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Discourse analysis

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Discourse analysis involves studying language beyond the sentence level, including conversations and written texts. There are various approaches to discourse analysis from different fields like sociology, linguistics, and philosophy. Sociological approaches include conversational analysis which examines turn-taking, openings/closings of conversations. Systemic functional linguistics views language as evolving based on its social functions and analyzes texts in relation to social contexts. Critical discourse analysis considers how power and social domination are reproduced through language.

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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS  Approaches to Discourse Analysis  Spoken and Written Discourse By: Sonia Calderón Cruz
What is discourse? Discourse can be defined in three ways: 1. Language beyond the level of a sentence 2. Language behaviors linked to social practices 3. Language as a system of thought. Discourse analysis is usually defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. And the analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in text and conversation Written by MaCarthy et al. in An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Schmitt, N. 2012
Questions Investigated by Discourse Analysts Who are the Participants? What is the Relationship between them? What are the Difference s in Power & Knowledge between them? What are their Goals? Discourse Analysis What Does it mean? How do we interpret the meaning of text? What Knowledge of Context is needed? What are the Clues Surrounding Text? Participants Text Discourse has occupied many aspects of everyday life. Learning how to engage in discourse is one of the most important goals in language learning and teaching. Language students or teachers need to pay attention to different patterns in discourse and to focus on context and linguistic strategies that are most relevant . Discourse Analysis involves Real Text not invented, constructed and artificial text. Discourse Analysis works with Utterances not independent sentences. Introduction
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis (Adapted from Eggins and slade, 1997)
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis One of the concerns in sociology is to understand how social members make sense of everyday life. To address this problem it pays attention to the most commonplace activities such as conversation. sociology considers conversation as a particularly appropriate and accessible resource for its enquiry.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Key questions, conversational analyst attempts to address: • How to take turns in conversation. • How to open and close conversation. • How to launch new topics, close old ones, shift topic, etc.. • How conversation generally progresses satisfactorily from one utterance to the next.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Address some of the above questions: Turn is defined as a basic unit of social interaction in conversation that starts with occasion when speaker speaks and ends when another speaker takes a turn. • To get the turn two ways are possible: be chosen or nominated by current speaker or self-selection.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Address some of the above question: • To show that listener is still following the speaker and wishes him to continue, a mechanism called Back-channel response is used ( Mmm, yeah, sure, right ). • To predict one another’s turn a mechanism such as completing or overlapping the speaker’s utterance often occurs. (A: I had much trouble when answering the questions…. B: The exam was really hard.)
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Patterns in Turn-taking: One of important patterns in turn-taking is Adjacency Pairs. This pattern includes pairs such as: greeting-greeting (A: Good morning --- B: Hi, good morning) , compliment-thanks (A: Congratulations on the new job ----- B: Oh, thanks), apology-acceptance … These are known as preferred sequence in contrast with dispreferred sequence (A: Hi, how is it going? ----- B: Drop dead!)
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Other common Types of pattern: Solidary routines ( A: I have a terrible headache ------ B: Oh, I’m sorry, can I do anything) and Converging pairs ( A: I just love that green sweater. ------- B: Oh, so do I, …) Note: Conversational Analysis involves the actual recorded data of naturally occurring interactions and rejects experimental methods of collecting data by simulating dialogues or artificial interactive context. Implication: Using authentic spoken materials in class in addition to examples of course-book.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Ethnographic approaches to conversation have been led by Hymes and are concerned with the ‘situation and uses, the patterns and functions of speaking as an activity in its own right’. Or concerned with understanding the social context of linguistics interactions. In seeking to account for “who says what to whom, when, where, why and how.” (Hymes 1972b) Examples of speech event can be ‘conversation at a party’ or ‘ordering a meal’. Any speech event comprises several components listed as grid and known as Speaking grid.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Speaking grid This grid emphasizes the contextual dimensions that determine our use of language. One important part of the grid is genre which says that there are different text-types with their own different internal structures, which accord with different social goals.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Developed by Lobov (1972) and in particular his description of the structure of spoken narratives has made a major contribution to the analysis of discourse. 6 stages of Structure of a narrative of personal experience: 1-Abstract (summary of story, with its point) 4-Evaluation (narrator’s attitude towards narrative) 2-Orientation (in respect of place, time and situation) 5-Resolution (protagonist’s approach to crisis) 3-Complication (temporal sequence of events, 6- Coda (point about narrative as a whole) culminating in crisis)
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. Considering teacher’s questions-pupils’ answers discourse they identified units of pattern (bounded by discourse markers such as ‘Now , then’ and ‘Right’) which they called ‘Transaction’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. The next level of pattern consists of question-answer-feedback which is called ‘Exchange’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. the next level represent a single action such as questioning, answering and feeding back which is called ‘Move’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. Finally there are local, micro-action (such as nominating a student, acknowledge) which is called ‘Acts’. These levels form a rank-scale in which any level is composed of all the levels below it. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Systematic functional linguistics is one variety of functional linguistics, its distinctive feature being the concern to explain the internal organization of language in terms of the functions that it has evolved to serve (Halliday, 1978,1994). It investigate how language is structured to achieve socio-cultural meaning, it focuses on the analysis of texts, considered in relationship to social context in which they occur.
Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis It is similar to conversational analysis, both are concerned to describe the relationship between language and its social context. However the focus of SFL is on the way that language is organized to enable conversation to function as it does, but CA focuses on social life and sees conversation as a key to that.
Critical discourse analysis  Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that views language as a form ofsocial practice and focuses on the ways social and political domination are reproduced in text and talk.  Since Norman Fairclough's Language and Power in 1989, CDA has been deployed as a method of multidisciplinary analysis throughout the humanities and social sciences.
Genres in CDA are seen as social actions occurring within particular social and historical contexts. As Miller stated, similarities in form and function are seen deriving from the similarity in the social action undertaken, therefore, Texts are looked at the textual regularities they display and what class, gender and ethnic bias they incorporate, what social practices they reflect. This new conception of genre in CDA sees genres as both social and textual categories which are dynamic and changing. Genres are not only arise out of the social context but also they shape the social context.
Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis questionnaire  1. who wrote these topic?  2. name two approaches to discourse analysis  What does SFL stand for?  1. MaCarthy et al  2. conversational analysis, etnography…  Stands for Systemic functional linguistics
Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At first glance it seems that spoken discourse is formless but research on the analysis of spoken discourse shows that spoken English does have a consistent and describable structure and that in many respects the language patterning is the same as written English. One way of approaching differences between speaking and writing is to plot individual texts along scales.
Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At first glance it seems that spoken discourse is formless but research on the analysis of spoken discourse shows that spoken English does have a consistent and describable structure and that in many respects the language patterning is the same as written English. One way of approaching differences between speaking and writing is to plot individual texts along scales.
Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At one end we have the most formal written texts, such as academic articles. At the other end there are the most informal spoken interactions such as casual conversations. In the middle of the scales are the informal, written text such as letters to friends and the formal spoken text such as job interview. Spoken and written discourse usually have different lexical density which is defined as the rate of occurrence of lexical items ( content word such as ‘sun, confuse, tiny ) against grammatical items ( he, was, on ). Spoken discourse typically has lower lexical density.
Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse Differences between formal and informal spoken English (Table below) can indicate to some extent (not as extreme) differences between spoken and written discourses. Final point: Both spoken and written discourse have consistent and describable structures.
Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse Written Discourse only relies on text-activated context and therefore it is more structured and formal. Spoken Discourse relies on immediate context and has less need to refer to everything. As consequence of this we face a lot of ellipses in spoken discourse. Important Aspects of Differences : Grammar e.g. Ellipses in Spoken (Deletion of Item whose reference is implicitly transferred) Absent of auxiliary: A: Anybody want soup? B: No thank you. (Does Anybody want …) Absent of pronoun, article: A: Nice restaurant? B: Yes, it is, isn’t it. (It’s a nice restaurant.) Discourse Grammar appreciates distinction between spoken and written grammar and is interested in the spoken-written divide wherever it is relevant.
Discourse Analysis Lexical Patterns in Spoken Language Used for signaling and confirming an agreed meaning: e.g. A: California was really beautiful. B: It’s a beautiful place. 1. Repetition 2. Relexicalization: Synonyms & Antonyms Synonyms: Used for converging on agreed meaning. e.g. A: Alice where did you get that skirt? B: Isn’t it lovely. A: It’s so nice. C: In Top Shop Antonyms: Used for distinguishing instantial meaning from out-of-context semantic meaning. e.g. A: …Sometime it’s hard but I really fell… B: Well it is hard, isn’t it. It’s not easy to go forward. Final point: Repetition and relexicalization are part of the speaking skill and in the case of relexicalization (the ability to retrieve synonyms and antonyms) present a considerable challenge to second language learners .
Cohesion cohesion is the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. Example: My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties ( In reference): Father- he- he- he; “A” Lincoln convertible- that car- it- “the” convertible
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties ( in semantics): [money]: bought- saving- penny- worth- fortune- sold- pay [time]: once- nowadays- sometimes
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help [ay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties (in grammar): Tense: bought- did- could- would- sold Cohesive devices for textual relation: however
 Example: My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That color doesn’t suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone call. Many cohesive devices, but a text very hard to interpret. Here we don’t see any coherence but there is a cohesion.
Cohesive (with many cohesive ties) Coherent (easy to interpret)
Coherence Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. Example: HER:That’s the telephone HIM: I’m in the bath HER: O.K. There are certainly no cohesive ties within this fragment of discourse. Here we see coherence but no cohesion.
Coherence and cohesion
Discourse Analysis Implications for Pedagogy  Discourse analysis enables language practitioners to precisely delineate in materials the different genres of language with which learners will need to engage and to select discourses relevant to learner’s needs.  Discourse analysis can help teachers to explain the underlying features of the text types associated with different type of writing (academic paper, business letters,..)  Discourse analysis may serve to raise awareness of the nature of teacher-leaner interaction. It can help teachers consider their own interaction practices in a more systematic manner and offer a full-rich context for learners to engage in the genuine interaction.  Discourse analysis provides teachers with more insight to evaluate their own learners’ performance in classroom task in terms of its proximity to or distance from the real-world discourse.  Conversation analysis offer the possibility of systematic teaching of features such as the language of openings and closings, discourse markers and common adjacency pairs.  Discourse analysis provides the descriptive information which come in the form of pedagogical grammars and learners dictionaries which are more sensitive to context.
Discourse analysis questionnaire  What are some differences between spoken and written discourse?  What is the difference between coherence and cohesion?  Written Discourse only relies on text- activated context and therefore it is more structured and formal.  Spoken Discourse relies on immediate context and has less need to refer to everything. As consequence of this we face a lot of ellipses in spoken discourse.  Coherence is:the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.  Cohesion is:the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text.
Discourse analysis

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Discourse analysis

  • 1. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS  Approaches to Discourse Analysis  Spoken and Written Discourse By: Sonia Calderón Cruz
  • 2. What is discourse? Discourse can be defined in three ways: 1. Language beyond the level of a sentence 2. Language behaviors linked to social practices 3. Language as a system of thought. Discourse analysis is usually defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. And the analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in text and conversation Written by MaCarthy et al. in An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Schmitt, N. 2012
  • 3. Questions Investigated by Discourse Analysts Who are the Participants? What is the Relationship between them? What are the Difference s in Power & Knowledge between them? What are their Goals? Discourse Analysis What Does it mean? How do we interpret the meaning of text? What Knowledge of Context is needed? What are the Clues Surrounding Text? Participants Text Discourse has occupied many aspects of everyday life. Learning how to engage in discourse is one of the most important goals in language learning and teaching. Language students or teachers need to pay attention to different patterns in discourse and to focus on context and linguistic strategies that are most relevant . Discourse Analysis involves Real Text not invented, constructed and artificial text. Discourse Analysis works with Utterances not independent sentences. Introduction
  • 4. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis (Adapted from Eggins and slade, 1997)
  • 5. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
  • 6. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis One of the concerns in sociology is to understand how social members make sense of everyday life. To address this problem it pays attention to the most commonplace activities such as conversation. sociology considers conversation as a particularly appropriate and accessible resource for its enquiry.
  • 7. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Key questions, conversational analyst attempts to address: • How to take turns in conversation. • How to open and close conversation. • How to launch new topics, close old ones, shift topic, etc.. • How conversation generally progresses satisfactorily from one utterance to the next.
  • 8. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Address some of the above questions: Turn is defined as a basic unit of social interaction in conversation that starts with occasion when speaker speaks and ends when another speaker takes a turn. • To get the turn two ways are possible: be chosen or nominated by current speaker or self-selection.
  • 9. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Address some of the above question: • To show that listener is still following the speaker and wishes him to continue, a mechanism called Back-channel response is used ( Mmm, yeah, sure, right ). • To predict one another’s turn a mechanism such as completing or overlapping the speaker’s utterance often occurs. (A: I had much trouble when answering the questions…. B: The exam was really hard.)
  • 10. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Patterns in Turn-taking: One of important patterns in turn-taking is Adjacency Pairs. This pattern includes pairs such as: greeting-greeting (A: Good morning --- B: Hi, good morning) , compliment-thanks (A: Congratulations on the new job ----- B: Oh, thanks), apology-acceptance … These are known as preferred sequence in contrast with dispreferred sequence (A: Hi, how is it going? ----- B: Drop dead!)
  • 11. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Other common Types of pattern: Solidary routines ( A: I have a terrible headache ------ B: Oh, I’m sorry, can I do anything) and Converging pairs ( A: I just love that green sweater. ------- B: Oh, so do I, …) Note: Conversational Analysis involves the actual recorded data of naturally occurring interactions and rejects experimental methods of collecting data by simulating dialogues or artificial interactive context. Implication: Using authentic spoken materials in class in addition to examples of course-book.
  • 12. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
  • 13. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Ethnographic approaches to conversation have been led by Hymes and are concerned with the ‘situation and uses, the patterns and functions of speaking as an activity in its own right’. Or concerned with understanding the social context of linguistics interactions. In seeking to account for “who says what to whom, when, where, why and how.” (Hymes 1972b) Examples of speech event can be ‘conversation at a party’ or ‘ordering a meal’. Any speech event comprises several components listed as grid and known as Speaking grid.
  • 14. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Speaking grid This grid emphasizes the contextual dimensions that determine our use of language. One important part of the grid is genre which says that there are different text-types with their own different internal structures, which accord with different social goals.
  • 15. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Developed by Lobov (1972) and in particular his description of the structure of spoken narratives has made a major contribution to the analysis of discourse. 6 stages of Structure of a narrative of personal experience: 1-Abstract (summary of story, with its point) 4-Evaluation (narrator’s attitude towards narrative) 2-Orientation (in respect of place, time and situation) 5-Resolution (protagonist’s approach to crisis) 3-Complication (temporal sequence of events, 6- Coda (point about narrative as a whole) culminating in crisis)
  • 16. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
  • 17. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. Considering teacher’s questions-pupils’ answers discourse they identified units of pattern (bounded by discourse markers such as ‘Now , then’ and ‘Right’) which they called ‘Transaction’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
  • 18. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. The next level of pattern consists of question-answer-feedback which is called ‘Exchange’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
  • 19. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. the next level represent a single action such as questioning, answering and feeding back which is called ‘Move’. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
  • 20. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Model developed by Sinclair et.al (1975) for analysis of classroom discourse. Finally there are local, micro-action (such as nominating a student, acknowledge) which is called ‘Acts’. These levels form a rank-scale in which any level is composed of all the levels below it. •Transactions • Exchanges • Moves • Acts
  • 21. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis
  • 22. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis Systematic functional linguistics is one variety of functional linguistics, its distinctive feature being the concern to explain the internal organization of language in terms of the functions that it has evolved to serve (Halliday, 1978,1994). It investigate how language is structured to achieve socio-cultural meaning, it focuses on the analysis of texts, considered in relationship to social context in which they occur.
  • 23. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Sociology • Conversational Analysis • Ethnography • Interactional Sociolinguistics • Variation Theory Sociolinguistics Philosophy • Speech Act Theory • Pragmatics Linguistics • Structural- Functional Artificial Intelligence • Social Semiotic • Birmingham School • SFL • SFL • CDA Discourse Analysis It is similar to conversational analysis, both are concerned to describe the relationship between language and its social context. However the focus of SFL is on the way that language is organized to enable conversation to function as it does, but CA focuses on social life and sees conversation as a key to that.
  • 24. Critical discourse analysis  Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse that views language as a form ofsocial practice and focuses on the ways social and political domination are reproduced in text and talk.  Since Norman Fairclough's Language and Power in 1989, CDA has been deployed as a method of multidisciplinary analysis throughout the humanities and social sciences.
  • 25. Genres in CDA are seen as social actions occurring within particular social and historical contexts. As Miller stated, similarities in form and function are seen deriving from the similarity in the social action undertaken, therefore, Texts are looked at the textual regularities they display and what class, gender and ethnic bias they incorporate, what social practices they reflect. This new conception of genre in CDA sees genres as both social and textual categories which are dynamic and changing. Genres are not only arise out of the social context but also they shape the social context.
  • 27. Discourse analysis questionnaire  1. who wrote these topic?  2. name two approaches to discourse analysis  What does SFL stand for?  1. MaCarthy et al  2. conversational analysis, etnography…  Stands for Systemic functional linguistics
  • 28. Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At first glance it seems that spoken discourse is formless but research on the analysis of spoken discourse shows that spoken English does have a consistent and describable structure and that in many respects the language patterning is the same as written English. One way of approaching differences between speaking and writing is to plot individual texts along scales.
  • 29. Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At first glance it seems that spoken discourse is formless but research on the analysis of spoken discourse shows that spoken English does have a consistent and describable structure and that in many respects the language patterning is the same as written English. One way of approaching differences between speaking and writing is to plot individual texts along scales.
  • 30. Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse At one end we have the most formal written texts, such as academic articles. At the other end there are the most informal spoken interactions such as casual conversations. In the middle of the scales are the informal, written text such as letters to friends and the formal spoken text such as job interview. Spoken and written discourse usually have different lexical density which is defined as the rate of occurrence of lexical items ( content word such as ‘sun, confuse, tiny ) against grammatical items ( he, was, on ). Spoken discourse typically has lower lexical density.
  • 31. Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse Differences between formal and informal spoken English (Table below) can indicate to some extent (not as extreme) differences between spoken and written discourses. Final point: Both spoken and written discourse have consistent and describable structures.
  • 32. Discourse Analysis Spoken and Written Discourse Written Discourse only relies on text-activated context and therefore it is more structured and formal. Spoken Discourse relies on immediate context and has less need to refer to everything. As consequence of this we face a lot of ellipses in spoken discourse. Important Aspects of Differences : Grammar e.g. Ellipses in Spoken (Deletion of Item whose reference is implicitly transferred) Absent of auxiliary: A: Anybody want soup? B: No thank you. (Does Anybody want …) Absent of pronoun, article: A: Nice restaurant? B: Yes, it is, isn’t it. (It’s a nice restaurant.) Discourse Grammar appreciates distinction between spoken and written grammar and is interested in the spoken-written divide wherever it is relevant.
  • 33. Discourse Analysis Lexical Patterns in Spoken Language Used for signaling and confirming an agreed meaning: e.g. A: California was really beautiful. B: It’s a beautiful place. 1. Repetition 2. Relexicalization: Synonyms & Antonyms Synonyms: Used for converging on agreed meaning. e.g. A: Alice where did you get that skirt? B: Isn’t it lovely. A: It’s so nice. C: In Top Shop Antonyms: Used for distinguishing instantial meaning from out-of-context semantic meaning. e.g. A: …Sometime it’s hard but I really fell… B: Well it is hard, isn’t it. It’s not easy to go forward. Final point: Repetition and relexicalization are part of the speaking skill and in the case of relexicalization (the ability to retrieve synonyms and antonyms) present a considerable challenge to second language learners .
  • 34. Cohesion cohesion is the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. Example: My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties ( In reference): Father- he- he- he; “A” Lincoln convertible- that car- it- “the” convertible
  • 35. My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties ( in semantics): [money]: bought- saving- penny- worth- fortune- sold- pay [time]: once- nowadays- sometimes
  • 36. My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could.That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help [ay for my college education. Sometimes I think I’d rather have the convertible. Cohesive ties (in grammar): Tense: bought- did- could- would- sold Cohesive devices for textual relation: however
  • 37.  Example: My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by the police was red. That color doesn’t suit her. She consists of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone call. Many cohesive devices, but a text very hard to interpret. Here we don’t see any coherence but there is a cohesion.
  • 38. Cohesive (with many cohesive ties) Coherent (easy to interpret)
  • 39. Coherence Coherence is the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. Example: HER:That’s the telephone HIM: I’m in the bath HER: O.K. There are certainly no cohesive ties within this fragment of discourse. Here we see coherence but no cohesion.
  • 41. Discourse Analysis Implications for Pedagogy  Discourse analysis enables language practitioners to precisely delineate in materials the different genres of language with which learners will need to engage and to select discourses relevant to learner’s needs.  Discourse analysis can help teachers to explain the underlying features of the text types associated with different type of writing (academic paper, business letters,..)  Discourse analysis may serve to raise awareness of the nature of teacher-leaner interaction. It can help teachers consider their own interaction practices in a more systematic manner and offer a full-rich context for learners to engage in the genuine interaction.  Discourse analysis provides teachers with more insight to evaluate their own learners’ performance in classroom task in terms of its proximity to or distance from the real-world discourse.  Conversation analysis offer the possibility of systematic teaching of features such as the language of openings and closings, discourse markers and common adjacency pairs.  Discourse analysis provides the descriptive information which come in the form of pedagogical grammars and learners dictionaries which are more sensitive to context.
  • 42. Discourse analysis questionnaire  What are some differences between spoken and written discourse?  What is the difference between coherence and cohesion?  Written Discourse only relies on text- activated context and therefore it is more structured and formal.  Spoken Discourse relies on immediate context and has less need to refer to everything. As consequence of this we face a lot of ellipses in spoken discourse.  Coherence is:the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.  Cohesion is:the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text.