole story.
- 38. In more recent times, it is well known that Joseph II., of Germany, issued an edict that all his subjects, Slavonic, Magyar, or German, should adopt one uniform language—German. But it was soon found impossible to execute this decree, for the people would as soon have parted with their lives as with their language; the whole empire was, therefore, immediately thrown into confusion. Many of the provinces broke out into open rebellion, and it at length became necessary to abandon the project. It is then clear that no one has the power, of his own will or caprice, to add a single word to a language, or to cast one out of it. These changes must be left to Nature, and all we can do is to watch her operations, to observe and record facts. But we may speculate on the origin of words, and may sometimes discover the causes of their birth. We may also inquire into the circumstances of their career, and the laws which regulate their forms, changes, meanings, &c. These inquiries are particularly comprehensive and interesting, because they naturally lead us to some knowledge of what words represent, and also because they are closely connected with the study of the human mind both as regards intellect and passion.
- 39. A B O O K ABOUT W O R D S.
- 40. CHAPTER I. O R I G I N O F W O R D S — F A M I L I E S O F W O R D S . Most Philologists have hitherto held the opinion that, in general, no satisfactory account can be given of the origin of language. They can trace a word from one language to another, and can account for its various forms and changes by laws now generally understood; but they confess their inability to explain what determined the original form of its root. They take that original form for granted, as a sort of intuitive truth which must be admitted as a necessity. They can explain the circumstances of its career; but of its first cause or nature they profess to understand little or nothing. But though this is the general opinion, all linguists admit that in every language certain words, more especially those that convey ideas of sound, are formed on the principle of onomatopœia; i.e. an attempt to make the pronunciation conform to the sound. Such English words as ‘hiss,’ ‘roar,’ ‘bang,’ ‘buzz,’ ‘crash,’ &c., are of this class. One can hardly pronounce these words without, in some sense, performing the acts which they represent. One school of linguists have lately expressed a belief that all words were formed on this principle. A very curious illustration of this view is given in Mr. Wedgwood’s ‘Origin of Language.’ Explaining the interjection Hem, he says, it was originally an attempt to stop some one. We are supposed to be walking behind some person; we wish to stop him, and we exclaim, ‘Hem!’ This is given as the
- 41. primary meaning of the word. ‘The sound is here an echo to the sense.’ But hem is used in other ways; either as a noun, or a verb; always, however, retaining its original idea of restricting, or keeping back. The hem of a garment is what prevents the thread from ravelling. Again, soldiers are sometimes hemmed in by the enemy; that is, prevented from using their free will to go where they choose. This illustration is intended to prove that the principle of onomatopœia applies not only to words that represent sound, but, by analogy, to other meanings derived from that principle. There is sound implied in the interjection hem; though in the noun and the verb, both derived from that interjection, no idea of sound is conveyed. This connection between sound and sense is certainly a natural principle; and however scornfully it may have been ridiculed by some philosophers, it has undoubtedly produced many very fine passages in the poetry of both ancient and modern times. 1. The chorus of frogs in Aristophanes, where their croaking is represented by words invented for the occasion: Βρεκεκεξ, κοαξ, κοαξ. This is, to say the least of it, very ingenious, and, in its way, beautiful, because true. 2. The same principle seems to apply in the πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης (poluphloisboio thalassēs) of Homer, where the first word was probably intended to represent the roaring of the wave mounting on the sea-shore; and the second, the hissing sound which accompanies a receding billow. 3. Another example of onomatopœia, in Virgil’s Æneid, viii. 452, has been often quoted:
- 42. ‘Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum;’ where the succession of dactyls is admirably adapted to represent the sound of the hoofs of a galloping horse. 4. Several examples of the same figure may be found in Milton. Describing the thronging of the fallen angels in Pandemonium: Thick swarmed, both on the ground and in the air, Brushed with the hiss of rustling wings. 5. Also, speaking of the gates of hell: ... open fly Th’ infernal doors; and on their hinges grates Harsh thunder ... Here the recurrence of the letter r is well calculated to convey the idea of a harsh, creaking, grating sound. 6. A similar effect is produced in Tasso’s ‘Gerusalemme Liberata.’ Il rauco son della Tartarea tromba. This connection between sound and sense may very probably exist in many words where we now fail to perceive it; but in the present state of our knowledge of the subject, we can hardly pronounce positively in favour of this view as applied to the whole body of a language. The question remains, for the present, in abeyance. Families of Words (Saxon). But setting aside the origin of words, it is not difficult to show the affinity which many springing from the same root have for each other. There are in English, as in other languages, hundreds of words which may be said to have a family connection, and which are traceable to one common origin, or root. This connection may be
- 43. found in the Saxon as well as the Romance part of our language. Th (soft) may be considered as the type of the idea of demonstration. All the English pronouns and adverbs beginning with these letters have that general meaning, which may be seen in ‘that,’ ‘the,’ ‘there,’ ‘thence,’ ‘this,’ ‘thither,’ ‘those,’ ‘thus,’ and others. Again, the initial wh may be considered as the type of an interrogative, or relative meaning. This also may be seen in many English pronouns and adverbs; as in ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘whence,’ ‘where,’ ‘whither,’ ‘who,’ ‘whom,’ ‘whose,’ &c. The principle of inversion has affected the whole of this class of words. They are all of Saxon origin, and were spelled in that language hw, and not wh; as in ‘hwæt’ (what), ‘hwaer’ (where), ‘hwanne’ (when), &c. Tw. The Saxon initial tw corresponds with the Romance du. There are many English words having this initial, which convey the idea of ‘two.’ 1. The numeral itself, ‘two’ 2. ‘Twain,’ a now obsolete form of ‘two.’ 3. ‘Twin,’ one of two children born at a birth. 4. ‘Between,’ which is only another form of ‘by twain.’ 5. ‘Twilight,’ i.e. between two lights—daylight and lamplight. 6. ‘Twice’ is equivalent to ‘two’ times. 7. To ‘twist’ is to bend two or more threads together. 8. To ‘twine’ is to interlace, so as to form one body out of two. And 9. A ‘twig’ is so called from its being easily twisted. It is said that the word ‘nose’ originally signified a promontory— something prominent—and that it is so called from being the prominent feature of the face. This view is supported by its analogy with naze, a headland, and the Scotch ness (as in Inverness), a part of the coast which juts forward. It may be observed that the word meaning ‘nose’ has in most European languages the form N-S-. This may be seen in the Greek νῆσος, an island or promontory; the Latin
- 44. nasus, the Italian naso, the German Nase, the French nez, and the English nose. Whether this be or be not an onomatopœia one thing is certain, viz. that in English the initial sn (ns inverted) in so many cases expresses nasal action, that it may be taken as a general type of that meaning. This may be found in a multitude of words having that initial, all expressing various actions of the nose. It may be seen in ‘snarl,’ ‘sneer,’ ‘sneeze,’ ‘sniff,’ ‘snore,’ ‘snort,’ ‘snooze,’ ‘snout,’ ‘snub,’ ‘snuff,’ &c. Ber-an—to bear. This is the source of our English verb ‘to bear.’ It produces the following:—1. ‘Barrow,’ an implement used for carrying or bearing. 2. ‘Berth,’ a place in which one is borne. 3. ‘Bier,’ a coffin in which a corpse is borne to the grave. 4. ‘Birth,’ the bearing of a child. 5. ‘Berry,’ the fruit which a tree bears. Bles-an—to blow. From this verb we have, 1. ‘Blaze,’ a strong flame blown forth. 2. ‘Blast,’ a violent blowing, or gust of wind. 3. ‘Blain,’ a boil, or blowing up of the flesh. 4. ‘Blight,’ injury done to corn, &c., from being blasted. 5. ‘Blister,’ a blowing, or rising, up of the skin. 6. ‘Blossom’ (or ‘bloom’), the blowing forth of the flower. 7. ‘Blush,’ a blowing forth of the blood. 8. ‘Bluster,’ as the wind when blowing hard. Brecc-an—to break. 1. The English verb ‘to break’ is directly from the above. 2. ‘Bridge,’ a building which breaks a passage across a river, &c. 3. ‘Breach,’ that part of a wall or fortification broken into by artillery. 4. To ‘broach’ a cask of ale is to break into it. 5. A ‘brook’ is a stream of water which breaks its way across the country.
- 45. Bug-an—to bend. 1. A ‘bay’ is a bending in of the line of coast. 2. In sailors’ language, a ‘bight’ is the hollow part of a bay, or a coil of rope bent round. 3. A ‘bow’ is so called from its being bent. 4. To make a ‘bow’ is to bend the body. 5. ‘Beam’ (compare the German ‘Baum’) is so named from its property of bending. 6. A ‘bough’ is the part of the tree that easily bends. 7. A ‘bower’ is made of branches bowed or bent down. 8. The adjective ‘buxom’ (compare the German ‘biegsam’) is properly bending or pliable. 9. ‘Elbow’ is the bow of the ell, or that part where the arm bends. ‘Big’ and ‘bag’ are probably from the same source; they both convey the idea of something bent round. Ceap-ān—to exchange. The essence of buying and selling lies in the exchange of goods for money, or money for goods. Hence come 1. the English word ‘chapman’ (sometimes contracted into chap), which properly means a buyer and seller. 2. To ‘chaffer’ is to bargain about a purchase. 3. ‘Cheap,’ bearing a low price, refers to a similar transaction. 4. We have also ‘Cheapside’ and ‘Eastcheap,’ originally markets, or places for buying and selling. 5. Chepstow, Chipping Norton, and other names of market-towns in England, are from the same root. 6. The wind is said to chop when it changes from one point of the compass to another. Ceaw-an—to chew. 1. The older form of ‘chew’ was ‘chaw,’ which we still occasionally hear in ‘chaw-bacon.’ 2. The cud is the grass chewed by ruminating
- 46. animals. 3. A quid of tobacco is a piece kept in the mouth to be chewed. Dael-an—to divide. 1. To ‘deal’ is from the above verb. It is used in English in a variety of senses, all containing the idea of dividing into parts. 2. A certain sort of wood is called ‘deal’ from being easily divided, or cut into planks. 3. To ‘deal’ cards is to divide them into packets or parcels. 4. Tradesmen ‘deal’ in certain articles when they sell them in small, divided quantities. 5. We also say ‘a great deal,’ speaking of a large part divided from the mass. [‘Some-deal’ was formerly said, but it is now obsolete.] 6. A ‘dole’ is a small part or share dealt out. (Compare the German ‘theilen.’) Dic-ian—to dig. From this Saxon verb we have, 1. To ‘dig.’ 2. ‘Dike,’ a mound of earth ‘dug’ out. 3. ‘Ditch,’ a line ‘dug.’ 4. ‘Dagger,’ an instrument used for ‘digging;’ and 5. ‘Dock,’ a place ‘dug’ out on the side of a harbour or bank of a river, where ships are repaired. Drag-an—to draw. This Saxon verb gives the English ‘to draw.’ From this we have, 1. ‘Dray,’ a heavy cart drawn along. 2. A ‘drain,’ a tube to draw off water. 3. A ‘draft,’ an order to draw out money from a bank. 4. A ‘draught’ is a quantity of liquid drawn into the mouth. 5. To ‘drawl’ is to drag on the voice heavily. 6. ‘Drudge,’ and 7. ‘Dredge’ (for oysters, &c.); both which express a dragging or drawing. (Compare the German ‘tragen’ and the Latin ‘trahere.’) Dropi-an—to drop.
- 47. From this root comes 1. The verb ‘to drop.’ 2. To ‘droop,’ i.e. to lean downwards. 3. To ‘drip,’ or fall continually. 4. To ‘dribble,’ or to fall in small ‘drops.’ 5. A ‘driblet,’ or a very small drop. Eri-an—to till. 1. To ‘ear,’ in the sense of ‘to plough,’ is now obsolete in English, though we have an ‘ear,’ or spike, of corn—the result of tilling; and 3. ‘Earth,’ that which is tilled or cultivated. Far-an—to journey. 1. From this verb (German ‘fahren’) comes our verb to ‘fare;’ literally, to go on, or make a journey. 2. The adverbs ‘fore,’ ‘forth,’ and ‘far’ convey a similar idea; viz. that of onward movement. 3. The ‘ford’ of a river is that point at which it can be ‘fared,’ or crossed; and 4. To ‘ferry’ is the act of faring, or passing across a river or lake. 5. ‘Frith’ and ‘firth’ are formed on the same principle; they are those parts of the sea where one can be ferried across. 6. The first syllable (fur) in the word ‘furlough’ belongs to this family. It is leave (lough) granted to a soldier to ‘fare,’ or journey, home for a time. All these forms are devices to explain a variety of modes of faring, or moving onwards. Fed-an—to feed. This gives us, 1. To ‘feed.’ 2. ‘Fat,’ the result of being well ‘fed.’ 3. ‘Fodder,’ provision for cattle; and, 4. ‘Food,’ that which ‘feeds,’ or supplies nourishment. Fi-an—to hate.
- 48. From this verb we have in English—1. A ‘fiend,’ one who hates. 2. Hence also comes ‘foe,’ an enemy, or one hated. 3. To the same root may be traced ‘fie!’ an interjection expressing dislike or hatred; 4. and also ‘foh!’ or ‘faugh!’ an exclamation of disgust. Fleaw-an—to flow. Hence come, 1. ‘To flow.’ 2. ‘Fleet;’ a number of ships that ‘flow,’ or swim, on the water. 3. The adjective ‘fleet,’ qualifying what flows by. 4. To ‘float,’ or swim, on the water; and, 5. ‘Flood,’ a large flow of water. Fuli-an—to make dirty. From this root come, 1. ‘Foul’ (putrid, offensive). 2. To ‘defile;’ to make ‘foul.’ 3. The noun ‘filth,’ dirt. 4. The adjective ‘filthy;’ and 5. ‘Fulsome;’ full of filth, nauseous, disgusting. G-an—to go. 1. ‘Gan’ is the Saxon verb whence the English ‘to go’ is derived. 2. This gives us ‘gait,’ i.e. a manner of ‘going;’ and, 3. ‘Gate,’ a door through which one ‘goes.’ To these may be added 4. ‘Gang,’ a number of people ‘going’ together; and, 5. the nautical term ‘gang- way,’ i.e. a passage ‘to go’ through. 6. The verb ‘to gad,’ i.e. to be continually ‘going’ from one place to another, also probably belongs to this family. Glowi-an—to burn. The verb ‘to low,’ in the sense of ‘to burn,’ does not now exist in the language; but the above verb gives us, 1. To ‘glow,’ i.e. to burn intensely; whence come the forms, 2. ‘Gleam;’ 3. ‘Glimmer;’ and, 4.
- 49. ‘Glimpse;’ 5. ‘Gloom,’ or a state into which light ‘gleams;’ and, 6. the word ‘light,’ which is a participial form of the old verb to ‘low.’ In one English word the root ‘low’ is still retained, viz. ‘whitlow,’ a painful white burning on the finger or thumb. Graf-an—to dig. From this verb we have in English, 1. ‘Grave,’ a pit dug. 2. To ‘engrave,’ i.e. to scratch or dig in. 3. ‘Groove,’ a line dug in. 4. ‘Gravel,’ earth dug up. 5. To ‘grovel,’ literally, to dig up earth; and, 6. To ‘grub,’ or scratch into the earth. Gyrd-an—to enclose. The English words derived from ‘gyrdan,’ and having a cognate meaning are, 1. To ‘gird,’ to enclose by tying round. 2. ‘Girdle,’ a small band or cincture. 3. ‘Girth,’ the band which ‘girds’ the saddle on a horse. 4. ‘Garter,’ a band tied round the leg; and, 5. ‘Garden,’ a space enclosed for the cultivation of fruit, vegetables, &c. Lang—long. From the Anglo-Saxon and German ‘lang’ is derived, 1. our adjective ‘long;’ from which again comes, 2. the abstract noun ‘length.’ 3. The adjective, ‘lean;’ and 4. ‘lanky’ are also members of this family. 5. To ‘linger,’ i.e. to remain a long time in a place. 6. To ‘lunge;’ to make a long stroke with a rapier; and, 7. A ‘link,’ that which makes a chain ‘longer.’ Lecj-an—to lay. 1. Both the English verbs ‘lay’ and ‘lie’ (which is to lay oneself down) come from this verb, 2. ‘Ledge,’ a place on which to lay
- 50. anything; 3. ‘Ledger,’ a book which lies on a merchant’s desk; and, 4. ‘Law,’ a rule laid down. Læd-an—to lead. 1. Besides the verb ‘to lead,’ we have from this source: 2. ‘Ladder,’ an instrument which leads to a higher place. 3. Load-star, and loadstone, i.e. a leading star or stone. (H)lifi-an—to lift. This is the source of, 1. our verb to ‘lift.’ Also, 2. ‘Loft,’ i.e. a room ‘lifted’ high. 3. The adverb ‘aloft’—‘lifted up.’ 4. ‘Aloof;’ and 5. The adjective ‘lofty.’ Maw-an—to cut down. From the Saxon root ‘maw’ comes immediately 1. Our verb to ‘mow,’—as well as a ‘mow’ (a barley-mow or a hay-mow); i.e. a quantity of barley or hay mown and heaped together. From this is derived, 2. ‘Mead,’ i.e. a mowed field; and, 3. Meadow, a large mead. 4. Farmers still use the word aftermath, which, with them, is a second mowing. 5, The now obsolete ‘mo’ or ‘moe,’ as used in the sense of a collected quantity or heap by Chaucer and other writers down to Lord Surrey, is said to give us the words ‘more’ and ‘most’ as the comparative and superlative forms of ‘mo;’ but this is doubted by many etymologists. Pocca—a bag. There are several English derivatives from this root. 1. We find it in the word ‘smallpox’ (or pocks), where it means little bags or holes left in the skin by the action of this disease. 2. We once had the
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