Diversity group project

“Addressing the Needs of Language
Minorities in Mainstream Classes”

Authors: 1- Yehannys Negrín Calvo
2 - Rachelle Kaufman

Yo no sé; Je ne se
pas; Io non so…

The No Child Left Behind reform purposes,
1. increase accountability for student performance,
2. focus on what works based on scientific research,
3. empower parents and expand parental involvement,
4. increase local control and flexibility,
have driven school systems to adapt teaching
methods to an ever changing multicultural classroom.
One of the main issues teachers are facing is the
growing number of ELLs.

The Needs of Second Language Learners are complex
and must be addressed for these students to be
successful!
The ESOL and content teachers’ challenges are multi-
faceted and unique, but there are teaching
methods, strategies and tools that have been
scientifically proven to work. With the support of the
school administration, parents and the
community, bilingual education can be largely
successful if aimed at meeting the needs of the
students through a student- centered teaching.

Second language students are coming from:
 different learning environments.
 different learning methodology and strategies.
 different cultural focuses and social value systems.
Second language students are experiencing:
 culture shock, fear, anxiety and loss of everything
that was familiar to them.
 frustration and resistance to learning anything new.
 discouragement at the difficulty of learning a new
language while trying to learn the content their fellow
students have acquired.

Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Developed in the 1980s, and formed the basis of
bilingual education in the United States

"Language acquisition does not
require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not
require tedious drill.”

"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language
- natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with
the form of their utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding.”

“The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible
input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students
really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in
the second language. It comes from supplying communicative and
comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting
production.”

“In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers
who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."

Stephen Krashen

Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert
in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition
and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of
non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years,
he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to
deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and
Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well
accepted theory of second language acquisition which formed the basis for
subsequent SLA research in the 1990s and beyond.

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition
consists of five main hypotheses:
 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
 The Monitor Hypothesis
 The Natural Order Hypothesis .
 The Input Hypothesis .
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis is the most fundamental
of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known
among linguists and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of
second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned
system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a
subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when
they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the
target language - natural communication - in which speakers are
concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative
act.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal
instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious
knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition‘.

The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between
acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the
former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned
grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance
initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or
the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting
function when the second language learner has sufficient time to focus
on form or think about correctness and the rules of grammar.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat
limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role
of the monitor should be minor; to correct deviations from 'normal'
speech and add polish.
Krashen suggests that there is monitor usage variations among
language learners. There are learners that use the 'monitor' all the time
(over-users); those who have not learned or prefer not to use their
conscious knowledge (under-users); and those that use the 'monitor'
appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's
psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong.
Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists
are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-
use of the ‘monitor’.

The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings
(Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987)
which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a
'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some
grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This
order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background,
conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual
acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically
significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of
language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of
the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus
should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects
grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the
learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is
Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place.
So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not
'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and
progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language
'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic
competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes
place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to
level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of
linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural
communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this
way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for
his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis,
embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a
facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These
variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen
claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-
image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in
second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and
debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a
'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for
acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language
acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not
sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View
According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language
can have general educational advantages when included in high school
and college language programs. The examining of irregularity, formulating
of rules and the teaching of complex facts about the target language is not
language teaching, but "language appreciation" or linguistics.
The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in
language acquisition (and proficiency) is when students are interested in
the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction.
This usually occurs if both teachers and students are convinced that the
study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition and
the teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target
language that the students can understand. Also, the filter is low in regard
to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are
usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the
medium.
Though teacher and student may believe that it is the study of
grammar that is responsible for the students' progress, in reality their
progress is coming from the medium and not the message. Any subject
matter that held their interest would do just as well.

Definition of a teaching strategy
A purposeful activity to engage learners in acquiring
new behaviors or knowledge. To be useful for our
purposes, an instructional strategy should have clearly
defined steps or a clear description of what the
teacher does.

We have to find better ways to teach
these students in mainstream settings…

“I learned some Math in my country.
Will I be able to go on here?”

The challenge of teaching language in the content
classroom in three phases of planning, teaching
and assessment should be addressed. Each of the
phases consists of the following:
• Planning: in addition to regular planning, language teachers must plan
for sequencing objectives, language growth, instructional activities to
ensure comprehensible input, selection of appropriate materials and
assessments.

• Teaching: as both language monitor and model, the teacher’s role is to
facilitate the negotiation for meaning, ensure comprehension, support
communication, and expand and refine student’s language.

• Assessment: the teacher must ensure concept mastery as well as language
proficiency.

5 general strategies developing language and literacy
skills while engaging in academic content.
 Building conceptual frameworks: students must understand relationships between
ideas. The use of schemas or interpretive frames; e.g., graphic organizers to help
clarify connections between ideas is suggested.
 Use of teaching strategies: teachers identify the strategy, explain its relevance,
demonstrate its use, provide opportunity for practice and provide tools for students
to evaluate its effectiveness. Students learn to monitor their own learning in order to
experience success.
 Focus on reading across all classes: teachers can explicitly teach what good readers
do in pre-, during- and post-reading tasks, and provide opportunities for students to
respond to text.
 Use of free reading: free reading can build vocabulary and reading habits. Students
may need to be taught how to select appropriate reading material for level and
interest.
 Moving beyond the text: at the conclusion of a unit, students may be asked to re-
examine or rethink concepts to gain deeper understanding. This approach will force
students to return to the text and reflect on its meaning. Developing language is not
enough and must be extended to literacy development across the curriculum.

The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol
(SIOP) Teaching Strategy
This model advocates for students learning language through content
outside the mainstream classroom. Language learners need to be “sheltered” in their
own classrooms where they can receive specialized instruction. The primary goal of
SIOP is building language while the secondary goal is learning content. Both are
learned through teacher-identified key concepts. The SIOP framework rests on the
following six principles referred to as instructional categories.
Building background knowledge: building vocabulary and prediction tasks.
Comprehensible input: adapting materials and text to appropriate language level.
Strategies: explicitly developing learner strategies.
Interaction: using a communicative approach and cooperative learning.
Practice/application: using realia, models, manipulatives, and graphic organizers.
Delivery: providing scaffolding, using first language for key concept delivery when
possible, modeling, and using visual aids such as audiovisuals and multimedia.

Additional Teaching Strategies
The methods to approach teaching ESL must be consistent with
scientific inquiry, reflect scientific values, strive to lower anxiety and extend
beyond school. The following teaching strategies are recommended.
Collaboration: this includes both teacher and student collaboration through
teambuilding and interdependence.
Use of modified language: identify words, use less complex sentences and use
repetition.
Real-life relevancy: teachers are encouraged to consider the background of
learners, use realia, and extend beyond the classroom with field trips and multimedia.
Adapted materials: identify essential facts, vocabulary and skills, provide
sociocultural knowledge, summarize written material orally, and teach previewing,
questioning and reviewing skills.

Results of studies examined by Dr. Fred Genesee, Ph. D., Dept. of
Psychology, McGill University showed the following effective practices used
in programs for English students attending French immersion classes in
Canada: 1. integration of language and content 2. creation of classroom
environments rich in discourse and 3. systematic planning for language and
content.
Integrated language and content instruction was deemed more
effective than language learning in isolation because language was used for
authentic communication. These classes were rich in opportunities for
language practice in an activity-centered environment with increased
attention to language forms.

Studies of recommended strategies:

•Think alouds

•Problem solving instruction

•Student developed glossary

The Content-Based Language Class
Teaching Strategy
The primary purpose of the content-based language class is to
prevent students from slipping behind in their content knowledge while
developing academic language proficiency. The ultimate goal is to
gradually and completely transition language learners into mainstream
academic classes. While language instruction is mentioned, the language
teaching strategies presented are not for linguistic development but rather
a means to make content-area material comprehensible.

Strategies mentioned are:
the use of physical activity, visual aids and the environment to convey
concepts;
linguistic modifications such as repetition, simplified vocabulary and
redundancy;
frequent comprehension checks during lectures;
cooperative learning;
a focus on central concepts through the thematic approach.

Teaching Strategies to
Develop Independent Reading Skills
If language learners are unable to comprehend grade-level text
they should be given intensive reading support until they are able to
cope with text at the instructional level. Once these students have been
integrated, a number of different strategies can be used to develop
independent reading skills in the content classroom:
simplified text to control vocabulary;
a balance of whole language and phonics instruction;
language experience approach;
leveled grouping;
cloze tasks;
direct instruction of reading strategies.
the use of study guides such as skimming, scanning and pre-
reading, (Gunderson).

Both content and language teachers share
the responsibility for a child’s education.
There are guiding principles evident in all
the strategies presented: the modification of
language and materials is necessary to
provide comprehensible input, the use of
multiple media enhances
comprehension, students’ thinking skills must
be enhanced and instruction must be student-
centered.

When two teachers collaborate in the process
of integrating language and content
instruction they should:
 Observe each other in order to gain insight into each other’s practice;
the content teacher should observe the language teacher and vice
versa.
 Collaborate to identify language and/or content challenges.
 Examine content materials together to select a theme and identify
objectives of units for both language and content.
 Identify key terms.
 Look for appropriate supplementary materials.
 Adapt written materials.

Students learn language when engaged and interested, they
can draw on background knowledge, and language learning is
embedded in context. Strategies suggested are: the use of
supplementary materials such as multimedia, models, graphic
organizers; and use of modified language, hands-on tasks,
cooperative learning, previewing of content/concepts and required
language such as vocabulary, forms, functions, as well as helping
students organize for learning in advance.
Teachers must be committed to a life-long process of
developing culturally informed teaching knowledge. Involving
parents and the community in the learning process of recognizing
the importance of supporting the first language is a must.

I know Inglés y Español.
What about you?

The Importance of Teacher Understanding and
Acceptance of Diverse Cultures
“When teachers make an effort to understand and value the
cultures of all students, they are better able to develop meaningful and
flexible teaching strategies that can help students achieve academic success.
Literacy instruction that explicitly builds upon the cultural knowledge,
ways of making meaning, and prior knowledge that all children bring with
them to the classroom will encourage children to feel that their culture is
important and valued in schools.”
Strategies for ongoing teacher understanding
of cultural differences:
 The use of ethnographic inquiry
 Understanding of cultural, cross-cultural and multi-cultural knowledge.
 Understand the differences between personal and students’ cultures.
 Commit to life-long building of cultural knowledge and sensibilities
and use to bridge cultural gap to develop student relevant lesson plans.
 Understand that diverse cultures define learning differently than the
schools define it, and implement student relevant teaching methods.

Effective School Administrative Support Programs
embody the following characteristics:
Emphasis placed on first language.
Higher-order thinking skills and cognitive development as part of
curriculum.
Teachers were educated and prepared to work with the learner profile.
Collaboration at both the student and educator level was practiced.
Curriculum was organized thematically.
Visual representations and learning journals were used.
There was consistent administrative support.
Explicit language instruction was part of the curriculum.
Teachers were involved in student advocacy.

Classroom Management Strategies to Help
Language Learners Adjust
• Teachers should announce objectives and activities at the outset of the class
• Write legibly
• Develop and maintain routines
• List and review instructions step-by-step
• Present information in various ways to provide multiple entries into content
• Provide frequent summaries.
Adjust teaching style -
• Lessons should be student-centered.
• Teacher talk should be adjusted and reduced.
• Higher-order tasks should be increased.
• Teachers must recognize that students will make language mistakes.
Develop differentiated lesson plans for multilevel classrooms -
• Cooperative learning is a priority, particularly peer tutoring.
• Process writing should become a mainstay.
• Discovery learning and inquiry learning need to be fostered.
• Useful task types are gaps, interviews and questionnaires.
• Include predictable text for emergent readers and text with non-linguistic cues
for comprehension.
Motivate students and build on background knowledge -
• Useful tasks are semantic webbing, listening tasks, class
discussion, KWL, small-to-large group sharing.
• Useful materials are realia, graphics and graphic organizers.

ESL teaching techniques can be moved into
the content classroom
Meeting cognitive needs of learners must be a priority
• Initial exploration of topics should be done through oral work; expansion
and further work on topic should be pursued through reading and writing.
• Consideration for various learning styles should be made.
• Teachers should teach thinking and study skills, and develop awareness of
text features.
• Scaffolding and models for writing should be provided.
Checking comprehension
• Many opportunities to check comprehension should be built into lessons
through sentence strips, journals, role playing, reading logs, cloze
exercises, summaries, experiments and a language experience approach.
Lesson plans
• Should focus on principal vocabulary, oral practice, and collaboration and
use of appropriate culturally relevant materials.
• Include topics related to students personal experiences.

ESL Students with Special Needs
The difficulties inherent in distinguishing between normal
language development and learning deficiencies
English language learners and students with disabilities may make
similar mistakes while producing the second language like comparable
difficulties with word order and negation. Figurative language such as
similes and metaphors might prove difficult as well. Focusing specifically on
the areas of pronunciation, syntax and semantics, is how teachers can
determine what types of linguistic errors are common to both students with
learning disabilities and normal functioning ESL students. Here are some
suggestions for teachers to help create an inclusive learning environment
conducive to second language acquisition:
 Facilitating access to oral language comprehension.
 modifying a teacher’s speech appropriately to ensure understanding; e.g.,
slowing the rate of speech, using repetition and paraphrasing, and
avoiding colloquialisms.
 Encouraging first language to support second language acquisition and
increase student confidence.
 Providing ample opportunities for reading.

Instructors can work to honor the
backgrounds of ESL learners with special
needs and also facilitate second language
acquisition by:
 encouraging first language use at home and accessing it in
the classroom to connect first language skills and knowledge
to the second language.

 assessing the child’s strengths rather than weaknesses;
i.e., assessing what the child knows and can bring to the
classroom rather than what the child lacks.

 connecting with experts in the school and greater
community to provide insight on language, culture and
disability.

 gaining an awareness of one’s own norms, values and
cultural practices.

Parental Involvement for Students with Special
Educational Needs: Empowering Teachers and Parents
The continuous involvement of families of ESL students with special
education needs is essential. They provide:
information about a child’s prior experiences, home life, linguistic
background, culture and values, and behavior outside of class.
ongoing feedback with regard to student growth and progress.
needed support to ensure language and learning needs are met and reinforced at home.
Engaging in a productive relationship with culturally and linguistically
diverse parents can be challenging. There may be discrepancies between how parents
and the school view the role of education and parental involvement. Language barriers
might inhibit the establishment of a strong communicative relationship and lead to
misunderstandings between teacher and parent. Teachers might wrongly interpret this
lack of involvement as apathy or disinterest.
Research suggests that parental and community inclusion and support is
crucial, particularly for those most at risk of being labeled as learning disabled.
Empowering both teachers and parents to develop a functional, respectful relationship
is essential to meet the unique needs of ESL students with special needs.

The primary focus of NCLB is to hold schools accountable
for the performance of students who are struggling to
learn: example ELLs…

To accomplish that, there are still challenges to be
overcome like:
1- The shortage in specialized teachers. Many who
fill bilingual education positions are not fully
qualified in their preparation and training.
2- Resolve the ESL v. bilingual education debate so
that all states work in conjunction for the
interests of the child in the search to find better
teaching approaches. THE END
3- Parents, teachers, and children have to recognize
the value of education.

REFERENCES

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2000). Making content comprehensible for
English language learners: The SIOP model. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: Teaching
second language learners in the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Hill, J., & Flynn, K. (2006). Classroom instruction that works with English
language learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Hoover, J. J., & Patton, J. R. (2005). Differentiating curriculum and instruction
for English-language learners with special needs. Intervention in School
and Clinic, 40 (4), 231–236.
Jesness, J. (2004). Teaching English language learners K–12: A quick-start guide
for the new teacher.
Ortiz, A. A. (2001). English language learners with special needs: Effective
instructional strategies.

Online References:

Archibald, J., Bashutski, K., Guo,Y., Jaques, C., Johnson, C., McPherson, M.,
Roessingh, H., and Shea,C.(2008): A Review of the Literature on
English as a Second Language (ESL) Issues. Retrieved from http:
//education.alberta.ca/media/903123/esl_litreview.pdf
NCTE ELL Task Force (2006): NCTE Position Paper on the Role of English
Teachers in Educating English Language Learners (ELLs). Urbana,
Illinois.
Schütz, Ricardo. Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition.
English Made in Brazil <http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html>.
Online. 2 de julho de 2007.
Selinker, L. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course by Susan
M. Gass.
Willis, A., I. (2000): Critical Issue: Addressing Literacy Needs in Culturally
Diverse Classrooms. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
Learning Point Associates. <ncrel.org>

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