Directing in principles of management

UNIT IV – DIRECTING
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL AND
GROUP BEHAVIOR
R.ArunKumar,AP/Mech,RIT

SYLLABUS
Foundations of individual and group behaviour – motivation –
motivation theories – motivational techniques – job satisfaction –
job enrichment – leadership – types and theories of leadership –
communication – process of communication – barrier in
communication – effective communication –communication and
IT.

Objective:
 To perceive the concept of motivation and the process of
communication in directing.
Outcome:
 The student will be able to illustrate the different theories of
motivation and leadership.

DIRECTING:
 Directing is the process of driving entire workforce towards
objective of organization without deviation.

DIRECTING:
 Every organization is composed of individuals.
 Unless a manager understands individual’s behavior, he / she
cannot get the things done by others.

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:
 The various factors that leads to individual differences are
physical characteristics, personality, attitude, memory, etc.

IMPACT OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:
 Few may feel comfort with rules, few may not.
 Few may prefer democratic leaders and few may autocratic
leaders.
 Few may enroll themselves in an union, some may don't.
 Expectations of wages also differ.

BEHAVIORAL MODELS:
1. Rational economic models:
 F.W. Taylor, Henri Fayol, Adam Smith have used this model.
 Individual evaluates various courses of any actions in terms of
economic benefits.
 Higher the doses of economic incentives, higher will be the
output.

BEHAVIORAL MODELS:
2. Organization man models:
 Whilliam Whyte propounded this model.
 This model proposes that group is the source of creativity for
individuals.
 Individual produces more when he has to coordinate with
others.

BEHAVIORAL MODELS:
3. Social man:
 Social man concept expresses that performance of an individual is
influenced and motivated by social variables.
 Individual relies more on social recognition than economic
rewards.

BEHAVIORAL MODELS:
4. Self actualizing man:
 This model is based on Mc Gregors’ theory and Maslow’s
theory.
 Individual is self motivated and self controlled.
 Individual performs to the peak in an environment of freedom
and autonomy.

BEHAVIORAL MODELS:
5. Complex man model:
 Proposes that behavior of an individual is unpredictable.
 Individual needs vary and it causes individual differences.

DETERMINANTS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR:
1. Biographical factors:
a) Gender
b) Age
c) Education
d) Individual abilities
i) Physical abilities
ii) Mental abilities

2. Psychological factors:
a) Attitude
b) Perception (view)
c) Values

3. Environmental factors:
a) Economic conditions
b) Technological changes
c) Governmental policies
d) Cultural environment
e) Pay benefits
f) Welfare measures
g) Style of leadership

4. Organizational factors:
a) Nature of job
b) Job security
c) Work environment

GROUP BEHAVIOUR:
 Group is defined as a cluster of persons who all have came
together to pursue activities of common interests.
 In a group, members must be aware of one another.

REASONS TO FORM A GROUP:
 Safety and security needs
 Sense of belonging (tendency to live in group)
 Work extraction power
 Job monotony (relaxation in working environment)
 Goal accomplishment
 Informational need.

TYPES OF GROUP:
 Functional group
 Command group
 Interest group
 Committees
 Formal group
 Informal group
 Family group
 Friends group

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:
1. Forming stage
 Group formation
2. Storming stage
 Misunderstanding
3. Norming stage
 Coordination begins
4. Performing stage
 Dedication
5. Adjourning stage
 Deforming of group

PURPOSE OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:
1. Mutual acceptance
2. Communication and decision – making
3. Motivation and productivity
4. Control and organization

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:
a) Role play of individuals
b) Cohesiveness
c) Leadership
d) Behaviour of individuals.

CREATIVITY:
 Defined as the ability to produce new useful ideas through the
combination of known principles and components in novel ways.
INNOVATION:
 Innovation is defined as the process execution of creative ideas.

MOTIVATION THEORIES

MOTIVATION:
 Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s effort are
energized, directed and sustained toward attaining a goal.
Key elements:
 Energy (measure of driving force)
 Direction (positive motivation)
 Persistence (effort to achieve goals)

TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
 Positive motivation (based on recognition)
 Negative motivation (based on threat)
 Extrinsic motivation (based on external driven force like
salary)
 Intrinsic motivation (based on self motivation)

EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
 Four motivation theories that represents the foundation for
motivation are:
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
 McGregor’s theory X and theory Y
 Herzberg’s two – factor theory
 McClelland’s three needs theory

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory (1960s to 1970s):
 Abraham Maslow, a psychologist who proposed that within every
person the five needs are:
a) Physiological needs (basic needs)
b) Safety needs (security needs)
c) Social needs (affection, friendship, etc.)
d) Esteem needs (self respect, autonomy)
e) Self actualization needs (growth)
 Lower order needs are predominantly satisfied externally, while
higher order needs are satisfied internally.

2. McGregor’s X theory and Y theory:
 Douglas McGregor is the one who proposed.
 Theory X is negative view of people. Assumes that workers will
have little dislike, small ambition, etc.
 Theory Y is positive view of people. Assumes employees enjoy
the work.

2. McGregor’s X theory and Y theory:
 A manager should rely more on Y theory to ensure job
satisfaction of his employees.

3. Herzberg’s two – factor theory:
 Also called as motivation – hygiene theory.
 Proposes that, intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction
and extrinsic factors are related to dissatisfaction.

3. Herzberg’s two – factor theory:
 Removing dissatisfaction factors doesn’t mean that, the
employee will be satisfied and vice versa.
 He called the extrinsic factors that lead to dissatisfaction as
hygiene factors.
 Intrinsic factors that lead to satisfaction as motivators.

4. McClelland’s three needs theory:
 David McClelland and his associates proposed that there are
three needs that are major motivators in work.
1. need for achievement (nAch), 2. need for power (nPow),
3. need for affiliation (nAff)

4. McClelland’s three needs theory:
 nAch deals with the factors that self drives every employee
towards goal.
 nPow deals with the factors that are need to make others
behave in disciplined way.
 nAff deals with the factors required for friendly and close
interpersonal relationship.

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:
1. Goal setting theory:
 Goal setting theory says that, working towards a goal is a
major source of job motivation.
 The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
 Its not that difficult goals leads to motivation, but achievement
motivation is stimulated by moderately challenging goals.

 People will do better if they get feedback on how well they are
progressing towards their goals.
 Self generated feedback (where an employee monitors his or her
own performance) is more powerful motivator than feedback
coming from someone else.

 Three factors that influence goal performance relationship are:
1. Goal commitment
2. Adequate self – efficacy
3. National culture

a) Goal commitment:
 Goal setting theory assumes that an individual is committed to a
goal.
 Commitment is likely when goals are made public.
 When an individual has internal locus of control.
 When the goals are self set.

b) Self efficacy:
 Self efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
1.Higher efficacy 2. Lower efficacy

c) National culture:
 Goal-setting theory is culture bound.
 It may work out in few countries but not in all the countries.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NK8-LhqF4N0
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xI3R5qXHVZY

2. Reinforcement theory:
 Reinforcement theory says that behaviour is a function of its
consequences.
 Consequences that immediately follow a behaviour and increase
the probability that behaviour will be repeated are called
reinforcers.

 Ignores factors such as goals, expectations and needs.
 Focuses only on the effect / result of a work.
 People tends to engage in desired behaviors if they are
rewarded for doing so.

 Managers can influence employees behaviour by using
positive reinforcers for actions that help the organization to
achieve its goals.
 Managers should ignore undesirable behaviour.

3. Job design theory:
 Managers need to look at ways to design motivating jobs.
 Job design is defined as how various tasks are combined to
form a complete job?
 Thus a job design must motivate all the employees to work hard.

 Job enlargement
 Job scope: Number of different tasks required in a job and frequency with
which those task are repeated.
 Job enrichment

 Job characteristics model (JCM) identifies five core job
dimensions, their interrelationships and their impact on
employee’s output.
i) Skill variety – degree to which a job requires variety of activities.
ii) Task identity – degree of identifiable piece of work.
iii) Task significance - degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on lives / work of other.
iv) Autonomy – degree to which a job provides freedom.
v) Feedback – degree to which individual gets information on
effectiveness of his work

4. Equity theory:
 The term equity is related to concept of fairness and equal
treatment compared with others who behave in similar
ways.

4. Equity theory:
 Comparing marks / grade with friends.
 When you are offered job of Rs.8,00,000 p.a. you would feel
enthusiastic while joining.
 After reporting to job, you find an other student of same
qualification is offered Rs.9,00,000 p.a.

4. Equity theory:
 Equity theory, developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that
employees used to compare, their inputs : outputs ratio with
their colleague.
 If it is not equitable, then he / she would analyze whether she is
under rewarded or over rewarded.

4. Equity theory:

4. Equity theory:
 Referents: Indicates the comparative counterpart.
 The three important variable of equity theory are:
1. Persons – Colleague
2. System – Policies and procedures
3. Self – Internal assessment

4. Equity theory:
 Equity theory focuses on
Distributive justice – fairness in allocation.
Procedural justice – fairness in allocation procedure.

5. Expectancy theory:
 Proposed by Vroom.
 States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on
expectation that act will be followed by attractiveness of
outcome.

 The three variables are:
1. Effort – performance linkage (Expectancy):
 The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to
performance.
2. Performance – reward linkage (Instrumentality):
 The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the
attainment of a desired outcome.
3. Rewards – personal goals linkage (Attractiveness):

MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES,
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB
ENRICHMENT

MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES:
 Motivation techniques are classified into two types.
1. Monetary motivation
2. Non – monetary motivation

1. Monetary motivation:
 Money in any form will be a kind of motivation for every
employee.
 Only money can satisfy the urgent needs of any human.
 Money can satisfy a person, when additional payment is
relatively equal to person’s income.

1a) Individual incentive plans
1b) Group incentive plans
1c) Other incentive plans

1a) Individual incentive plans:

1b) Group incentive plans:
 Employees are rewarded collectively.
 This includes profit sharing, production bonus, etc.
 e.g.: Scanlon plan, profit sharing plan.

1c) Other incentive plans:
 Apart from individual and group incentive, organization gives
other mode of monetary motivation.
 e.g.: Provident Fund (PF), pension.

2. Non – monetary motivation:
 Non – monetary incentives provide psychological and
emotional satisfaction.
 Non – monetary incentives satisfies an employee based on his
requirement.

2a) Job security:
 Leads to peaceful working environment.

2b) Promotion:
 Enthuse employee to improve the working standard.

2c) Delegation of responsibility:
 Fact that a manager believes his / her subordinates.

2d) Work challenge:
 Job nature will be acting as a greater motivating force.

2e) Status and recognition:
 Appreciation of good performance is called recognition.
 Inspires employees to maintain and improve the performance.

2f) Growth opportunity:
 How far the organization ensures career development of
employees.

2g) Participation in decision making:
 Enhances commitment in attaining the goal.

JOB SATISFACTION:
 A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal.
 It is also defined as the overall positive feelings that individuals
have towards their job.

JOB SATISFACTION:
 Factors relating to job satisfaction are:
1. Personal factors
2. Job factors
3. Organizational factors

JOB ENRICHMENT:
 Improving the quality of a job.
 Ways to enrich a job are:
1. Giving freedom
2. Responsibility
3. Encouraging participation
4. Giving a regular feedback
5. Decision making involvement.

JOB ENRICHMENT:
Advantages:
 Improves efficiency of organization.
 Reduces absenteeism and turnover.
 Improves work ethic behaviour.
 Improves decision making ability.
 Reduces work load of supervisor.

JOB ENRICHMENT:
Limitations:
 Fear of failure to those employees who prefer less
responsibility.
 Negative impression if the job is not satisfactory.
 Limited to non – managerial jobs.
 Takes time for adapting.

LEADERSHIP AND TYPES

LEADERSHIP:
 Leadership is defined as the process of influencing a group to
achieve goals.
 Leadership is defined as the process of influencing and
supporting others to work enthusiastically towards achieving
objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP:
1. Motivating employees:
 Higher the motivation, higher would be the performance.
 A good leadership itself will motivate an employee to perform
better.

2. To develop team work:
 Three vital determinants of team work are leader, subordinates
and work environment.
 Leadership will make the environment to work efficiently.

3. Better utilization of human resource:
 With proper planning of policies and programs, leadership
utilizes the man power properly.

4. Creating confidence to followers:
 A good leader create confidence, by giving proper guidance and
advise.

5. Directing:
 Being an example, a leader can motivate the entire team
towards goal.

6. Building morale:
 Attitudes of employees towards organization, management and
cooperation will improve by good leadership.

7. Maintaining discipline:
 A good leadership can ensure proper decorum in an organization
leading towards goal attainment.

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES:
1. Patience

2. Confidence

3. Honesty

4. Long term vision

5. Dedication

6. Motivation

7. Multiplicity in roles

8. Uniqueness

LEADERSHIP STYLES:
1. Autocratic leadership:
 Leader takes all decisions by himself without consulting
subordinates.

LEADERSHIP STYLES:
1. Autocratic leadership:
1a) Strict autocrat (leader follows negative motivation)
1b) Benevolent autocrat (leader follows positive motivation)
1c) Incompetent autocrat (to hide his / her ability)

LEADERSHIP STYLES:
2. Democratic leadership:
 Subordinates are consulted and their feedback is taken into
account during decision making.

LEADERSHIP STYLES:
3. Laissez – Faire leadership:
 Subordinates are given freedom in decision making.
 They will hold responsibility for all their actions.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES:
 The early leadership theories focused on leader and interaction
of leader with group members.
1. Trait theories
2. Behavioral theories

1. Trait theories:
 Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that
differentiated leaders from non-leaders was unsuccessful.
 Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits
associated with successful leadership.
 Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence,
intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and extraversion.

1. Trait theories:
 Drive

1. Trait theories:
 Desire to lead

1. Trait theories:
 Honesty and integrity

1. Trait theories:
 Self confidence

1. Trait theories:
 Intelligence

1. Trait theories:
 Job relevant skills

1. Trait theories:
 Extraversion

2. Behavioral theories:

CONTINGENCY LEADERSHIP THEORIES:
1. Fiedler Model:
 Proposed that effective group performance depended on properly
matching leader’s style and situation.
 Fiedler developed Least – Preferred Coworker (LPC)
questionnaire.
 On the basis of 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives respondents were
asked to rate their leader on the scale between 1 to 8.
 Relationship oriented – if he/she scores 64 or above.
 Task oriented – if he/she or scores 57 or less.
 Leaders can’t change their style based on situation.

1. Fiedler Model:
Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pleasant
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting
Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Loyal
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere
Unkind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind
Inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious

1. Fiedler Model:

2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory:
 Successful leadership depends on followers’ readiness.
 Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether
followers accept or reject a leader.
 Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and
willingness to accomplish a specific task.

Leadership Styles:
1. Telling: high task-low relationship leadership
2. Selling: high task-high relationship leadership
3. Participating: low task-high relationship leadership
4. Delegating: low task-low relationship leadership

Stages of followers readiness:
1. R1: followers are unable and unwilling
2. R2: followers are unable but willing
3. R3: followers are able but unwilling
4. R4: followers are able and willing

3. Path – goal theory:
 Most respected approach, proposed by Robert House.
 States that leader’s job is to assist followers and to guide the
pathway for them.

Four leadership behaviors are:
1. Directive leader: Gives guidance, make subordinates to understand
what is expected.
2. Supportive leader: Shows concern for subordinates needs.
3. Participative leader: Consults with subordinates before decision
making.
4. Achievement oriented leader: Sets challenging goals and extract
work from subordinates.
Note: Assumed that leadership styles are flexible.

COMMUNICATION – PROCESS
OF COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION:
 Communication is defined as "the transmission of information
and understanding it through the use of common symbols”.

COMMUNICATION:
 In our life we are talking for nearly 27 years which is equal
covering 10,000 books of 400 pages each.
 Communication process should be processed like see – saw.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
Functions of
Communication
Control Motivation
Emotional
Expression
Information

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Control:
 Communications act to control individuals’ behaviors in
organizations.
2. Motivation:
 Communications clarify for employees what is to done and what
can be done to improve performance.
3. Emotional expression:
 Helps an employee to express themselves.
4. Information:
 Individual or group need information to make decisions.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION:
 To establish and spread goals of an enterprise widely

 Large size of an organization

 To intimate recent updates in organization

 To develop plans for future achievement

 To create better human relations

 For smooth and transparent functioning of organization

 To ensure healthy public relations

 To have a control and uniform performance

 Acts as a personal asset for every individual

 To react immediately during emergency period

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION:
1. Interpersonal Communication
 Communication between two or more persons.

2. Organizational Communication
 All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within
an organization.
 Organizational communication is classified into,
2a) Formal communication
2b) Informal communication

2a) Formal communication – Communication that follows the
official chain of command or is part of the communication
required to do one’s job.

2b) Informal communication - Communication that is not defined
by the organization’s hierarchy.

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN FORMAL ORGANIZATION:
 Flow of communication in an organization is classified into four
types.
1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication
3. Lateral communication
4. Diagonal communication
Lateral
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1.Downward communication
 Communications that flow from managers to employees to
inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees.

2. Upward communication
 Communications that flow from employees up to managers to
keep them aware of employee needs and how things can be
improved to create a climate of trust and respect.

3. Lateral (Horizontal) Communication
 Communication that takes place among employees on the
same level in the organization to save time and facilitate
coordination.

4. Diagonal Communication
 Communication that cuts across both work areas and
organizational levels in the interest of efficiency and speed.

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION:
 The Communication Process – The steps between a source and
a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of
meaning.

ELEMENTS IN PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION:
 The various elements present in communication process are:
1. Source / Sender:
 A person who convey thought, idea or information is known as
source.

2. Message:
 A purpose or the information to be conveyed is called as
message.

3. Encoding:
 The process of converting a message into symbols is called as
encoding.

4. Channel / Medium:
 The medium through which the message travels is called as
channel.

5. Receiver:
 A person who receives the message is called the receiver. The
receiver must have the ability to listen.

6. Decoding:
 The receiver’s retranslation of the sender’s message is called
decoding.

7. Noise and feedback:
 Feedback is defined as the response from the receiver.
 Noise is defined as the disturbances that interfere with
transmission, receipt or feedback of a message is called as
noise.

BARRIERS OF
COMMUNICATION

MODES OF COMMUNICATION:
 Different occasions require different types of communication.
1. Verbal communication
2. Non – verbal communication

1. Verbal communication:
 Communication by means of words is called as verbal
communication.
1a) Oral communication
1b) Written communication

1a) Oral communication:
 Usually occurs where communication is not documented.
 It may take the form of speeches, discussions, debates, face to face
talk, telephonic conversation.

1b) Written communication:
 Usually being documented.
 It can be in the form of notices, emails, manuals, reports, circulars.

2. Non – verbal communication:
 Communication by means of body language. e.g.: kinesics

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORK:
 Communication network is defined as the channels that are
used to pass information serially from one person to another.
 The communicating networks are as follows:
1. Simple chain
2. Wheel chain
3. Circular chain
4. Free flow chain
5. Inverted V chain

1. Simple chain:
 Simple chain network exists between a superior and his
subordinate.
 Communication flows either upward or downward.
 Control will be easier but this network consumes time.

2. Wheel chain:
 In this network subordinates can communicate with their
common superior.
 Subordinates are not allowed to communicate among
themselves.
 Coordination among subordinates is difficult.

3. Circular chain:
 Communication moves in a circular shape.
 Here a subordinate can communicate with his or her
neighboring coworker.
 Flow takes more time.

4. Free flow chain:
 A subordinate can communicate with anyone in the
organization.
 Flow of communication is fast but coordination problem exists.

5. Inverted V chain:
 In this network chain, a subordinate is allowed to communicate
with two level of hierarchy.

Single Channel vs Multiple channel communication:
SI.No. Single channel Multiple channel
1.
Communication is allowed in
a single path.
More than one path.
2. Communication flow is slow. Communication flow is fast.
3. Control is easier. Control is difficult.
4.
Misunderstanding can be
avoided.
Leads to misunderstanding.

BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION:
 Barriers to effective communication in an organization may be
broadly classified into following groups:
1. Physical barriers
2. Psychological / interpersonal barriers
3. Organizational barriers
4. Semantic barriers
5. Mechanical barriers

1. Physical barriers:
 The environmental barriers that reduce the sending and
receiving of communication.
 e.g.: physical distance, distracting noises, external
interferences.

2. Psychological or interpersonal barriers:
Defensiveness
National
Culture Emotions
Information
Overload
Interpersonal
Communication
Language
Filtering

3. Organizational barriers:
 The climate and the culture of an organization acts as a barrier
in communication.
 e.g.: rigidity in rules, poor communication infrastructure,
lack of coordination.

4. Semantic barriers:
 This kind of barriers occurs due to misunderstanding.
 e.g.: idiomatic words, lack of language skills, accent.

5. Mechanical barriers:
 Barriers that occur due to fault in the mediating devices.

Directing in principles of management

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