Distributed cognition
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The paper discusses distributed cognition in an airline cockpit, where the cognitive labor of flying a modern jet is distributed across the crew. It presents a case study simulation of a flight from Sacramento to Los Angeles to illustrate how information processing is distributed across representational media like checklists, displays, and standard operating procedures. The study puts forth the hypothesis that understanding human cognition requires examining how it is distributed in social and cultural systems using tools and artifacts.
Distributed cognition
- 1. Distributed Cognition PresentersNa MiAndy WoodAnamary LealHongbo ZhangDiscussion Group Danielle SmithJennifer FrancoisAndrew Wood1
- 3. Distributed cognition: toward a new foundation for human-computer interaction researchJAMES HOLLANEDWIN HUTCHINSDAVID KIRSHUniversity of California, San Diego
- 4. Who are the authors?James D. HollanEdwin HutchinsDavid Kirsh
- 5. James D. HollanExperiencePh.D in cognitive psychology;Postdoc in artificial intelligence;Research faculty;Intelligent Systems Group at UCSD and Future Technologies Group at NPRDC;Chair of the CS in University of New Mexico (1993); Professor of Cognitive Science at UCSD (1997)Research interest across cognitive ethnography, distributed and embodied cognition, multimodal interaction, information visualization, etc.
- 6. Edwin HutchinsThe father of modern Cognitive EthnographyA strong advocate of the use of anthropological methodsThe student of the cognitive anthropologies Roy D’AndradeEarly work involved the relationships among language, culture, and thoughtAs a postdoc, worked for US Navy, used insights from first-hand ethnographic studies to build training systems for radar navigationCognition in the Wild (1995)- distributed cognitionMoved to commercial aviationFormer department head of cognitive science at UCSDCurrently, with James Hollan, runs the Distributed Cognition and Human Computer Interaction Lab at UCSD
- 7. David KirshExperienceBA from University of Toronto in philosophy and economicsPh.D from Oxford University on foundations of cognitive scienceA research scientist at MIT Artificial intelligence Lab (1984-1985)Professor at Dept. of Cognitive Science at UCSD and lead interactive Cognition LabResearch interests include artificial intelligence, situated cognition, philosophy of mind and science, interactive design, interactive environment, etc.Publications: Representation and rationality: foundations of cognitive science (1983)
- 8. Information about this paperACM Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction: Special Issue on Human-Computer Interaction in the New Millenium. Cited by 742
- 9. Look at it from big picture..Single computer networked computers a complex world of informationHuman information processing psychology Distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1995)Cognition distributed across individuals and artifacts in a social-cultural and technical systemsA cognitive theory to understand interactionA framework as a new foundation for HCIHow this framework works
- 10. 2 principles of distributed cognitionThe boundaries of unit of analysis for cognition
- 11. The range of cognitive eventsTraditional cognitive theory IndividualsCognitive events inside individual actorsDistributed cognitionLooks for cognitive process a broader class of cognitive events (eg. Airline cockpit)
- 12. Characteristics of Distributed cognition Socially distributed cognitionDistributed across the members of a social groupEmbodied cognitionInvolve coordination between internal and external structures Culturally embedded cognitionCulture shapes the cognitive processes of systems that transcend the boundaries of individuals
- 13. An integrated research frameworkTheory: Distributed cognitionMethods: ethnographic observation + experimentsProducts: digital work materials + collaborative workspaces
- 14. Examples…design of digital work materialsShip navigationAirline cockpit automationDirect manipulationHistory-enriched digital objectsBut these research programs did not exist at the time of this paper..
- 15. Conclusion All cognition can be fruitfully observed as occurring in a distributed mannerwell- suited to understanding the complex networked world of information and computer-mediated interactionsTo inform the design of digital work materials an collaborative workplaces
- 16. Any questions?
- 17. Reexamining Organizational MemoryMark AckermanChristine Halverson
- 18. ContextMark AckermanAt time of publication, was an an associate professor in Information and Computer Science at the University of California, Irvine.Currently a professor of EE and CS and School of Information at the University of MichiganChristine HalversonSocial Computing researcher at IBMFormerly cognitive scientist in the CHI Center at SRI International, Menlo Park CAThe PaperAppeared in the Communications of the ACM in Jan. 2000ACM lists 15 citations
- 19. Defining Organizational Memory (OM)Despite 10 years of research, OM has different, sometimes conflicting definitions and little supportive empirical research, thusOM as a concept must result from studies within the context of everyday useAn empirical studyEthnography involving telephone helpline group at CyberCorpAnalyzed with a more cognitive approachSpecific example of database lookup
- 20. Key Points/FindingsThere is no monolithic repository of OMMemories as a set of artifacts and processesEven simple tasks involve complicated distributed memoryA single agent’s process is simultaneously embedded within several organizational processesIndividual memories have mixed provenanceMemories are transferred and reused in the form of boundary objectsThey go through a process of decontextualization and recontextualizationProper consideration should be given about how a memory may be reused.
- 21. Jacob T. Biehl, William T. Baker, Brian P. Bailey, Desney S. Tan, Kori M. Inkpen, and Mary CzerwinskiPresenter: Anamary Leal"IMPROMPTU: A New Interaction Framework for Supporting Collaborationin Multiple Display Environments and Its Field Evaluation for Co-locatedSoftware Development“
- 22. Cited by 27Downloaded 223 timesAt CHI Conference 2008Impact of Paper
- 23. Jacob T. BiehlInterests: Human-Computer Interaction, Software Engineering, Programming LanguagesFrom: University of Illinois, UrbanaCurrently at: Research Scientist at FX Palo Alto Laboratory Fact: Getting more liberal by the minuteWilliam T. BakerInterests: Supercomputing for astronomy, security planning, automated build system, middleware developmentFrom: University of Illinois, UrbanaCurrently at: Research Programmer at NCSAFact: Create a diagram from ASCIIAbout the Authors
- 24. Brian P. BaileyInterests: developing interactive tools that foster human creativity; systems that improve interruption management, and user interfaces for multiple display environmentsFrom: University of Illinois, UrbanaCurrently at: Assistant ProfessorDesney S. TanInterests: Human-Computer Interaction, Physiological Computing, and HealthcareFrom: Microsoft ResearchCurrently at: Senior Researcher in the Visualization and Interaction, Microsoft ResearchFact: Serving as General Chair for CHI 2011 in Vancouver, BCAbout the Authors
- 25. Kori M. InkpenInterests: CSCW for home, work, education, healthcare and funFrom: Microsoft ResearchCurrently at: Microsoft Research, researcher in the Visualization and Interaction GroupFact: Conference Co-Chair, ACM CSCW 2010, Savannah, GA Mary Czerwinski"Interests: Human-Computer Interaction, Visual Attention, Task Switching, User Interface Design, Information Visualization,Groupware, Ubiquitous Computing, Spatial Cognition, Novel Interaction Techniques"From: Microsoft ResearchCurrently at: Research Area Manager of the Visualization and Interaction (VIBE) Research GroupFact: Likes The Daily Show, The Colbert ReportAbout the Authors
- 26. IMPROMPU: (IMPROving MDE’s Potential to support Tasks that are genUine New interaction framework that handles sharing in team problem solving and discussion, multiple-display environmentsLightweight: works with off-the-shelf applicationsEvaluated in 3 week field study with Microsoft software development teamsMain Argument
- 27. Build a system that supports the benefits of shared, multi-display environments"to understand how groups leverage MDEs to perform their activities and the resulting impact....for real activities in authentic settings."Goals
- 28. All applications can be:do not show or shareshowshareCollaborator DockShared Screen DockDesigning for Group Work
- 29. 2 teams, 3 weeks of observations, user logs, and user feedbackshared a wide variety of appsWays of usage:person to person, with verbal face to face or phonemultitaskinggroup: using the shared display to show image on personal deviceField Study Results
- 30. 2 kinds of uses:activate as neededrun alwaysPhysical movement of objects to personal devices decreased by 60-40%Most features used, though not frequentlyField Study Results
- 31. Find better data in terms of activities of replicated windowsMerge Collaborator into more informationGive user sharing controls regardless of deviceRecommendations
- 32. IMPROMPTU: "to support opportunistic, short-lived collaborative engagements"Flexible, lightweight applications encourage better collaboration for multi-display environmentsTake Home Message
- 33. Questions?
- 34. Distributed cognition in an In Cognition and Communication at Workairline cockpit Cited:40633
- 35. First AuthorCurrent Projects:1. How do airlines outside the US use Boeing airplanes? What can be done to design airplanes for the world's pilots?2. Light Jet Training for Corporate AviationEdwin HutchinsSpent his entire academic career trying to understand human cognition in social, cultural and material context. Department of Cognitive ScienceUniversity of CaliforniaSan Diego34
- 37. Study Background Information processing in the distributed system is: a propagation of representational state across representational media. Keyword: Information, State, Media36
- 38. Simulation HypothesisCognitive labor is socially distributedFlying a modern jet transport can not be done by an individual acting alone37
- 39. SimulationScenario: the flight from Sacramento, California to Los Angeles, California
- 40. Instrument: audio, video record of the event for the transcript analysis
- 41. Coding technique: ensure the assumptions do not remain unexamined
- 42. Simulation goal: analyze the propagation of representational state across a series of representational media38
- 43. Simulation CharactersCaptain: commander of the flight, Pilot NOT flying,
- 44. housekeeping and monitoring aircraft and crew performance
- 45. First Officer: secondary commander in the flight (Pilot flying)
- 46. flying
- 47. Second Officer: engineer or relief crew
- 48. making a report to the company of the condition of the flight39
- 49. CAPTFOSO40
- 50. Simulation TasksPlanning to climb higher altitude PLANRedundant read backs for error checking CHECKIntersubjectivity as a basis for communication COMMUNICATESet radio frequency ACTDistribution of labor again INTER-ACT Computation by propagation and transformation of representational state COMPUATE Intersubjectivity and distribution of storage again COMMUNICATEFirewall thrust ACT41
- 51. Simulation ResultsInformation flow is bi-direction Information flow is transparent to all crew members, instruments, and air traffic control There is often a misunderstanding among crew membersIndividual cognition is the fundamental of the distributed cognition 42
- 52. Simulation Implication?Airline safety is a system engineering problem Have to consider the overall system to minimize the risk of accidentDistributed cognition -> increase redundancy 43
- 53. Distributed cognition: hardcore Science?Challenges: Distributed ~= Complex ~= Hard to deal with Solutions:Can borrow system engineering methods: data flow diagram, decision matrix, Pugh method 44
- 54. Sullenberger, a possible opposite example of distributed cognition?Media: this man have saved 155 lives, 1.15.200945
- 55. We almost forget this manJeffrey Skiles, First Officer of flight 154946
- 56. Questions for Discussion:Under what paradigm do the various paper’s approaches to distributed cognition fall?What is “cognitive ethnography,” and is it somehow different or “better” than normal ethnography?How do organizational memory and distributed cognition relate? Are they just different ways of describing the same thing, or are they somehow distinct?
- 57. Questions for Discussion:Are CSCW and its tools, such as IMPROMPTU, just a subset of distributed cognition?Intersubjectivity results in some dated artifacts, for example, the floppy disk as the universal save icon. Is this phenomenon counter to progress, or is it just a quirk?Does distributed cognition theory put us in a better position to tackle wicked problems?Or does it itself contain wicked problems?Today, people are constantly documenting everything, with photos, status updates, etc. What ramifications might this have for distributed cognition?
Editor's Notes
- #8: David Kirsh (1954 (?)) is a Canadian cognitive scientist, and Professor at University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where he heads the Interactive Cognition Lab[1].He received his BA from the University of Toronto in 1976 and his D.Phil. from Oxford University[2] in 1983 with the thesis Representation and rationality : foundations of cognitive science. Prior to arriving at UCSD, he spent five years as a research scientist at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory from 1984 to 1989. Since 1989 he is Professor at Deptarment of Cognitive Science at University of California, San Diego (UCSD). Since 1989 he is director of the Interactive Cognition Lab as well.His research interests include interactive design, collaborative environments, cognitive aspects of multimedia design, information architecture, attention management and human-computer interaction.I received my BA from the University of Toronto in philosophy and economics, my D.Phil from Oxford University on foundations of cognitive science, and I spent five years at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab as a research scientist. I am a Professor of Cognitive Science at the University of California at San Diego. Although my official areas of specialization are artificial intelligence, situated cognition, philosophy of mind and science, and foundations of cognitive science, I have been working for some years now on cognitive engineering and how to better design highly interactive environments.Kirsh published several books and articles. A selection:1983. Representation and rationality : foundations of cognitive science. Thesis D.Phil. University of Oxford1992. Foundations of artificial intelligence. Edited by David Kirsh Cambridge, Mass ; London : MIT Press.2003. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society : July 30-August 2, 2003, Park Plaza Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. edited by Richard Alterman and David Kirsh. Cognitive Science Society (U.S.). Conference (25th : 2003 : Boston,
- #13: an integrated framework for research in order to design the intellectual workspace, theories that view human-computer interaction within larger sociotechnical contexts and a theory-based framework are needed. this framework combines ethnographic observation and controlled experiments as a basis for theoretically informed design of digital work materials and collaborative workplaces. Elements shown in figure 1: distributed cognition theory identifies a set of core principles that widely applied and use these principles subsequently to identify a class of phenomena that merit ethnographic observation and documentationcognitive ethnography: has methods for observing, documenting, and analyzing some phenomena, like information flow, cognitive properties of systems, social organizations, and cultural processes. "ethnographically natural" experiment, it happens in a real-world setting. it focuses on understanding cognitive processes enacted in the naturally situated activity. it seeks to determine what things mean to people in an activity through real-world observation and document this means. experiments: make the impact of changes (in the naturally occurring parameters) more precise. (through experimental control) an experiment is another socially organized context for cognitive performance. they happen in settings in which people make use of a variety of materials and social resources. except observing in the real-world setting, we can set about designing more constrained experiments which test specific aspects of certain behavior. so the principles, ethnography, and experiment mutually constrain each other and offer information on the design of work materials. work materials are part of workplaces and constitutes important changes in the DC environment. so the introduction of a new work material itself is a form of experiment, which allows us to test and revise the theory. Relations: ethnographic observation suggests experiments, and then the findings of experiments could refine theory of DC and then improve design, and design process creates new tools for workplaces, there are new structures and interactions to study. this loop forms iterative process to successive refine theory, methods, and products.