Document

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M.C.A. SEM –I ,PAPER -II

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

1. Introduction

· Systems and computer based systems, types of information

system

· System analysis and design

· Role, task and attribute of the system analyst

2. Approaches to System development

· SDLC

· Explanation of the phases

· Different models their advantages and disadvantages

o Waterfall approach

o Iterative approach

o Extreme programming

o RAD model

o Unified process

o Evolutionary software process model

- Incremental model

- Spiral model

- Concurrent development model

3. Analysis : Investigating System Requirements

· Activities of the analysis phase

· Fact finding methods

o Review existing reports, forms and procedure descriptions

o Conduct interviews

o Observe and document business processes

o Build prototypes

o Questionnaires

o Conduct jad sessions

· Validate the requirements

o Structured walkthroughs

4. Feasibility Analysis2

· Feasibility Study and Cost Estimates

· Cost benefit analysis

· Identification of list of deliverables

5. Modeling System Requirements

· Data flow diagram logical and physical

· Structured English

· Decision tables

· Decision trees

· Entity relationship diagram

· Data dictionary

6. Design

· Design phase activities

· Develop System Flowchart

· Structure Chart

o Transaction Analysis

o Transform Analysis

Software design and documentation tools

· Hipo chart

· Warnier orr diagram

Designing databases

· Entities

· Relationships

· Attributes

· Normalization

7. Designing input, output and interface

· Input design

· Output design

· User interface design

8. Testing

· Strategic approach to software testing

· Test series for conventional software

· Test strategies for object – oriented software

· Validation testing

· System testing

· Debugging3

9. Implementation and Maintenance

· Activities of the implementation and support phase

10. Documentation

Use of case tools,

Documentation – importance, types of documentation

Books :

1. “Analysis and Design of Information Systems” : Senn, TMH.

2. System Analysis and Design : Howryskiewycz, PHI.

3. “System Analysis and Design” : Awad.

4. “Software Engineering A practitioners Approach” : Roger S. Pressman

TMH.

5. “System Analysis and Design Methods : “Whitten, Bentley.

6. “Analysis and Design of Information Systems” : Rajaraman, PHI.

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1

INTRODUCTION

Unit Structure

1.1 Introduction

1.2 System

1.3 Classification of System

1.3.1 Physical or Abstract System

1.3.2 Open Closed System

1.3.3 Man made Information System

1.3.4 Computer Base System:

1.3.5 Information System:

1.3.6 Transaction Processing Systems

1.3.7 Management Information Systems

1.3.8 Decision Support Systems

1.4 System Analysis :

1.5 Software Engineering:

1.6 System Design :

1.6.1 Logical Design

1.6.2 Physical Design

1.7 System Analyst:

1.7.1 Role of System Analyst:

1.7.2 Task of System Analyst:

1.7.3 Attributes of System Analyst:

1.7.4 Skill required for System Analyst:

1.8 Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

System is combination of different factors which perform

different functions. It handles by user and administrator who has a

knowledge and skill about that system.5

1.2 SYSTEM

The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated in

terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are

differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and

from relationships between an element of the set and elements not

a part of the relational regime.

· Systems have structure, defined by parts and their

composition;

· Systems have behavior, which involves inputs, processing

and outputs of material, energy or information;

· Systems have interconnectivity: the various parts of a

system have functional as well as structural relationships

between each other.

· Systems have by themselves functions or groups of

functions

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEM :

Classification of systems can be done in many ways.

1.3.1 Physical or Abstract System

Physical systems are tangible entities that we can feel and

touch. These may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, take

a computer center. Desks and chairs are the static parts, which

assist in the working of the center. Static parts don't change. The

dynamic systems are constantly changing. Computer systems are

dynamic system. Programs, data, and applications can change

according to the user's needs.

Abstract systems are conceptual. These are not physical

entities. They may be formulas, representation or model of a real

system.6

1.3.2 Open Closed System

Systems interact with their environment to achieve their

targets. Things that are not part of the system are environmental

elements for the system. Depending upon the interaction with the

environment, systems can be divided into two categories, open and

closed.

Open systems: Systems that interact with their environment.

Practically most of the systems are open systems. An open

system has many interfaces with its environment. It can also

adapt to changing environmental conditions. It can receive inputs

from, and delivers output to the outside of system. An information

system is an example of this category.

Closed systems: Systems that don't interact with their

environment. Closed systems exist in concept only.

1.3.3 Man made Information System

The main purpose of information systems is to manage data

for a particular organization. Maintaining files, producing

information and reports are few functions. An information system

produces customized information depending upon the needs of the

organization. These are usually formal, informal, and computer

based.

Formal Information Systems: It deals with the flow of

information from top management to lower management.

Information flows in the form of memos, instructions, etc. But

feedback can be given from lower authorities to top management.

Informal Information systems: Informal systems are

employee based. These are made to solve the day to day work

related problems. Computer-Based Information Systems: This class

of systems depends on the use of computer for managing business

applications.

1.3.4 Computer Base System:

A system of one or more computers and associated software

with common storage called system.

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input,

stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful

format.

The computer elements described thus far are known as

"hardware." A computer system has three parts: the hardware, the

software, and the people who make it work.7

1.3.5 Information System:

An information system (IS) is any combination of information

technology and people's activities using that technology to support

operations, management, and decision-making.

Information system deals with data of the organizations. The

purposes of Information system are to process input, maintain data,

produce reports, handle queries, handle on line transactions,

generate reports, and other output. These maintain huge

databases, handle hundreds of queries etc. The transformation of

data into information is primary function of information system.

Information systems differ in their business needs. Also

depending upon different levels in organization information systems

differ. Three major information systems are

1. Transaction processing systems

2. Management information systems

3. Decision support systems

Figure 1.2 shows relation of information system to the levels

of organization. The information needs are different at different

organizational levels. Accordingly the information can be

categorized as: strategic information, managerial information and

operational information.

Strategic information is the information needed by top most

management for decision making. For example the trends in

revenues earned by the organization are required by the top

management for setting the policies of the organization. This

information is not required by the lower levels in the organization.

The information systems that provide these kinds of information are

known as Decision Support Systems.8

Figure - Relation of information systems to levels of

organization

The second category of information required by the middle

management is known as managerial information. The information

required at this level is used for making short term decisions and

plans for the organization. Information like sales analysis for the

past quarter or yearly production details etc. fall under this

category. Management information system (MIS) caters to such

information needs of the organization. Due to its capabilities to fulfill

the managerial information needs of the organization, Management

Information Systems have become a necessity for all big

organizations. And due to its vastness, most of the big

organizations have separate MIS departments to look into the

related issues and proper functioning of the system.

The third category of information is relating to the daily or

short term information needs of the organization such as

attendance records of the employees. This kind of information is

required at the operational level for carrying out the day-to-day

operational activities. Due to its capabilities to provide information

for processing transaction of the organization, the information

system is known as Transaction Processing System or Data

Processing System. Some examples of information provided by

such systems are processing of orders, posting of entries in bank,

evaluating overdue purchaser orders etc.

1.3.6 Transaction Processing Systems

TPS processes business transaction of the organization.

Transaction can be any activity of the organization. Transactions

differ from organization to organization. For example, take a railway

reservation system. Booking, cancelling, etc are all transactions.9

Any query made to it is a transaction. However, there are

some transactions, which are common to almost all organizations.

Like employee new employee, maintaining their leave status,

maintaining employees accounts, etc.

This provides high speed and accurate processing of record

keeping of basic operational processes. These include calculation,

storage and retrieval.

Transaction processing systems provide speed and

accuracy, and can be programmed to follow routines functions of

the organization.

1.3.7 Management Information Systems:

These systems assist lower management in problem solving

and making decisions. They use the results of transaction

processing and some other information also. It is a set of

information processing functions. It should handle queries as

quickly as they arrive. An important element of MIS is database.

A database is a non-redundant collection of interrelated data

items that can be processed through application programs and

available to many users.

1.3.8 Decision Support Systems:

These systems assist higher management to make long

term decisions. These type of systems handle unstructured or semi

structured decisions. A decision is considered unstructured if there

are no clear procedures for making the decision and if not all the

factors to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in

advance.

These are not of recurring nature. Some recur infrequently or

occur only once. A decision support system must very flexible. The

user should be able to produce customized reports by giving

particular data and format specific to particular situations.

1.4 SYSTEM ANALYSIS :

Systems analysis is the study of sets of interacting entities,

including computer systems. This field is closely related to

operations research. It is also "an explicit formal carried out to help

, referred to as the decision maker, identify a better course of

action.

Computers are fast becoming our way of life and one cannot

imagine life without computers in today’s world. You go to a railway10

station for reservation, you want to web site a ticket for a cinema,

you go to a library, or you go to a bank, you will find computers at

all places. Since computers are used in every possible field today, it

becomes an important issue to understand and build these

computerized systems in an effective way.

1.5 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING:

Software Engineering is the systematic approach to the

development, operation and maintenance of software. Software

Engineering is concerned with development and maintenance of

software products.

Software engineering (SE) is a profession dedicated to

designing, implementing, and modifying software so that it is of

higher quality, more affordable, maintainable, and faster to build. It

is a "systematic approach to the analysis, design, assessment,

implementation, test, maintenance and reengineering of software,

that is, the application of engineering to software.

The primary goal of software engineering is to provide the

quality of software with low cost. Software Engineering involves

project planning, project management, systematic analysis, design,

validations and maintenance activities.

Every Engineer wants to design the general theme for to

develop the software. So, the stepwise execution is necessary to

develop a good software. It is called as software engineering.

1.6 SYSTEM DESIGN :

Systems design is the process or art of defining the

architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for

a system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as the

application of systems theory to product development. There is

some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems

architecture and systems engineering.

System design is divided into two types:

1.6.1 Logical Design

The logical design of a system pertains to an abstract

representation of the data flows, inputs and outputs of the system.

This is often conducted via modeling, which involves a simplistic

(and sometimes graphical) representation of an actual system. In

the context of systems design, modeling can undertake the

following forms, including:11

§ Data flow diagrams

§ Entity Life Histories

§ Entity Relationship Diagrams

1.6.2 Physical Design

The physical design relates to the actual input and output

processes of the system. This is laid down in terms of how data is

inputted into a system, how it is verified/authenticated, how it is

processed, and how it is displayed as output.

Physical design, in this context, does not refer to the tangible

physical design of an information system. To use an analogy, a

personal computer's physical design involves input via a keyboard,

processing within the CPU, and output via a monitor, printer, etc. It

would not concern the actual layout of the tangible hardware, which

for a PC would be a monitor, CPU, motherboard, hard drive,

modems, video/graphics cards, USB slots, etc.

System Design includes following points:

§ Requirements analysis - analyzes the needs of the end users or

customers

§ Benchmarking — is an effort to evaluate how current systems

are used

§ Systems architecture - creates a blueprint for the design with

the necessary specifications for the hardware, software, people

and data resources. In many cases, multiple architectures are

evaluated before one is selected.

§ Design — designers will produce one or more 'models' of what

they see a system eventually looking like, with ideas from the

analysis section either used or discarded. A document will be

produced with a description of the system, but nothing is

specific — they might say 'touch screen' or 'GUI operating

system', but not mention any specific brands;

§ Computer programming and debugging in the software world, or

detailed design in the consumer, enterprise or commercial world

- specifies the final system components.

§ System testing - evaluates the system's actual functionality in

relation to expected or intended functionality, including all

integration aspects.

1.7 SYSTEM ANALYST:

The system analyst is the person (or persons) who guides

through the development of an information system. In performing12

these tasks the analyst must always match the information system

objectives with the goals of the organization.

1.7.1 Role of System Analyst:

Role of System Analyst differs from organization to

organization. Most common responsibilities of System Analyst are

following :

1) System analysis

It includes system's study in order to get facts about

business activity. It is about getting information and determining

requirements. Here the responsibility includes only requirement

determination, not the design of the system.

2) System analysis and design:

Here apart from the analysis work, Analyst is also

responsible for the designing of the new system/application.

3) Systems analysis, design, and programming:

Here Analyst is also required to perform as a programmer,

where he actually writes the code to implement the design of the

proposed application.

Due to the various responsibilities that a system analyst

requires to handle, he has to be multifaceted person with varied

skills required at various stages of the life cycle. In addition to the

technical know-how of the information system development a

system analyst should also have the following knowledge.

· Business knowledge: As the analyst might have to develop any

kind of a business system, he should be familiar with the

general functioning of all kind of businesses.

· Interpersonal skills: Such skills are required at various stages of

development process for interacting with the users and

extracting the requirements out of them

· Problem solving skills: A system analyst should have enough

problem solving skills for defining the alternate solutions to the

system and also for the problems occurring at the various

stages of the development process.

1.7.2 Task of System Analyst:

The primary objective of any system analyst is to identify the

need of the organization by acquiring information by various means

and methods. Information acquired by the analyst can be either

computer based or manual. Collection of information is the vital13

step as indirectly all the major decisions taken in the organizations

are influenced. The system analyst has to coordinate with the

system users, computer programmers, manager and number of

people who are related with the use of system. Following are the

tasks performed by the system analyst:

Defining Requirement: The basic step for any system analyst is to

understand the requirements of the users. This is achieved by

various fact finding techniques like interviewing, observation,

questionnaire etc. The information should be collected in such a

way that it will be useful to develop such a system which can

provide additional features to the users apart from the desired.

Prioritizing Requirements: Number of users uses the system in

the organization. Each one has a different requirement and

retrieves different information. Due to certain limitations in

computing capacity it may not be possible to satisfy the needs of all

the users. Even if the computer capacity is good enough is it

necessary to take some tasks and update the tasks as per the

changing requirements. Hence it is important to create list of

priorities according to users requirements. The best way to

overcome the above limitations is to have a common formal or

informal discussion with the users of the system. This helps

the system analyst to arrive at a better conclusion.

Gathering Facts, data and opinions of Users: After determining

the necessary needs and collecting useful information the analyst

starts the development of the system with active cooperation from

the users of the system. Time to time, the users update the analyst

with the necessary information for developing the system. The

analyst while developing the system continuously consults the

users and acquires their views and opinions.

Evaluation and Analysis: As the analyst maintains continuous he

constantly changes and modifies the system to make it better and

more user friendly for the users.

Solving Problems: The analyst must provide alternate solutions to

the management and should a in dept study of the system to avoid

future problems. The analyst should provide with some flexible

alternatives to the management which will help the manager to pick

the system which provides the best solution.

Drawing Specifications: The analyst must draw certain

specifications which will be useful for the manager. The analyst

should lay the specification which can be easily understood by the

manager and they should be purely non-technical. The

specifications must be in detailed and in well presented form.14

1.7.3 Attributes of System Analyst:

A System Analyst (SA) analyzes the organization and design

of businesses, government departments, and non-profit

organizations; they also assess business models and their

integration with technology.

There are at least four tiers of business analysis:

1. Planning Strategically - The analysis of the organization

business strategic needs

2. Operating/Business model analysis - the definition and

analysis of the organization's policies and market business

approaches

3. Process definition and design - the business process

modeling (often developed through process modeling and

design)

4. IT/Technical business analysis - the interpretation of

business rules and requirements for technical systems

(generally IT)

Within the systems development life cycle domain (SDLC),

the business analyst typically performs a liaison function between

the business side of an enterprise and the providers of services to

the enterprise. A Common alternative role in the IT sector is

business analyst, systems analyst, and functional analyst, although

some organizations may differentiate between these titles and

corresponding responsibilities.

1.7.4 Skill required for System Analyst:

Interpersonal skills are as follows:

1: Communication:

It is an interpersonal quality; the system analyst must have

command on English language. Communication is necessary to

establish a proper relationship between system analyst and the

user.

Communication is need to Gather correct information

Establishes a problem solving ideas in front of the management.

2: Understanding:

This is also an interpersonal quality of the system analyst,

understanding includes

Understanding of the objectives of the organization.

Understanding the problems of the system.15

Understanding the information given by the user or employee of

the organization.

3: Selling:

The ideas of the system analyst are his products which he sells

to the manager of a particular organization. The system analyst

must have not only the ability of creating ideas but also to sell his

ideas.

4: Teaching:

It is also an interpersonal quality. A system analyst must

have teaching skills. He must have the ability to teach team

members and the users. He has to teach about the new system

and also about the proper use of the new system.

5: New technology:

An analyst is an agent of change, he or she must have the ability to

show all the benefits of the candidate system with the new

technological advancement, he must knew about

Email Internet Advance graphics Server based networking

Network technology etc.

1.8 SUMMARY

This chapter is based on System, their entire factors and impact on

surrounding. System is divided into different types and it performs

various functions. System analyst can handle every types of

system.

Questions:

1. What is system? Explain classification of system?

Ans: Refer 1.2 and 1.3

2. Explain skill of system analyst?

Ans: refer 1.7.4

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2

APPROACHES TO SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), or Software

Development Life Cycle

2.2.1 System Development Phases:

2.2.2 SDLC Phases Diagram:

2.2.3 Explanation of the SDLC Phases:

2.2.4 SDLC Phases with Management Control :

2.2.5 Advantages of SDLC model :

2.2.6 Disadvantages of SDLC Model:

2.3 Work breakdown structure organization:

2.4 Iterative and Incremental Development Model:

2.4.1 Iterative/Incremental Development

2.5 Extreme Programming:

2.6 RAD Model:

2.6.1 Practical Application of RAD Model:

2.6.2 Advantages of the RAD methodology:

2.6.3 Disadvantages of RAD methodology:

2.7 Unified Process Model:

2.7.1 Characteristics:

2.8 Use Case Driven

2.8.1 Architecture Centric

2.8.2 Risk Focused

2.8.3 Inception Phase

2.8.4 Elaboration Phase

2.8.5 Construction Phase

2.8.6 Transition Phase17

2.9 Evolutionary software process model:

2.9.1 The Incremental Model :

2.10 The Spiral Model :

2.10.1 Advantages of the Spiral Model

2.10.2 Disadvantages of the Spiral Model

2.11 Concurrent development model:

2.12 Summary

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

SDLC, It is System Development Life Cycle. It includes

Guidance, policies, and procedures for developing systems

throughout their life cycle, including requirements, design,

implementation, testing, deployment, operations, and maintenance.

2.2 THE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

(SDLC), OR SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE

CYCLE :

In systems engineering, information systems and software

engineering, is the process of creating or altering systems, and the

models and methodologies that people use to develop these

systems. The concept generally refers to computer or information

systems.

Systems and Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process

used by a systems analyst to develop an information system,

including requirements, validation, training, and user (stakeholder)

ownership. Any SDLC should result in a high quality system that

meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion

within time and cost estimates, works effectively and efficiently in

the current and planned Information Technology infrastructure, and

is inexpensive to maintain and cost-effective to enhance.

For ex. Computer systems are complex and often (especially with

the recent rise of Service-Oriented Architecture) link multiple

traditional systems potentially supplied by different software

vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of SDLC

models have been created: "waterfall"; "fountain"; "spiral"; "build

and fix"; "rapid prototyping"; "incremental"; and "synchronize and

stabilize.

The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a type of

methodology used to describe the process for building information

systems, intended to develop information systems in a very18

deliberate, structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of

the life cycle.

2.2.1 System Development Phases:

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) adheres to

important phases that are essential for developers, such

as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are

explained in the section below. Several Systems Development Life

Cycle Models exist, the oldest of which — originally regarded as

"the Systems Development Life Cycle" — is the waterfall model: a

sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the

input for the next. These stages generally follow the same basic

steps, but many different waterfall methodologies give the steps

different names and the number of steps seems to vary between

four and seven.

2.2.2 SDLC Phases Diagram:

2.2.3 Explanation of the SDLC Phases:

Requirements gathering and analysis

The goal of system analysis is to determine where the

problem is in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves

"breaking down" the system in different pieces to analyze the

situation, analyzing project goals, "breaking down" what needs to

be created and attempting to engage users so that definite

requirements can be defined (Decomposition computer science).

Requirements Gathering sometimes requires individuals/teams

Problem Definition

Design

Analysis

Validation

Implementation

Evaluation19

from client as well as service provider sides to get detailed and

accurate requirements....

Design:

In systems, design functions and operations are described in

detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams

and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the

new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.

The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements

identified in the approved requirements document. For each

requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced

as a result of interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts.

Design elements describe the desired software features in detail,

and generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout

diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams,

pseudocode, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full

data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe

the software in sufficient detail that skilled programmers may

develop the software with minimal additional input design.

Build or coding:

Modular and subsystem programming code will be

accomplished during this stage. Unit testing and module testing are

done in this stage by the developers. This stage is intermingled with

the next in that individual modules will need testing before

integration to the main project.

Testing:

The code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit,

system and user acceptance testings are often performed. This is a

grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of

testing are and how much if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not

generally part of the waterfall model, but usually some occur at this

stage.

Below are the following types of testing:

§ Data set testing.

§ Unit testing

§ System testing

§ Integration testing

§ Black box testing

§ White box testing

§ Regression testing

§ Automation testing

§ User acceptance testing

§ Performance testing

§ Production20

definition:- it is a process that ensures that the program performs

the intended task.

Operations and maintenance

The deployment of the system includes changes and

enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset of the

system. Maintaining the system is an important aspect of SDLC. As

key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes

will be implemented, which will require system updates.

2.2.4 SDLC Phases with Management Control :

The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases serve

as a programmatic guide to project activity and provide a flexible

but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth matching the

scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are

described in this section with key deliverables, a description of

recommended tasks, and a summary of related control objectives

for effective management. It is critical for the project manager to

establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase

while executing projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear

statement of the desired result or purpose and should be used

throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can be

grouped into major categories (Domains), and relate to the SDLC

phases as shown in the figure.

To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will

be required to establish some degree of a Work Breakdown

Structure(WBS) to capture and schedule the work necessary to

complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material

should be kept in the “Project Description” section of the project

notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project manager to

establish in a way that best describes the project work. There are

some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the

SDLC policy. The following diagram describes three key areas that

will be addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the

project manager.21

Diagram: SDLC Phases Related to Management Controls

2.2.5 Advantages of SDLC model:

With an SDLC Model, developers will have a clear idea on

what should be or shouldn’t be built. Since they already have an

idea on the problems that should be answered, a detailed plan

could be created following a certain SDLC model. With an SDLC

model, developers could even create a program that will answer

different problems at the same time. Since everything will be laid

out before a single code is written, the goal is clear and could be

implemented on time. Although there is a great possibility of

deviation from the plan, a good project manager will take care of

that concern.

With an SDLC Model, programs built will have a clear

documentation of development, structure and even coding. In case

there are problems once the program is adopted for public use,

developers will always have the documentation to refer to when

they need to look for any loopholes. Instead of testing it over and

over again which will stop the implementation for a while,

developers will just look at the documentation and perform proper

maintenance program. This means SDLC will breathe more life to

the program. Instead of frustrating developers in uesswork if

something goes wrong, SDLC will make sure everything goes

smoothly. It will also be a tool for maintenance, ensuring the

program created will last for a long time.22

2.2.6 Disadvantages of SDLC Model:

Thinking about the disadvantages of a SDLC model is like

looking for a needle in the haystack. But the closest disadvantage

anyone could think of SDLC is the difference between what is

written in paper and what is actually implemented. There are things

that are happening in the actual work that the paper doesn’t see.

This gives a good impression for the clients especially for 3rd party

developers but when the software is actually launched it’s on a very

bad situation. The actual situation of software development could

be covered by fancy paperwork of SDLC.

Another disadvantage of a program or software that follows

the SDLC program is it encourages stiff implementation instead of

pushing for creativity in different oftware. Although there are SDLC

models where programmers could apply their creative juices, it’s

always in the realm of what is needed instead of freely

implementing what the developers think of necessary in the present

environment.

There are so many things that could be done by

developers if there are no boundaries or limitations in what should

be developed.

2.3 WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE

ORGANIZATION:

The upper section of the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a

summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an

overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part

of the initial project description effort leading to project approval.

The middle section of the WBS is based on the seven Systems

Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phases as a guide for WBS task

development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and

“tasks” as opposed to “activities” and have a definitive period

(usually two weeks or more). Each task must have a measurable

output (e.g. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may rely

on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems

engineering) and may require close coordination with other tasks,

either internal or external to the project. Any part of the project

needing support from contractors should have a Statement of

work (SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC

phases.23

For Ex: Following Diagram indicates Example of a product work

breakdown structure of an aircraft system.

2.4 ITERATIVE AND INCREMENTAL DEVELOPMENT

MODEL:

Iterative and Incremental development is at the heart of a

cyclic software development process developed in response to the

weaknesses of the waterfall model. It starts with an initial planning

and ends with deployment with the cyclic interactions in between.

Iterative and incremental development is essential parts of

the Rational Unified Process, Extreme Programming and generally

the various agile software development frameworks.24

Diagram : An iterative development model

2.4.1 Iterative/Incremental Development

Incremental development slices the system functionality into

increments (portions). In each increment, a slice of functionality is

delivered through cross-discipline work, from the requirements to

the deployment. The unified process groups increments/iterations

into phases: inception, elaboration, construction, and transition.

§ Inception identifies project scope, risks, and requirements

(functional and non-functional) at a high level but in enough

detail that work can be estimated.

§ Elaboration delivers a working architecture that mitigates the top

risks and fulfills the non-functional requirements.

§ Construction incrementally fills-in the architecture with

production-ready code produced from analysis, design,

implementation, and testing of the functional requirements.

§ Transition delivers the system into the production operating

environment25

Diagram: Iterative/Incremental Development

2.5 EXTREME PROGRAMMING:

Extreme Programming (XP) is a software development

methodology which is intended to improve software quality and

responsiveness to changing customer requirements. As a type of

agile software development, it advocates frequent "releases" in

short development cycles (time boxing), which is intended to

improve productivity and introduce checkpoints where new

customer requirements can be adopted.

Rules for Extreme Programming:

· Planning

· Managing

· Coding

· Designing

· Testing

2.5.1 Goals of Extreme Programming Model:

Extreme Programming Explained describes Extreme

Programming as a software development discipline that organizes

people to produce higher quality software more productively.

In traditional system development methods (such

as SSADM or the waterfall model) the requirements for the system

are determined at the beginning of the development project and

often fixed from that point on. This means that the cost of changing26

the requirements at a later stage (a common feature of software

engineering projects) will be high. Like other agile software

development methods, XP attempts to reduce the cost of change

by having multiple short development cycles, rather than one long

one. In this doctrine changes are a natural, inescapable and

desirable aspect of software development projects, and should be

planned for instead of attempting to define a stable set of

requirements.

2.6 RAD MODEL:

It is Rapid Application development model. Rapid Application

Development (RAD) refers to a type of software development

methodology that uses minimal planning in favour of rapid

prototyping. The "planning" of software developed using RAD is

interleaved with writing the software itself. The lack of extensive

pre-planning generally allows software to be written much faster,

and makes it easier to change requirements.

Rapid Application Development is a software development

methodology that involves techniques like iterative

development and software prototyping. According to Whitten

(2004), it is a merger of various structured techniques, especially

data-driven Information Engineering, with prototyping techniques to

accelerate software systems development.

2.6.1 Practical Application of RAD Model:

When organizations adopt rapid development

methodologies, care must be taken to avoid role and responsibility

confusion and communication breakdown within the development

team, and between the team and the client. In addition, especially

in cases where the client is absent or not able to participate with

authority in the development process, the system analyst should be

endowed with this authority on behalf of the client to ensure

appropriate prioritisation of non-functional requirements.

Furthermore, no increment of the system should be developed

without a thorough and formally documented design phase.

2.6.2 Advantages of the RAD methodology:

1. Flexible and adaptable to changes.

2. Prototyping applications give users a tangible description from

which to judge whether critical system requirements are being

met by the system. Report output can be compared with

existing reports. Data entry forms can be reviewed for

completeness of all fields, navigation, data access (drop down

lists, checkboxes, radio buttons, etc.).27

3. RAD generally incorporates short development cycles - users

see the RAD product quickly.

4. RAD involves user participation thereby increasing chances of

early user community acceptance.

5. RAD realizes an overall reduction in project risk.

6. Pareto's 80 - 20 Rule usually results in reducing the costs to

create a custom system

2.6.3 Disadvantages of RAD methodology:

1. Unknown cost of product. As mentioned above, this problem

can be alleviated by the customer agreeing to a limited

amount of rework in the RAD process.

2. It may be difficult for many important users to commit the time

required for success of the RAD process.

2.7 UNIFIED PROCESS MODEL:

The Unified Software Development Process or Unified

Process is a popular iterative and incremental software

development process framework. The best-known and extensively

documented refinement of the Unified Process is the Rational

Unified Process (RUP).

Diagram: Profile of a typical project showing the relative sizes of

the four phases of the Unified Process

The Unified Process is not simply a process, but rather an

extensible framework which should be customized for specific

organizations or projects. The Rational Unified Process is, similarly,

a customizable framework. As a result it is often impossible to say

whether a refinement of the process was derived from UP or from

RUP, and so the names tend to be used interchangeably.28

2.7.1 Characteristics:

Iterative and Incremental

The Unified Process is an iterative and incremental

development process. The Elaboration, Construction and Transition

phases are divided into a series of time boxed iterations. (The

Inception phase may also be divided into iterations for a large

project.) Each iteration results in an increment, which is a release of

the system that contains added or improved functionality compared

with the previous release.

Although most iterations will include work in most of the

process disciplines (e.g. Requirements, Design, Implementation,

Testing) the relative effort and emphasis will change over the

course of the project.

2.8 USE CASE DRIVEN

In the Unified Process, use cases are used to capture the

functional requirements and to define the contents of the iterations.

Each iteration takes a set of use cases or scenarios from

requirements all the way through implementation, test and

deployment.

2.8.1 Architecture Centric:

The Unified Process insists that architecture sit at the heart

of the project team's efforts to shape the system. Since no single

model is sufficient to cover all aspects of a system, the Unified

Process supports multiple architectural models and views.

One of the most important deliverables of the process is

the executable architecture baseline which is created during the

Elaboration phase. This partial implementation of the system

serves to validate the architecture and act as a foundation for

remaining development.

2.8.2 Risk Focused:

The Unified Process requires the project team to focus on

addressing the most critical risks early in the project life cycle. The

deliverables of each iteration, especially in the Elaboration phase,

must be selected in order to ensure that the greatest risks are

addressed first.29

The Unified Process divides the project into four phases:

§ Inception

§ Elaboration

§ Construction

§ Transition

2.8.3 Inception Phase:

Inception is the smallest phase in the project, and ideally it

should be quite short. If the Inception Phase is long then it may be

an indication of excessive up-front specification, which is contrary

to the spirit of the Unified Process.

The following are typical goals for the Inception phase.

§ Establish a justification or business case for the project

§ Establish the project scope and boundary conditions

§ Outline the use cases and key requirements that will drive the

design tradeoffs

§ Outline one or more candidate architectures

§ Identify risks

§ Prepare a preliminary project schedule and cost estimate

The Lifecycle Objective Milestone marks the end of the

Inception phase.

2.8.4 Elaboration Phase:

During the Elaboration phase the project team is expected to

capture a healthy majority of the system requirements. However,

the primary goals of Elaboration are to address known risk factors

and to establish and validate the system architecture. Common

processes undertaken in this phase include the creation of use

case diagrams, conceptual diagrams (class diagrams with only

basic notation) and package diagrams (architectural diagrams).

The architecture is validated primarily through the

implementation of an Executable Architecture Baseline. This is a

partial implementation of the system which includes the core, most

architecturally significant, components. It is built in a series of small,

timeboxed iterations. By the end of the Elaboration phase the

system architecture must have stabilized and the executable

architecture baseline must demonstrate that the architecture will

support the key system functionality and exhibit the right behavior

in terms of performance, scalability and cost.30

The final Elaboration phase deliverable is a plan (including

cost and schedule estimates) for the Construction phase. At this

point the plan should be accurate and credible, since it should be

based on the Elaboration phase experience and since significant

risk factors should have been addressed during the Elaboration

phase.

The Lifecycle Architecture Milestone marks the end of the

Elaboration phase.

2.8.5 Construction Phase:

Construction is the largest phase in the project. In this phase

the remainder of the system is built on the foundation laid in

Elaboration. System features are implemented in a series of short,

time boxed iterations. Each iteration results in an executable

release of the software. It is customary to write full text use cases

during the construction phase and each one becomes the start of a

new iteration. Common UML (Unified Modelling Language)

diagrams used during this phase include Activity, Sequence,

Collaboration, State (Transition) and Interaction Overview

diagrams.

The Initial Operational Capability Milestone marks the end of

the Construction phase.

2.8.6 Transition Phase

The final project phase is Transition. In this phase the

system is deployed to the target users. Feedback received from an

initial release (or initial releases) may result in further refinements

to be incorporated over the course of several Transition phase

iterations. The Transition phase also includes system conversions

and user training.

2.9 EVOLUTIONARY SOFTWARE PROCESS MODEL:

Software Products can be perceived as evolving over a time

period. However, neither the Linear Sequential Model nor

the Prototype Model applies this aspect to software production.

The Linear Sequential Model was designed for straight-line

development. The Prototype Model was designed to assist the

customer in understanding requirements and is designed to

produce a visualization of the final system.

But the Evolutionary Models take the concept of “evolution”

into the engineering paradigm. Therefore Evolutionary

Models are iterative. They are built in a manner that enables

software engineers to develop increasingly more complex versions

of the software.31

2.9.1 The Incremental Model:

The Incremental Model combines elements of the Linear

Sequential Model (applied repetitively) with the iterative philosophy

of prototyping. When an Incremental Model is used, the first

increment is often the “core product”. The subsequent iterations are

the supporting functionalities or the add-on features that a customer

would like to see. More specifically, the model is designed,

implemented and tested as a series of incremental builds until the

product is finished.

2.10 THE SPIRAL MODEL:

The Spiral Model is an evolutionary software process

model that couples the iterative nature of prototyping with the

controlled and systematic aspects of the Linear Sequential Model.

Using the Spiral Model the software is developed in a series of

incremental releases. Unlike the Iteration Model where in the first

product is a core product, in the Spiral Model the early iterations

could result in a paper model or a prototype. However, during later

iterations more complex functionalities could be added.

A Spiral Model, combines the iterative nature of

prototyping with the controlled and systematic aspects of

the Waterfall Model, therein providing the potential for rapid

development of incremental versions of the software. A Spiral

Model is divided into a number of framework activities, also called

task regions. These task regions could vary from 3-6 in number and

they are:

· Customer Communication - tasks required to establish

effective communication between the developer and customer.

· Planning - tasks required defining resources, timelines and

other project related information /items.

· Risk Analysis - tasks required to assess the technical and

management risks.

· Engineering - tasks required to build one or more

representation of the application.

· Construction & Release - tasks required to construct, test and

support (eg. Documentation and training)

· Customer evaluation - tasks required to obtain periodic

customer feedback so that there are no last minute surprises.32

2.10.1 Advantages of the Spiral Model:

· Realistic approach to the development because the software

evolves as the process progresses. In addition, the developer

and the client better understand and react to risks at each

evolutionary level.

· The model uses prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism and

allows for the development of prototypes at any stage of the

evolutionary development.

· It maintains a systematic stepwise approach, like the classic

waterfall model, and also incorporates into it an iterative

framework that more reflect the real world.

2.10.2 Disadvantages of the Spiral Model:

· One should possess considerable risk-assessment expertise

· It has not been employed as much proven models (e.g.

the Waterfall Model) and hence may prove difficult to ‘sell’ to the

client.

2.11 CONCURRENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL:

The concurrent development model, sometimes called

concurrent engineering.

The concurrent process model can be represented

schematically as a series of major technical activities, tasks, and

their associated states. For example, the engineering activity

defined for the spiral model is accomplished by invoking the

following tasks: prototyping and/or analysis modeling, requirements

specification, and design.

The activity-analysis-may be in any one of the states noted

at any given time. Similarly, other activities (e.g., design or

customer communication) can be represented in an analogous

manner. All activities exist concurrently but reside in different

states. For example, early in a project the customer communication

activity has completed its first iteration and exists in the awaiting

changes state. The analysis activity (which existed in the none

state while initial customer communication was completed) now

makes a transition into the under development state. If, however,

the customer indicates that changes in requirements must be

made, the analysis activity moves from the under development

state into the awaiting changes state.33

2.12 SUMMARY:

This chapter concern with system and their development

models. The system follows their different approaches with the help

of different types Model.

Questions:

1. Explain SDLC in detail?

Ans: refer 2.2.4

2. Explain incremental and iterative model in detail?

Ans: refer 2.4

vvvv 34

3

ANALYSIS: INVESTIGATING SYSTEM

REQUIREMENTS

Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction

3.2 System Analysis

3.2.1 Needs System Analysis

3.2.2 Data Gathering

3.2.3 Written Documents

3.2.4 Interviews

3.2.5 Questionnaires

3.2.6 Observations

3.2.7 Sampling

3.3 Data Analysis

3.3.1 Analysis Report

3.4 Fact Finding Methods:

3.4.1 Interview

3.4.2 Questionnaire

3.4.3 Record View

3.4.4 Observation

3.5 Conduct Interviews

3.5.1 Preparation for Interview

3.5.2 Types of Interview

3.5.3 Types of Topics in Questions

3.5.4 Wording of Questions

3.6 Observe & document business processes

3.6.1 Examples of business analysis include

3.7 Roles of business analysts

3.7.1 Business process improvement

3.7.2 Goal of business analysts

3.8 Build prototypes

3.8.1 Prototyping Process

3.8.2 Advantages of prototyping

3.8.3 Disadvantages of prototyping35

3.9 Questionaire:

3.9.1 Question Construction

3.9.2 Basic rules for questionnaire item construction

3.9.3 Questionnaire administration modes

3.10 JAD Sessions

3.10.1 Conduct Jad sessions

3.10.2 Need for to Conduct JAD sessions

3.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

3.10.4 Four Principle Steps 3.11 Validation

3.12 Structured walkthroughs

3.12.1 Types of Walkthroughs

3.12.2 Prerequisites

3.12.3 Scenario

3.13 Summary

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

System is concerned with various factors. System require

internal and external information/data for to processing functions.

3.2 SYSTEM ANALYSIS:

In this phase, the current system is studied in detail. A

person responsible for the analysis of the system is known as

analyst. In system analysis, the analyst conducts the following

activities.

3.2.1 Needs System Analysis:

This activity is known as requirements analysis. In this step

the analyst sums up the requirements of the system from the user

and the managers. The developed system should satisfy these

requirements during testing phase.

3.2.2 Data Gathering:

In this step, the system analyst collects data about the

system to be developed. He uses different tools and methods,

depending on situation. These are:

3.2.3 Written Documents:

The analyst may collect the information/data from written

documents available from manual-files of an organization. This

method of data gathering is normally used if you want to36

computerize the existing manual system or upgrade the existing

computer based system. The written documents may be reports,

forms, memos, business plans, policy statements, organizational

charts and many others. The written documents provide valuable

information about the existing system.

3.2.4 Interviews:

Interview is another data gathering technique. The

analyst (or project team members) interviews, managers, users/

clients, suppliers, and competitors to collect the information about

the system. It must be noted that the questions to be asked from

them should be precise, relevant and to the point.

3.2.5 Questionnaires:

Questionnaires are the feedback forms used to collect

Information. The interview technique to collect information is timeconsuming method, so
Questionnaires are designed to collect

information from as many people as we like. It is very convenient

and inexpensive method to collect information but sometimes the

response may be Confusing or unclear and insufficient.

3.2.6 Observations:

In addition to the above-mentioned three techniques to

collect information, the analyst (or his team) may collect

Information through observation. In this collect technique, the

working, behavior, and other related information of the existing

system are observed. It means that working of existing system is

watched carefully. 3.2.7 Sampling

If there are large numbers of people or events involved

in The system, we can use sampling method to collect

information. In this method, only a part of the people or events

involved are used to collect information. For example to test

the quality of a fruit, we test a piece of the fruit.

3.3 DATA ANALYSIS

After completion of gathering step the collected data about

the system is analyzed to ensure that the data is accurate and

complete. For this purpose, various tools may be used. The most

popular and commonly used tools for data analysis are:

· DFDs (Data Flow Diagrams)

· System Flowcharts

· Connectivity Diagrams

· Grid Charts

· Decision Tables etc.37

3.3.1 Analysis Report:

After completing the work of analysis, the requirements

collected for the system are documented in a presentable form. It

means that the analysis report is prepared. It is done for review and

approval of the project from the higher management. This report

should have three parts.

· First, it should explain how the current system works.

· Second, it should explain the problems in the existing system.

· Finally, it should describe the requirements for the new system

and make recommendations for future.

3.4 FACT FINDING METHODS:

To study any system the analyst needs to do collect facts and all

relevant information. the facts when expressed in quantitative form

are termed as data. The success of any project is depended upon

the accuracy of available data. Accurate information can be

collected with help of certain methods/ techniques. These specific

methods for finding information of the system are termed as fact

finding techniques. Interview, Questionnaire, Record View and

Observations are the different fact finding techniques used by the

analyst. The analyst may use more than one technique for

investigation.

3.4.1 Interview

This method is used to collect the information from groups

or individuals. Analyst selects the people who are related with the

system for the interview. In this method the analyst sits face to face

with the people and records their responses. The interviewer must

plan in advance the type of questions he/ she is going to ask and

should be ready to answer any type of question. He should also

choose a suitable place and time which will be comfortable for the

respondent.

The information collected is quite accurate and reliable as

the interviewer can clear and cross check the doubts there itself.

This method also helps gap the areas of misunderstandings and

help to discuss about the future problems. Structured and

unstructured are the two sub categories of Interview. Structured

interview is more formal interview where fixed questions are asked

and specific information is collected whereas unstructured interview

is more or less like a casual conversation where in-depth areas

topics are covered and other information apart from the topic may

also be obtained.38

3.4.2 Questionnaire:

It is the technique used to extract information from number

of people. This method can be adopted and used only by an skillful

analyst. The Questionnaire consists of series of questions framed

together in logical manner. The questions are simple, clear and to

the point. This method is very useful for attaining information from

people who are concerned with the usage of the system and who

are living in different countries. The questionnaire can be mailed or

send to people by post. This is the cheapest source of fact finding.

3.4.3 Record View

The information related to the system is published in the

sources like newspapers, magazines, journals, documents etc. This

record review helps the analyst to get valuable information about

the system and the organization.

3.4.4 Observation

Unlike the other fact finding techniques, in this method the

analyst himself visits the organization and observes and

understand the flow of documents, working of the existing system,

the users of the system etc. For this method to be adopted it takes

an analyst to perform this job as he knows which points should be

noticed and highlighted. In analyst may observe the unwanted

things as well and simply cause delay in the development of the

new system.

3.5 CONDUCT INTERVIEWS:

Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind

a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth

information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to

certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate

their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during

interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and

process, clearly articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be

addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews.

This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

3.5.1 Preparation for Interview:

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or

noises, ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask

them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable

at their own places of work or homes.39

2. Explain the purpose of the interview.

3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of

confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely

promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in

certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their

answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their

comments are to be used as quotes, get their written

permission to do so. See getting informed consent.

4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of

interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them

to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have

them or wait until the end of the interview.

5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.

7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get

started with the interview.

8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for

permission to record the interview or bring along someone to

take notes.

3.5.2 Types of Interviews:

1. Informal, conversational interview - No predetermined

questions are asked, in order to remain as open and

adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and

priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the

flow".

2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is

intended to ensure that the same general areas of

information are collected from each interviewee; this

provides more focus than the conversational approach, but

still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting

information from the interviewee.

3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same openended questions are asked to all
interviewees (an openended question is where respondents are free to choose

how to answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or

"no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach

facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed

and compared.

4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are

asked the same questions and asked to choose answers

from among the same set of alternatives. This format is

useful for those not practiced in interviewing.40

3.5.3 Types of Topics in Questions:

1. Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing

2. Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic

3. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I

think ..." so be careful to note that you're looking for feelings

4. Knowledge - to get facts about a topic

5. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard,

tasted or smelled

6. Background/demographics - standard background

questions, such as age, education, etc.

3.5.4 Wording of Questions:

1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be

able to choose their own terms when answering questions.

2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording

that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental

wording.

3. Questions should be asked one at a time.

4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing

any terms particular to the program or the respondents'

culture.

5. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question

infers a cause-effect relationship that may not truly exist.

These questions may also cause respondents to feel

defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response,

which may inhibit their responses to this and future

questions

3.6 OBSERVE & DOCUMENT BUSINESS

PROCESSES:

Business analysis is the discipline of identifying business

needs and determining solutions to business problems. Solutions

often include a systems development component, but may also

consist of process improvement or organizational change or

strategic planning and policy development. The person who carries

out this task is called a business analyst or BA.

Business analysis as a discipline has a heavy overlap with

requirements analysis sometimes also called requirements

engineering, but focuses on identifying the changes to an41

organization that are required for it to achieve strategic goals.

These changes include changes to strategies, structures, policies,

processes, and information systems.

3.6.1 Examples of business analysis include:

Enterprise analysis or company analysis

focuses on understanding the needs of the business as a

whole, its strategic direction, and identifying initiatives that

will allow a business to meet those strategic goals.

Requirements planning and management

involves planning the requirements development process,

determining which requirements are the highest priority for

implementation, and managing change.

Requirements elicitation

describes techniques for collecting requirements from

stakeholders in a project.

Requirements analysis

describes how to develop and specify requirements in

enough detail to allow them to be successfully implemented

by a project team.

Requirements communication

describes techniques for ensuring that stakeholders have a

shared understanding of the requirements and how they will

be implemented.

Solution assessment and validation

describes how the business analyst can verify the

correctness of a proposed solution.

3.7 ROLES OF BUSINESS ANALYSTS:

As the scope of business analysis is very wide, there has

been a tendency for business analysts to specialize in one of the

three sets of activities which constitute the scope of business

analysis.

Strategist

Organizations need to focus on strategic matters on a more

or less continuous basis in the modern business world. Business

analysts, serving this need, are well-versed in analyzing the

strategic profile of the organization and its environment, advising

senior management on suitable policies, and the effects of policy

decisions.42

Architect

Organizations may need to introduce change to solve

business problems which may have been identified by the strategic

analysis, referred to above. Business analysts contribute by

analyzing objectives, processes and resources, and suggesting

ways by which re-design

Systems analyst

There is the need to align IT Development with the systems

actually running in production for the Business. A long-standing

problem in business is how to get the best return from IT

investments, which are generally very expensive and of critical,

often strategic, importance. IT departments, aware of the problem,

often create a business analyst role to better understand, and

define the requirements for their IT systems. Although there may be

some overlap with the developer and testing roles, the focus is

always on the IT part of the change process, and generally, this

type of business analyst gets involved, only when a case for

change has already been made and decided upon.

3.7.1 Business process improvement:

A business process improvement (BPI) typically involves six steps

1. Selection of process teams and leader

Process teams, comprising 2-4 employees from various

departments that are involved in the particular process, are set up.

Each team selects a process team leader, typically the person who

is responsible for running the respective process.

2. Process analysis training

The selected process team members are trained in process

analysis and documentation techniques.

3. Process analysis interview

The members of the process teams conduct several

interviews with people working along the processes. During the

interview, they gather information about process structure, as well

as process performance data.

4. Process documentation

The interview results are used to draw a first process map.

Previously existing process descriptions are reviewed and

integrated, wherever possible. Possible process improvements,

discussed during the interview, are integrated into the process

maps.43

5. Review cycle

The draft documentation is then reviewed by the employees

working in the process. Additional review cycles may be necessary

in order to achieve a common view (mental image) of the process

with all concerned employees. This stage is an iterative process.

6. Problem analysis

A thorough analysis of process problems can then be

conducted, based on the process map, and information gathered

about the process. At this time of the project, process goal

information from the strategy audit is available as well, and is used

to derive measures for process improvement.

3.7.2 Goal of business analysts:

Business analysts want to achieve the following outcomes:

· Reduce waste

· Create solutions

· Complete projects on time

· Improve efficiency

· Document the right requirements

3.8 BUILD PROTOTYPES :

Software prototyping, an activity during certain software

development, is the creation of prototypes, i.e., incomplete versions

of the software program being developed.

A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of the

features of the eventual program, and may be completely different

from the eventual implementation.

The conventional purpose of a prototype is to allow users of

the software to evaluate developers' proposals for the design of the

eventual product by actually trying them out, rather than having to

interpret and evaluate the design based on descriptions.

Prototyping can also be used by end users to describe and prove

requirements that developers have not considered, so "controlling

the prototype" can be a key factor in the commercial relationship

between developers and their clients.

3.8.1 Prototyping Process:

The process of prototyping involves the following steps

1. Identify basic requirements

Determine basic requirements including the input and output

information desired. Details, such as security, can typically be

ignored.44

2. Develop Initial Prototype

The initial prototype is developed that includes only user

interfaces Review The customers, including end-users, examine

the prototype and provide feedback on additions or changes.

3. Revise and Enhance the Prototype

Using the feedback both the specifications and the prototype

can be improved. Negotiation about what is within the scope of the

contract/product may be necessary.

3.8.2 Advantages of prototyping:

There are many advantages to using prototyping in software

development – some tangible, some abstract.

Reduced time and costs: Prototyping can improve the quality of

requirements and specifications provided to developers. Because

changes cost exponentially more to implement as they are detected

later in development, the early determination of what the user really

wants can result in faster and less expensive software.

Improved and increased user involvement: Prototyping requires

user involvement and allows them to see and interact with a

prototype allowing them to provide better and more complete

feedback and specifications. The presence of the prototype being

examined by the user prevents many misunderstandings and

miscommunications that occur when each side believe the other

understands what they said. Since users know the problem domain

better than anyone on the development team does, increased

interaction can result in final product that has greater tangible and

intangible quality. The final product is more likely to satisfy the

users desire for look, feel and performance.

3.8.3 Disadvantages of prototyping:

Insufficient analysis: The focus on a limited prototype can distract

developers from properly analyzing the complete project. This can

lead to overlooking better solutions, preparation of incomplete

specifications or the conversion of limited prototypes into poorly

engineered final projects that are hard to maintain. Further, since a

prototype is limited in functionality it may not scale well if the

prototype is used as the basis of a final deliverable, which may not

be noticed if developers are too focused on building a prototype as

a model.

User confusion of prototype and finished system: Users can

begin to think that a prototype, intended to be thrown away, is

actually a final system that merely needs to be finished or polished.

(They are, for example, often unaware of the effort needed to add45

error-checking and security features which a prototype may not

have.) This can lead them to expect the prototype to accurately

model the performance of the final system when this is not the

intent of the developers. Users can also become attached to

features that were included in a prototype for consideration and

then removed from the specification for a final system. If users are

able to require all proposed features be included in the final system

this can lead to conflict.

Developer misunderstanding of user objectives: Developers

may assume that users share their objectives (e.g. to deliver core

functionality on time and within budget), without understanding

wider commercial issues. For example, user representatives

attending Enterprise software (e.g. PeopleSoft) events may have

seen demonstrations of "transaction auditing" (where changes are

logged and displayed in a difference grid view) without being told

that this feature demands additional coding and often requires more

hardware to handle extra database accesses. Users might believe

they can demand auditing on every field, whereas developers might

think this is feature creep because they have made assumptions

about the extent of user requirements. If the developer has

committed delivery before the user requirements were reviewed,

developers are between a rock and a hard place, particularly if user

management derives some advantage from their failure to

implement requirements.

Developer attachment to prototype: Developers can also

become attached to prototypes they have spent a great deal of

effort producing; this can lead to problems like attempting to

convert a limited prototype into a final system when it does not

have an appropriate underlying architecture. (This may suggest that

throwaway prototyping, rather than evolutionary prototyping, should

be used.)

Excessive development time of the prototype: A key property to

prototyping is the fact that it is supposed to be done quickly. If the

developers lose sight of this fact, they very well may try to develop

a prototype that is too complex. When the prototype is thrown away

the precisely developed requirements that it provides may not yield

a sufficient increase in productivity to make up for the time spent

developing the prototype. Users can become stuck in debates over

details of the prototype, holding up the development team and

delaying the final product.

Expense of implementing prototyping: the start up costs for

building a development team focused on prototyping may be high.

Many companies have development methodologies in place, and

changing them can mean retraining, retooling, or both. Many46

companies tend to just jump into the prototyping without bothering

to retrain their workers as much as they should.

3.9 QUESTIONAIRE:

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a

series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering

information from respondents. Although they are often designed for

statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case.

The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of

surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from

the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have

standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

However, such standardized answers may frustrate users.

Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents

must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for

some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire

may not be practical.

3.9.1 Question Construction:

Question types

Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions

that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is

made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An openended question asks the
respondent to formulate his own answer,

whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an

answer from a given number of options. The response options for a

closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually

exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended

questions are distinguished:

· Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options

· Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than

two unordered options

· Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than

two ordered options

· (Bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented

with a continuous scale

3.9.2 Basic rules for questionnaire item construction

· Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by

members of different subpopulations of the population of

interest.47

· Use statements where persons that have different opinions

or traits will give different answers.

· Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of

possible answers.

· Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in

per item.

· Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double

negatives.

· Do not make assumptions about the respondent.

· Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily

understandable for all educational levels

· Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

· Avoid items that contain more than one question per item

(e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?)

3.9.3 Questionnaire administration modes:

Main modes of questionnaire administration are:

· Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an

interviewer presents the items orally.

· Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the

items are presented on paper.

· Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items

are presented on the computer.

· Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where

a selection of items is presented on the computer, and

based on the answers on those items, the computer selects

following items optimized for the tester’s estimated ability or

trait.

3.10 JAD SESSIONS:

JAD (Joint Application Development) is a methodology that

involves the client or end user in the design and development of an

application, through a succession of collaborative workshops called

JAD sessions. Chuck Morris and Tony Crawford, both of IBM,

developed JAD in the late 1970s and began teaching the approach

through workshops in 1980.

The JAD approach, in comparison with the more traditional

practice, is thought to lead to faster development times and greater

client satisfaction, because the client is involved throughout the

development process. In comparison, in the traditional approach to48

systems development, the developer investigates the system

requirements and develops an application, with client input

consisting of a series of interviews.

Joint Application Design (JAD) is a process used in the

prototyping life cycle area of the Dynamic Systems Development

Method (DSDM) to collect business requirements while developing

new information systems for a company. "The JAD process also

includes approaches for enhancing user participation, expediting

development, and improving the quality of specifications." It

consists of a workshop where “knowledge workers and IT

specialists meet, sometimes for several days, to define and review

the business requirements for the system” The attendees include

high level management officials who will ensure the product

provides the needed reports and information at the end. This acts

as “a management process which allows Corporate Information

Services (IS) departments to work more effectively with users in a

shorter time frame.”

Through JAD workshops the knowledge workers and IT

specialists are able to resolve any difficulties or differences

between the two parties regarding the new information system. The

workshop follows a detailed agenda in order to guarantee that all

uncertainties between parties are covered and to help prevent any

miscommunications. Miscommunications can carry far more

serious repercussions if not addressed until later on in the process.

(See below for Key Participants and Key Steps to an Effective

JAD). In the end, this process will result in a new information

system that is feasible and appealing to both the designers and end

users.

"Although the JAD design is widely acclaimed, little is

actually known about its effectiveness in practice." According to

Journal of Systems and Software, a field study was done at three

organizations using JAD practices to determine how JAD

influenced system development outcomes. The results of the study

suggest that organizations realized modest improvement in

systems development outcomes by using the JAD method. JAD

use was most effective in small, clearly focused projects and less

effective in large complex projects.

Joint Application Design (JAD) was developed by Drake and

Josh of IBM Raleigh and Tony Crawford of IBM Toronto in a

workshop setting. Originally, JAD was designed to bring system

developers and users of varying backgrounds and opinions

together in a productive as well as creative environment. The

meetings were a way of obtaining quality requirements and

specifications. The structured approach provides a good alternative

to traditional serial interviews by system analysts.49

Brain-storming and theory Z principals in JAD: In 1984-5

Moshe Telem of Tel-Aviv University, developed and implemented a

JAD conceptual approach that integrates brainstorming and Ouchi's

"Japanese Management" theory Z principles for rapid, maximal and

attainable requirements analysis through JAD. Telem named his

approach Brainstorming a Collective Decision-Making Approach

(BCDA) [4]. Telem also developed and implemented a BCDA

technique (BCDT)[5], which was successfully used within the setting

of a pedagogical management information system project for the

Israeli educational system[3]. In this project brainstorming and

theory Z principles in JAD proved to be not only feasible but also

effective, resulting in a realistic picture of true users' information

requirements.

3.10.1 Conduct Jad sessions :

Joint Application Development or JAD as it is commonly

known as a process originally developed for designing a computer

based system. JAD focuses on the use of highly structured, well

planned meetings to identify the key components of system

development projects.

The JAD process is based on four simple ideas;

· people who actually do a job have the best understanding of

the job

· People who are trained in information technology have the

best understanding of the possibilities of that technology.

· Information systems never exist alone

· The best results are obtained when all these groups work

together on a project.

The JAD technique is based on the observation that the

success of a project can be hampered by poor intra team

communication, incomplete requirements definition and lack of

consensus. The training teaches the essential skills and techniques

need to plan, organize and participate in JAD planning.

AD focuses on the use of highly structured, well planned

meetings to identify the key components of system development

projects. JAD centers on a structured workshop session. It

eliminates many problems with traditional meetings which are like

workshops. The sessions are

i) very focused

ii) conducted in a dedicated environment

iii) quickly drive major requirements50

The participants include: facilitator, end users, developers,

tie breakers, observers and subject matter experts. The success of

JAD-based workshop depends on the skill of the facilitators.

3.10.2 Need for to Conduct JAD sessions:

Everybody who is responsible for gathering requirements

and developing business systems should attend the JAD training

sessions. They are: workshop facilitators, business analysts,

system analysts, process analysts, development project leaders,

development team members, business managers and Information

technology members.

3.10.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

JAD is more expensive and cumbersome, compared to other

traditional methods. Many companies find that JAD users

participate freely in requirements modeling process. They feel a

sense of ownership and support for the new system. One big

disadvantage is that it opens up a lot of scope for interpersonal

conflict.

Compared with traditional methods, JAD may seem more

expensive and can be cumbersome if the group is too large relative

to the size of the project. Many companies find, however, that JAD

allows key users to participate effectively in the requirements

modeling process. When users participate in the systems

development process, they are more likely to feel a sense of

ownership in the results, and support for the new system. When

properly used, JAD can result in a more accurate statement of

system requirements, a better understanding of common goals, and

a stronger commitment to the success of the new system.

Joint Application Design (JAD) is a process used in the

prototyping life cycle area of the Dynamic Systems Development

Method (DSDM) to collect business requirements while developing

new information systems for a company. "The JAD process also

includes approaches for enhancing user participation, expediting

development, and improving the quality of specifications." It

consists of a workshop where “knowledge workers and IT

specialists meet, sometimes for several days, to define and review

the business requirements for the system.[1]” The attendees include

high level management officials who will ensure the product

provides the needed reports and information at the end. This acts

as “a management process which allows Corporate Information

Services (IS) departments to work more effectively with users in a

shorter time frame.51

Through JAD workshops the knowledge workers and IT

specialists are able to resolve any difficulties or differences

between the two parties regarding the new information system. The

workshop follows a detailed agenda in order to guarantee that all

uncertainties between parties are covered and to help prevent any

miscommunications. Miscommunications can carry far more

serious repercussions if not addressed until later on in the process.

(See below for Key Participants and Key Steps to an Effective

JAD). In the end, this process will result in a new information

system that is feasible and appealing to both the designers and end

users.

"Although the JAD design is widely acclaimed, little is

actually known about its effectiveness in practice." According to

Journal of Systems and Software, a field study was done at three

organizations using JAD practices to determine how JAD

influenced system development outcomes. The results of the study

suggest that organizations realized modest improvement in

systems development outcomes by using the JAD method. JAD

use was most effective in small, clearly focused projects and less

effective in large complex projects.

3.10.4 Four Principle Steps :

1) Define session objectives- The first step for the facilitator

together with the project leader is to define the session objectives

and answering the questions as to what are the session objectives?

What is wanted from the session? Who can help create the

deliverables?

2) Prepare for the session- The facilitator has primary

responsibility for the JAD preparation. Four categories of tasks are

involved in preparing for the session.

· Conduct pre-session research

· Create a session agenda

· Arrange session logistics

· Prepare the participants

·

3) Conduct the JAD session- The facilitator conducts the JAD

session, leading the developers and customers through planned

agenda. Conducting the meeting involves:

- Starting and ending time,

-Distributing and following the meeting agenda

-Gaining consensus on the meeting purpose and round rules at the

beginning of the meeting

-Keeping the meeting on track.52

4) Procedure the Documents- It is critical to the success of any

JAD session that the information on flip-charts, foils, whiteboard,

and discussions be recorded and reviewed by the participants.

Each day of the session, the facilitator and scribe should create a

draft of the day’s results. The final documents from the JAD should

be completed as soon as possible after the session. It is primary

responsibility of the facilitator and the scribe to:

- organize the final document for easy use by project members

- complete a "Final Draft" document

- distribute it to selected individuals for review

- incorporate revisions as necessary

- distribute the final copy for participant sign-off

JAD improves the final quality of the product by keeping the

focus on the upfront of the development cycle thus reducing the

errors that are likely to cause huge expenses.

3.11 VALIDATION:

Validation may refer to:

· Validity, in logic, determining whether a statement is true

· Validation and verification, in engineering, confirming that a

product or service meets the needs of its users

· Verification and Validation (software), checking that a

software system meets specifications and fulfills its intended

purpose

· Validation of foreign studies and degrees, processes for

transferring educational credentials between countries

· Validation (computer security), the process of determining

whether a user or computer program is allowed to do

something.

o Validate (McAfee), a software application for this

purpose

· Validation (drug manufacture), documenting that a process

or system meets its pre-determined specifications and

quality attributes

· Validation (psychology), in psychology and human

communication, the reciprocated communication of respect

which signifies that the other's opinions are acknowledged,

respected and heard53

· Data validation, in computer science, ensuring that data

inserted into an application satisfies defined formats and

other input criteria

· Regression model validation, in statistics, determining

whether a model fits the data well

3.12 STRUCTURED WALKTHROUGHS:

In typical project planning, you must define the scope of the

work to be accomplished. A typical tool that is used by project

managers is the work breakdown structure (WBS). This

walkthrough demonstrates a general approach to creating a WBS

using Team Foundation Server and Microsoft Project.

This walkthrough is not based on any particular

methodology. However, it does use the quality of service

requirement and task work item types in the MSF for Agile Software

Development process template. The approach used in this

walkthrough should be adaptable your own organization's work item

types and process.

In this walkthrough, you will complete the following tasks:

· Create a requirement using Team Foundation Server.

· Create tasks using Team Foundation Server.

· Create tasks using Microsoft Project.

· Link tasks and requirements.

· Create a work breakdown structure from tasks in Microsoft

Project

The term is often employed in the software industry

(see software walkthrough) to describe the process of

inspecting algorithms and source code by following paths through

the algorithms or code as determined by input conditions and

choices made along the way. The purpose of such code

walkthroughs is generally to provide assurance of the fitness for

purpose of the algorithm or code; and occasionally to assess the

competence or output of an individual or team.

3.12.1 Types of Walkthroughs

· Specification walkthroughs

Ø System specification

Ø Project planning

Ø Requirements analysis

· Design walkthroughs

Ø Preliminary design

Ø Design54

· Code walkthroughs

· Test walkthroughs

Ø Test plan

Ø Test procedure

3.12.2 Prerequisites

The following prerequisites must be met to complete this

walkthrough.

· Microsoft Project must be installed.

· A team project must be created that uses the MSF for Agile

Software Development process template.

3.12.3 Scenario

The scenario for this walkthrough is based on the example

Adventure Works team project. Adventure Works is starting a

project to set up a Web interface for ordering its products. One of

the customer requirements states that customers be able to check

on order status after orders are placed. The scope of this work

must be defined in a work breakdown structure to a sufficient level

of detail to enable project planning to be completed.

The following approach is used by Adventure Works. The

project manager must create the WBS and has the help of the team

to do this. One person on the team is a database expert and will

provide details on what is needed in the database to support the

new requirement. She will enter her work details using Team

Foundation Server.

The project manager will work with other team members to

define additional work to complete the Web interface. Then the

project manager will enter those details using Microsoft Project.

Finally, the project manager will create a WBS in Microsoft

Visio that can be used in the project planning document.

Throughout this walkthrough you will perform the steps of each

role to create the tasks and WBS. When you complete the

walkthrough, you will have created the following tasks and subtasks

in a Gantt chart and a WBS.

· Order Storage Subsystem

Ø Order Tables

Ø Order Stored Procedures

· Order Web Interface

Ø Order Lookup Web Service

Ø Client Order Views55

3.13 SUMMARY

Through this chapter we discussed about functionality of

system as well as system requirements. The resources to collect

the data are an essential of system. Some fact findings methods

are an important part here.

Questions:

1. Explain role of business analyst in detail?

Ans: refer 3.7

2. Explain Data Analysis in detail?

Ans: refer 3.3

vvvv 56

4

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

Unit Structure

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Five common factors for Feasibility study

4.2.1 Technology and system feasibility

4.2.2 Economic feasibility

4.2.3 Legal feasibility

4.2.4 Operational feasibility

4.2.5 Schedule feasibility

4.3 Other feasibility factors:

4.3.1 Market and real estate feasibility

4.3.2 Resource feasibility

4.3.3 Cultural feasibility

4.4 Cost Estimates

4.4.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis

4.4.2 How to Use the Tool

4.4.3 Benefits of Cost Estimation

4.5 Business System Analysis

4.5.1 Developing a Project Roadmap

4.6 Developing a Blueprint for a Web Application

4.6.1 Identification of list of deliverables

4.6.2 Process Descriptions

4.7 Implement Quality Control

4.8 Project Management Deliverables

4.9 Summary

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

A feasibility study is an evaluation of a proposal designed

to determine the difficulty in carrying out a designated task.

Generally, a feasibility study precedes technical development and

project implementation. In other words, a feasibility study is an

evaluation or analysis of the potential impact of a proposed project.57

4.2 FIVE COMMON FACTORS FOR FEASIBILITY

STUDY:

4.2.1 Technology and system feasibility

The assessment is based on an outline design of system

requirements in terms of Input, Processes, Output, Fields,

Programs, and Procedures. This can be quantified in terms of

volumes of data, trends, frequency of updating, etc. in order to

estimate whether the new system will perform adequately or not.

Technological feasibility is carried out to determine whether the

company has the capability, in terms of software, hardware,

personnel and expertise, to handle the completion of the project

4.2.2 Economic feasibility:

Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for

evaluating the effectiveness of a new system. More commonly

known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the

benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate system

and compare them with costs. If benefits outweigh costs, then the

decision is made to design and implement the system. An

entrepreneur must accurately weigh the cost versus benefits before

taking an action.

Cost-based study: It is important to identify cost and benefit

factors, which can be categorized as follows: 1. Development costs;

and 2. Operating costs. This is an analysis of the costs to be

incurred in the system and the benefits derivable out of the system.

Time-based study: This is an analysis of the time required to

achieve a return on investments. the benefits derived from the

system. The future value of a project is also a factor.

4.2.3 Legal feasibility:

Determines whether the proposed system conflicts with legal

requirements, e.g. a data processing system must comply with the

local Data Protection Acts.

4.2.4 Operational feasibility:

Operational feasibility is a measure of how well a proposed

system solves the problems, and takes advantage of the

opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies

the requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase of

system development.58

The Need for Operational Feasibility Studies.

Operational feasibility studies are generally utilized to answer the

following questions:

· Process – How do the end-users feel about a new process

that may be implemented?

· Evaluation – Whether or not the process within the

organization will work but also if it can work.

· Implementation – Stakeholder, manager, and end-user

tasks.

· Resistance – Evaluate management, team, and individual

resistance and how that resistance will be handled.

· In-House Strategies – How will the work environment be

affected? How much will it change?

· Adapt & Review – Once change resistance is overcome,

explain how the new process will be implemented along with

a review process to monitor the process change.

Example:

If an operational feasibility study must answer the six items

above, how is it used in the real world? A good example might be if

a company has determined that it needs to totally redesign the

workspace environment.

After analyzing the technical, economic, and scheduling

feasibility studies, next would come the operational analysis. In

order to determine if the redesign of the workspace environment

would work, an example of an operational feasibility study would

follow this path based on six elements:

· Process – Input and analysis from everyone the new

redesign will affect along with a data matrix on ideas and

suggestions from the original plans.

· Evaluation – Determinations from the process suggestions;

will the redesign benefit everyone? Who is left behind? Who

feels threatened?

· Implementation – Identify resources both inside and out

that will work on the redesign. How will the redesign

construction interfere with current work?

· Resistance – What areas and individuals will be most

resistantStrategies – How will the organization deal with the

changed workspace environment? Do new processes or

structures need to be reviewed or implemented in order for

the redesign to be effective?59

· Adapt & Review – How much time does the organization

need to adapt to the new redesign. How will it be reviewed

and monitored? What will happen if through a monitoring

process, additional changes must be made?

4.2.5 Schedule feasibility:

A project will fail if it takes too long to be completed before it

is useful. Typically this means estimating how long the system will

take to develop, and if it can be completed in a given time period

using some methods like payback period. Schedule feasibility is a

measure of how reasonable the project timetable is. Given our

technical expertise, are the project deadlines reasonable? Some

projects are initiated with specific deadlines. You need to determine

whether the deadlines are mandatory or desirable It is an essential

type of feasibilty.It makes prototype model with proper time span

which allot the steps and their required time duration.

4.3 OTHER FEASIBILITY FACTORS:

4.3.1 Market and real estate feasibility:

Market Feasibility Study typically involves testing geographic

locations for a real estate development project, and usually involves

parcels of real estate land. Developers often conduct market

studies to determine the best location within a jurisdiction, and to

test alternative land uses for given parcels. Jurisdictions often

require developers to complete feasibility studies before they will

approve a permit application for retail, commercial, industrial,

manufacturing, housing, office or mixed-use project. Market

Feasibility takes into account the importance of the business in the

selected area.

4.3.2 Resource feasibility:

This involves questions such as how much time is available

to build the new system, when it can be built, whether it interferes

with normal business operations, type and amount of resources

required, dependencies, etc. Contingency and mitigation plans

should also be stated here.

4.3.3 Cultural feasibility

In this stage, the project's alternatives are evaluated for their

impact on the local and general culture. For example,

environmental factors need to be considered and these factors are

to be well known. Further an enterprise's own culture can clash with

the results of the project.60

4.4 COST ESTIMATES:

4.4.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis

Evaluating Quantitatively Whether to Follow a Course of

Action

You may have been intensely creative in generating

solutions to a problem, and rigorous in your selection of the best

one available. However, this solution may still not be worth

implementing, as you may invest a lot of time and money in solving

a problem that is not worthy of this effort.

Cost Benefit Analysis or CBA is a relatively* simple and

widely used technique for deciding whether to make a change. As

its name suggests, you simply add up the value of the benefits of a

course of action, and subtract the costs associated with it.

Costs are either one-off, or may be ongoing. Benefits are

most often received over time. We build this effect of time into our

analysis by calculating a payback period. This is the time it takes

for the benefits of a change to repay its costs. Many companies

look for payback on projects over a specified period of time.

4.4.2 How to Use the Tool:

In its simple form, cost-benefit analysis is carried out using

only financial costs and financial benefits. For example, a simple

cost benefit ratio for a road scheme would measure the cost of

building the road, and subtract this from the economic benefit of

improving transport links. It would not measure either the cost of

environmental damage or the benefit of quicker and easier travel to

work.

A more sophisticated approach to building a cost benefit

models is to try to put a financial value on intangible costs and

benefits. This can be highly subjective - is, for example, a historic

water meadow worth $25,000, or is it worth $500,000 because if its

environmental importance? What is the value of stress-free travel to

work in the morning?

These are all questions that people have to answer, and

answers that people have to defend.

The version of the cost benefit approach we explain here is

necessarily simple. Where large sums of money are involved (for

example, in financial market transactions), project evaluation can

become an extremely complex and sophisticated art. The61

fundamentals of this are explained in Principles of Corporate

Finance by Richard Brealey and Stewart Myers - this is something

of an authority on the subject.

Example:

A sales director is deciding whether to implement a new

computer-based contact management and sales processing

system. His department has only a few computers, and his

salespeople are not computer literate. He is aware that

computerized sales forces are able to contact more customers and

give a higher quality of reliability and service to those customers.

They are more able to meet commitments, and can work more

efficiently with fulfilment and delivery staff.

His financial cost/benefit analysis is shown below:

Costs:

New computer equipment:

· 10 network-ready PCs with supporting software @ $2,450

each

· 1 server @ $3,500

· 3 printers @ $1,200 each

· Cabling & Installation @ $4,600

· Sales Support Software @ $15,000

Training costs:

· Computer introduction - 8 people @ $400 each

· Keyboard skills - 8 people @ $400 each

· Sales Support System - 12 people @ $700 each

Other costs:

· Lost time: 40 man days @ $200 / day

· Lost sales through disruption: estimate: $20,000

· Lost sales through inefficiency during first months: estimate:

$20,000

Total cost: $114,000

Benefits:

· Tripling of mail shot capacity: estimate: $40,000 / year

· Ability to sustain telesales campaigns: estimate: $20,000 /

year

· Improved efficiency and reliability of follow-up: estimate:

$50,000 / year

· Improved customer service and retention: estimate: $30,000

/ year62

· Improved accuracy of customer information: estimate:

$10,000 / year

· More ability to manage sales effort: $30,000 / year

Total Benefit: $180,000/year

Payback time: $114,000 / $180,000 = 0.63 of a year = approx. 8

months

4.4.3 Benefits of Cost Estimation :

Cost/Benefit Analysis is a powerful, widely used and

relatively easy tool for deciding whether to make a change.

To use the tool, firstly work out how much the change will

cost to make. Then calculate the benefit you will from it.

Where costs or benefits are paid or received over time, work out

the time it will take for the benefits to repay the costs.

Cost/Benefit Analysis can be carried out using only financial

costs and financial benefits. You may, however, decide to include

intangible items within the analysis. As you must estimate a value

for these, this inevitably brings an element of subjectivity into the

process.

Larger projects are evaluated using formal finance/capital

budgeting, which takes into account many of the complexities

involved with financial Decision Making. This is a complex area and

is beyond the scope of this site.

4.5 BUSINESS SYSTEM ANALYSIS:

This process involves interviewing stakeholders and

gathering information required to assist us in the development of a

web application which closely resembles your business model. In

most cases our clients use the following types of services:

Project Roadmap: helps you understand which resouces are

required at various stages of the project, assess the overall risks

and opportunities, and allocate a realistic timeline and budget for

the successful completion and implementation of the project.

Project Blueprint: documents and diagrams each of the various

technical and content aspects of the software project and how they

fit and flow together, such as the data model for the database,

user interface for the users, and everything in between. This

becomes the main guideline for the Programmers, Graphic63

Designers, and Content Developers who collaborate with the

Project Manager on developing a web application.

4.5.1 Developing a Project Roadmap:

Before starting a web application project we need to have

the following information:

Establish the approximate project cost and delivery time

Identify the required resources and expertise and where to find

them Know the risks involved in each development stage, and plan

for how to deal with them early on Gain client agreement on the

absolute essentials for each phase of the project. This increases

the potential for project success and the long-term return on

investment and helps to avoid drastic project delays in the future

As a result of the initial study, the Project Roadmap

becomes the foundation of our business agreement with your

company. To develop a roadmap, we first communicate with the

key stakeholders and study your business model. Project

requirements are broken down into manageable stages, with each

stage assigned a priority rank and a time and development cost

estimate.

Approximately 10 % of a project’s time and budget is

invested in developing the roadmap. This number could increase if

your business concept and model are being implemented for the

first time.

4.6 DEVELOPING A BLUEPRINT FOR A WEB

APPLICATION:

For larger projects, Programmers, Graphic Designers, and

Content developers do not start weaving a web application right

away. To increase the likelihood of the project’s success, we steer

the development process based on the project blueprint prepared

by our System Analysts and Information Architects.

The blueprint contains text documents and visual diagrams (

ER, UML, IA Garrett, Use Cases, ... ). In other words, we will be

designing the data model for the database, user interface for the

users, and everything in between. We model everything on paper to

ensure the development team can achieve their goal of a high

quality web application on time and on budget.

These documents are refined and improved as the project

moves forward. The project blueprint almost always changes

depending on the discoveries and challenges that inevitably arise

throughout the development process.64

These documents and diagrams become your property once

the project is delivered. This allows you to grow and further develop

the application in the future. We do not keep any of the information

proprietary.

4.6.1 Identification of list of deliverables :

This is related to Project Execution and Control.

List of Deliverables:

Project Execution and Control differs from all other work in

that, between the kick-off meeting and project acceptance, all

processes and tasks occur concurrently and repeatedly, and

continue almost the entire duration of Project Execution and

Control.

Thus, the earlier concept of a "process deliverable" is not

applicable to Project Execution and Control, and even task

deliverables are mostly activities, not products.

Of course, there is the ultimate deliverable – the product of the

project.

The following table lists all Project Execution and Control

processes, tasks, and their deliverables

4.6.2 Process Descriptions

· 1 Conduct Project Execution and Control Kick-off

· 2 Manage Triple Constraints (Scope, Schedule, Budget)

· 3 Monitor and Control Risks

· 4 Manage Project Execution and Control

· 5 Gain Project Acceptance

1. Conduct Project Execution and Control Kick-Off

Roles

· Project Manager

· Project Sponsor and / or Project Director

· Project Team Members

· Steering Committee

· Stakeholders

Purpose

The purpose of Conduct Project Execution and Control Kickoff is to formally acknowledge the
beginning of Project Execution

and Control and facilitate the transition from Project Planning.

Similar to Project Planning Kick-off, Project Execution and Control

Kick-off ensures that the project is still on track and focused on the

original business need. Many new team members will be

introduced to the project at this point, and must be thoroughly

oriented and prepared to begin work. Most importantly, current65

project status is reviewed and all prior deliverables are reexamined, giving all new team
members a common reference

point.

Tasks associated with Conduct Project Execution and Control

Kick-Off

-Orient New Project Team Members

-Review Project Materials

-Kick Off Project Execution and Control

Orient New Project Team Members

As in Project Planning, the goal of orienting new Project

Team members is to enhance their abilities to contribute quickly

and positively to the projects desired outcome. If the Project

Manager created a Team Member Orientation Packet during

Project Planning, the packet should already contain an orientation

checklist, orientation meeting agenda, project materials, and

logistical information that will again be useful.

The Project Manager should review the contents of the

existing Team Member Orientation Packet to ensure that they are

current and still applicable to the project. Any changes needed to

the contents of the packet should be made at this time. Once

updated, packet materials can be photocopied and distributed to

new team members to facilitate their orientation process. The

Project Manager or Team Leader should conduct one-on-one

orientation sessions with new members to ensure that they read

and understand the information presented to them.

If the orientation packet was not created during Project

Planning and new team members are coming on board, the Project

Manager must gather and present information that would be useful

to new team members, including:

· All relevant project information from Project Initiation, Project

Planning (High Level), and Project Planning (Detail Level).

· Organization charts Project Team, Customer, Performing

Organization

· General information on the Customer

· Logistics (parking policy, work hours, building/office security

requirements, user id and password, dress code, location of

rest rooms, supplies, photocopier, printer, fax, refreshments,

etc.)

· Project procedures (team member expectations, how and

when to report project time and status, sick time and

vacation policy)66

Review Project Materials and Current Project Status

Before formally beginning Project Execution and Control, the

Project Team should review updated Project Status Reports and

the Project Plan. At this point in the project, the Project Plan

comprises all deliverables produced during Project Initiation and

Project Planning (High Level and Detail):

1. Project Charter, Project Initiation Plan

2. Triple Constraints (Scope, Schedule, Budget)

3. Risk Management Worksheet

4. Description of Stakeholder Involvement

5. Communications Plan

6. Time and Cost Baseline

7. Communications Management Process

8. Change Control Process

9. Acceptance Management Process

10.Issue Management and Escalation Process

11.Training Plan

12.Project Implementation and Transition Plan

Kick off Project Execution and Control

As was the case for Project Initiation and Project Planning, a

meeting is conducted to kick off Project Execution and Control.

During the meeting, the Project Manager should present the main

components of the Project Plan for review. Other items to cover

during the meeting include:

· Introduction of new team members

· Roles and responsibilities of each team member

· Restating the objective(s) of the project and goals for

Execution and Control

· Latest Project Schedule and timeline

· Project risks and mitigation plans

· Current project status, including open issues and action

items

The goal of the kick-off meeting is to verify that all parties

involved have consistent levels of understanding and acceptance of

the work done so far, to validate expectations pertaining to the

deliverables to be produced during Project Execution and Control,

and to clarify and gain understanding of the expectations of each

team member in producing the deliverables. Attendees at the

Project Execution and Control Kick-off Meeting include the Project

Manager, Project Team, Project Sponsor and / or Project Director,

and any other Stakeholders with a vested interest in the status of67

the project. This is an opportunity for the Project Sponsor and / or

Project Director to reinforce the importance of the project and how it

supports the business need.

2. Manage Triple Constraints

Roles

· Project Manager

· Project Sponsor and /or Project Director

· Project Team Member

· Customer Representative

· Steering Committee

Purpose

The Triple Constraints is the term used for a project's

inextricably linked constraints: Scope, Schedule, and Budget, with a

resulting acceptable Quality. During Project Planning, each section

of the Triple Constraints was refined. As project-specific tasks are

performed during Project Execution and Control, the Triple

Constraint will need to be managed according to the processes

established during Project Planning.

The Triple Constraints is not static although Project Planning

is complete and has been approved, some components of Triple

Constraints will continue to evolve as a result of the execution of

project tasks. Throughout the project, as more information about

the project becomes known and the product of the project is

developed, the Triple Constraints are likely to be affected and will

need to be closely managed.

The purpose of the Manage Triple Constraints Task is to:

· Manage Changes to Project Scope

· Control the Project Schedule and Manage Schedule

Changes

· Implement Quality Assurance and Quality Control Processes

According to the Quality Standards Revised During Project

Planning

· Control and Manage Costs Established in the Project Budget

Tasks associated with Manage Triple Constraints

· Manage Project Scope

· Manage Project Schedule

· Implement Quality Control

· Manage Project Budget68

Manage Project Scope

During Project Planning, the Project Manager, through regular

communication with the Customer Representatives and Project

Sponsor and / or Project Director, refined the Project Scope to

clearly define the content of the deliverables to be produced during

Project Execution and Control. This definition includes a clear

description of what will and will not be included in each deliverable.

The process to be used to document changes to the Project

Scope was included in the Project Initiation Plan. This process

includes a description of the way scope will be managed and how

changes to scope will be handled. It is important that the Project

Manager enforce this process throughout the entire project, starting

very early in Project Execution and Control. Even if a scope change

is perceived to be very small, exercising the change process

ensures that all parties agree to the change and understand its

potential impact. Following the process each and every time scope

change occurs will minimize confusion as to what actually

constitutes a change. Additionally, instituting the process early will

test its effectiveness, get the Customer and Project Sponsor and /

or Project Director accustomed to the way change will be managed

throughout the remainder of the project, and help them understand

their roles as they relate to change.

Manage Project Schedule

During Project Planning (Detail Level), an agreed-upon

baseline was established for the Project Schedule. This schedule

baseline will be used as a starting point against which performance

on the project will be measured. It is one of many tools the Project

Manager can use during Project Execution and Control to

determine if the project is on track.

Project Team members use the communications mechanisms

documented in the Communications Plan to provide feedback to

the Project Manager on their progress. Generally team members

document the time spent on tasks and provides estimates of the

time required to complete them. The Manager uses this information

to update the Project Schedule. In some areas there may be

formal time tracking systems that are used to track project activity.

After updating the Project Schedule, the Project Manager

must take the time to review the status of the project. Some

questions that the Project Manager should be able to answer by

examining the Project Schedule include:

· Is the project on track?

· Are there any issues that are becoming evident that need to

be addressed now?69

· Which tasks are taking more time than estimated? Less time?

· If a task is late, what is the effect on subsequent tasks?

· What is the next deliverable to be produced and when is it

scheduled to be complete?

· What is the amount of effort expended so far and how much is

remaining?

· Are any Project Team members over-allocated or underallocated?

· How much of the time allocated has been expended to date

and what is the time required to complete the project?

· Most project scheduling tools provide the ability to produce

reports to display a variety of useful information. It is

recommended that the Project Manager experiment with all

available reports to find those that are most useful for

reporting information to the Project Team, Customer, and

Project Sponsor and / or Project Director.

· When updating the Project Schedule, it is very important that

the Project Manager maintain the integrity of the current

schedule. Each version of the schedule should be archived.

By creating a new copy of the schedule whenever it is

updated, the Project Manager will never lose the running

history of the project and will also have a copy of every

schedule for audit purposes.

4.7 IMPLEMENT QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control involves monitoring the project and its

progress to determine if the quality standards defined during

Project Planning are being implemented and whether the results

meet the quality standards defined during Project Initiation. The

entire organization has responsibilities relating to quality, but the

primary responsibility for ensuring that the project follows its

defined quality procedures ultimately belongs to the Project

Manager. The following figure highlights the potential results of

executing a project with poor quality compared to a project

executed with high quality:70

Poor Quality High Quality

Increased

costs

Lower costs

Low morale Happy,

productive

Project Team

Low

Customer

satisfaction

Delivery of

what the

Customer

wants

Increased

risk

Lower risk

Quality control should be performed throughout the course of

the project. Some of the activities and processes that can be used

to monitor the quality of deliverables, determine if project results

comply with quality standards, and identify ways to improve

unsatisfactory performance, are described below. The Project

Manager and Project Sponsor and / or Project Director should

decide which are best to implement in their specific project

environment.

· Conduct Peer Reviews the goal of a peer review is to identify

and remove quality issues from a deliverable as early in Project

Execution and Control as efficiently as possible. A peer review

is a thorough review of a specific deliverable, conducted by

members of the Project Team who are the day-to-day peers of

the individuals who produced the work. The peer review process

adds time to the overall Project Schedule, but in many project

situations the benefits of conducting a review far outweigh the

time considerations. The Project Manager must evaluate the

needs of his/her project, determine and document which, if any,

deliverables should follow this process, and build the required

time and resources into the Project Schedule.

Prior to conducting a peer review, a Project Team member

should be identified as the facilitator or person responsible for

keeping the review on track. The facilitator should distribute all

relevant information pertaining to the deliverable to all participants

in advance of the meeting to prepare them to participate effectively.

During the meeting, the facilitator should record information

including:

· Peer review date

· Names and roles of participants

· The name of the deliverable being reviewed

· Number of quality issues found71

· Description of each quality issue found

· Actions to follow to correct the quality issues prior to

presenting the deliverable to the approver

· Names of the individuals responsible for correcting the

quality issues

· The date by which quality issues must be corrected

This information should be distributed to the Project

Manager, all meeting participants, and those individuals not

involved in the meeting who will be responsible for correcting any

problems discovered or for producing similar deliverables. The

facilitator should also solicit input from the meeting participants to

determine if another peer review is necessary. Once the quality

issues have been corrected and the Project Manager is confident

the deliverable meets expectations, it may be presented to the

approver.

Project Deliverables (Project deliverables will differ depending

upon the project lifecycle being used. Customize the following

questions and add others as necessary to properly and sufficiently

evaluate the deliverables specific to your project.)

· Do the deliverables meet the needs of the performing

Organization?

· Do the deliverables meet the objectives and goals outlined in

the Business Case?

· Do the deliverables achieve the quality standards defined in

the Quality Management Plan?

4.8 PROJECT MANAGEMENT DELIVERABLES

· Does the Project Proposal define the business need the project

will address, and how the projects product will support the

organizations strategic plan?

· Does the Business Case provide an analysis of the costs and

benefits of the project and provide a compelling case for the

project?

· Has a Project Repository been established to store all project

documents, and has it been made available to the Project

Team?

· Does the Project Initiation Plan define the project goals and

objectives?

· Does the Project Scope provide a list of all the processes that

will be affected by the project?72

· In the Project Scope, is it clear as to what is in and out of

scope?

· Is the Project Schedule defined sufficiently to enable the Project

Manager to manage task execution?

· Was a Project Schedule baseline established?

· Is the Project Schedule maintained on a regular basis?

· Does the Quality Management Plan describe quality standards

for the project and associated quality assurance and quality

control activities?

· Has a project budget been established and documented in

sufficient detail?

· Have project risks been identified and prioritized, and has a

mitigation plan been developed and documented for each?

· If any risk events have occurred to date, was the risk mitigation

plan executed successfully?

· Are all Stakeholders aware of their involvement in the project,

and has this it been documented and stored in the project

repository?

· Does the Communications Plan describe the frequency and

method of communications for all Stakeholders involved in the

project?

· Does the Change Control Process describe how to identify

change, what individuals may request a change, and the

process to follow to approve or reject a request for change?

· Has changes to scope been successfully managed so far?

· Does the Acceptance Management Process clearly define who

is responsible for reviewing and approving project and project

management deliverables? Does it describe the process to

follow to accept or reject deliverables?

· Has the Acceptance Management Process proven successful

for the deliverables produced so far?

· Does the Issue Management Process clearly define how issues

will be captured, tracked, and prioritized? Does it define the

procedure to follow should an unresolved issue need to be

escalated?

· Have issues been successfully managed up to this point?

· Does the Organizational Change Management Plan document

how changes to people, existing business processes, and

culture will be handled?

· Has a Project Team Training Plan been established, and is it

being implemented?73

· Does the Implementation and Transition Plan describe how to

ensure that all Consumers are prepared to use the projects

product, and the Performing Organization is prepared to support

the product?

· Have all Project Management deliverables been approved by

the Project Sponsor and / or Project Director (or designated

approver?)

· Does the Project Plan contain all required components as listed

in the Guidebook?

· Are each Project Plan component being maintained on a regular

basis?

4.9 SUMMARY:

This chapter is based on system feasibility; roadmap and

Business system analysis. Feasibility factors make much more

effect on the system process and cost.

Questions:

1. Explain common factors for Feasibility study in detail?

Ans: refer 4.2

2. Discuss the feasibility study factors for Online Examination

System in brief.

Ans.Refer 4.1

vvvv 74

5

Modeling system requirements

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Requirement Engineering

5.3 Software requirements specification

5.4 Functional Requirements

5.5 System Analysis Model

5.6 Screen Prototyping

5.7 Model Organisation

5.8 Summary

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Requirements analysis in systems engineering and software

engineering, encompasses those tasks that go into determining the

needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking

account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various

stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.

Requirements analysis is critical to the success of a

development project.[2] Requirements must be documented,

actionable, measurable, testable, related to identified business

needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail sufficient for

system design. Requirements can be functional and non-functional.

Conceptually, requirements analysis includes three types of activity:

· Eliciting requirements: the task of communicating with

customers and users to determine what their requirements are.

This is sometimes also called requirements gathering.

· Analyzing requirements: determining whether the stated

requirements are unclear, incomplete, ambiguous, or

contradictory, and then resolving these issues.

· Recording requirements: Requirements might be documented in

various forms, such as natural-language documents, use cases,

user stories, or process specifications.

Requirements analysis can be a long and arduous process

during which many delicate psychological skills are involved. New75

systems change the environment and relationships between

people, so it is important to identify all the stakeholders, take into

account all their needs and ensure they understand the implications

of the new systems. Analysts can employ several techniques to

elicit the requirements from the customer. Historically, this has

included such things as holding interviews, or holding focus groups

(more aptly named in this context as requirements workshops) and

creating requirements lists. More modern techniques include

prototyping, and use cases. Where necessary, the analyst will

employ a combination of these methods to establish the exact

requirements of the stakeholders, so that a system that meets the

business needs is produced.

5.2 REQUIREMENT ENGINEERING:

Systematic requirements analysis is also known as

requirements engineering.

[3] It is sometimes referred to loosely by

names such as requirements gathering, requirements capture, or

requirements specification. The term requirements analysis can

also be applied specifically to the analysis proper, as opposed to

elicitation or documentation of the requirements, for instance.

Requirements Engineering can be divided into discrete

chronological steps:

· Requirements elicitation,

· Requirements analysis and negotiation,

· Requirements specification,

· System modeling

· Requirements validation,

· Requirements management.

Requirement engineering according to Laplante (2007) is "a

subdiscipline of systems engineering and software engineering that

is concerned with determining the goals, functions, and constraints

of hardware and software systems."[4] In some life cycle models, the

requirement engineering process begins with a feasibility study

activity, which leads to a feasibility report. If the feasibility study

suggests that the product should be developed, then requirement

analysis can begin. If requirement analysis precedes feasibility

studies, which may foster outside the box thinking, then feasibility

should be determined before requirements are finalized.

5.3 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION

A software requirements specification (SRS) is a complete

description of the behaviour of the system to be developed. It

includes a set of use cases that describe all of the interactions that

the users will have with the software. Use cases are also known as

functional requirements. In addition to use cases, the SRS also76

contains non-functional (or supplementary) requirements. Nonfunctional requirements are
requirements which impose constraints

on the design or implementation (such as performance

requirements, quality standards, or design constraints).

Recommended approaches for the specification of software

requirements are described by IEEE 830-1998. This standard

describes possible structures, desirable contents, and qualities of a

software requirements specification.

Types of Requirements

Requirements are categorized in several ways. The following

are common categorizations of requirements that relate to technical

management.

Customer Requirements Statements of fact and assumptions that

define the expectations of the system in terms of mission

objectives, environment, constraints, and measures of

effectiveness and suitability (MOE/MOS). The customers are those

that perform the eight primary functions of systems engineering,

with special emphasis on the operator as the key customer.

Operational requirements will define the basic need and, at a

minimum, answer the questions posed in the following listing

· Operational distribution or deployment: Where will the system

be used?

· Mission profile or scenario: How will the system accomplish its

mission objective?

· Performance and related parameters: What are the critical

system parameters to accomplish the mission?

· Utilization environments: How are the various system

components to be used?

· Effectiveness requirements: How effective or efficient must the

system be in performing its mission?

· Operational life cycle: How long will the system be in use by the

user?

· Environment: What environments will the system be expected to

operate in an effective manner?

5.4 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Functional requirements explain what has to be done by

identifying the necessary task, action or activity that must be

accomplished. Functional requirements analysis will be used as the

top-level functions for functional analysis77

Non-functional Requirements

Non-functional requirements are requirements that specify

criteria that can be used to judge the operation of a system, rather

than specific behaviors.

Performance Requirements

The extent to which a mission or function must be executed;

generally measured in terms of quantity, quality, coverage,

timeliness or readiness. During requirements analysis, performance

(how well does it have to be done) requirements will be interactively

developed across all identified functions based on system life cycle

factors; and characterized in terms of the degree of certainty in their

estimate, the degree of criticality to system success, and their

relationship to other requirements.

Design Requirements

The “build to,” “code to,” and “buy to” requirements for

products and “how to execute” requirements for processes

expressed in technical data packages and technical manuals.

5.5 SYSTEM ANALYSIS MODEL:

The System Analysis Model is made up of class diagrams,

sequence or collaboration diagrams and state-chart diagrams.

Between them they constitute a logical, implementation-free view of

the computer system that includes a detailed definition of every

aspect of functionality. This model:

System Model Information Flow:

The diagram illustrates the way in which the 3-dimensional

system model is developed iteratively from the uses case model in

terms of the information which flows between each view. Note that

it is not possible fully to develop any one of the three views without

the other two. They are interdependent. This is the reason why

incremental and iterative development is the most efficient way of

developing computer software.

Ø Defines what the system does not how it does

it.

Ø Defines logical requirements in more detail

than the use case model, rather than a

physical solution to the requirements.

Ø Leaves out all technology detail, including

system topology78

5.6 SCREEN PROTOTYPING:

Screen prototyping can be used as another useful way of

getting information from the users. When it is integrated into a UML

model:

The flow of the screen is made consistent with the flow of the

use case and the interaction model.

The data entered and displayed on the screen is made

consistent with the object model.

The functionality of the screen is made consistent with the

interaction and object models.79

The System Design Model:

This model is the detailed model of everything that is going

to be needed to write all the code for the system components. It is

the analysis model plus all the implementation detail. Preferably it

should be possible automatically to generate at least frame code

from this model. This means that any structural changes to the

code can be made in the design model and forward generated. This

ensures that the design model accurately reflects the code in the

components. The design model includes:

(1)Class, sequence or collaboration and state diagrams - as in

the analysis model, but now fully defined ready for code

generation

(2)Component diagrams defining all the software components,

their interfaces and dependencies

(3)Deployment diagrams defining the topology of the target

environment, including which components will run on which

computing nodes

Overall Process Flow:

The overall process flow must allow for both rework and

incremental development.

Rework - where changes need to be made, the earliest model that

the change affects is changed first and the results then flow forward

through all the other models to keep them up to date.

Incrementation - increments can restart at any point, depending

upon whether the work needed for this increment has already been

completed in higher level models.80

Incremental Development:

Incremental Development is based on use cases or use case

flows which define working pieces of functionality at the user level.

Within an 'Increment', the models required to develop a working

software increment are each incremented until a working, tested

executing piece of software is produced with incremental

functionality. This approach:

(1) Improves estimation, planning and assessment. Use cases

provide better baselines for estimation than traditionally written

specifications. The estimates are continuously updated and

improved throughout the project.

(2) Allows risks to the project to be addressed incrementally and

reduced early in the lifecycle. Early increments can be

scheduled to cover the most risky parts of the architecture.

When the architecture is stable, development can be speeded

up.

(3) Benefits users, managers and developers who see working

functionality early in the lifecycle. Each increment is,

effectively, a prototype for the next increment.

5.7 MODEL ORGANISATION:

All model syntaxes provide a number of model elements

which can appear on one or more diagram types. The model

elements are contained with a central model, together with all their

properties and connections to other model elements. The diagrams

are independent views of the model, just as a number of computer

screens looking into different records or parts of a database show

different views.

The functional view, made up of data flow diagrams, is the

primary view of the system. It defines what is done, the flow of data

between things that are done and provides the primary structure of

the solution. Changes in functionality result in changes in the

software structure.

The data view, made up of entity relationship diagrams, is

a record of what is in the system, or what is outside the system that

is being monitored. It is the static structural view.

The dynamic view, made up of state transition diagrams,

defines when things happen and the conditions under which they

happen.81

Structured Analysis: In structured analysis there are three

orthogonal views:

Encapsulation of Hardware:

The concept of encapsulation of data and functionality that

belongs together is something which the hardware industry has

been doing for a long time. Hardware engineers have been creating

re-useable, re-configurable hardware at each level of abstraction

since the early sixties. Elementary Boolean functions are

encapsulated together with bits and bytes of data in registers on

chips. Chips are encapsulated together on circuit boards. Circuit

boards are made to work together in various system boxes that

make up the computer. Computers are made to work together

across networks. Hardware design, therefore, is totally object

oriented at every level and is, as a result, maximally re-useable,

extensible and maintainable; in a single word: flexible. Applying

object-orientation to software, therefore, could be seen as putting

the engineering into software design that has existed in hardware

design for many years.

Hardware encapsulates data and function at every level of

abstraction

Maximises maintainability, reuse and extension

Encapsulation of Software:

In well developed object oriented software, functionality and

data is encapsulated in objects. Objects are encapsulated in

Diagram

Type 1

Diagram

Type 2

Model82

components. Components are encapsulated into systems. If this is

done well the result is:

Maximal coherence

Minimal interconnection

Solid interface definitions

5.8 SUMMARY

This chapter based on requirement analysis which includes

data requirement, data analysis, hardware, software requirements

as well as system user requirements.

Questions:

1. Explain Software requirements specification in detail?

Ans: refer 5.3

2. Explain System Analysis Model?

Ans: refer 5.5

vvvv 83

6

DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS

Unit Structure

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Overview of DFD

6.2.1 How to develop Data Flow Diagram

6.2.2 Notation for to Draw Data Flow Diagram

6.2.3 Data Flow Diagram Example

6.3 Summary

6.1 INTRODUCTION:

A data-flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of

the "flow" of data through an information system. DFDs can also be

used for the visualization of data processing (structured design).

On a DFD, data items flow from an external data source or

an internal data store to an internal data store or an external data

sink, via an internal process.

A DFD provides no information about the timing of

processes, or about whether processes will operate in sequence or

in parallel. It is therefore quite different from a flowchart, which

shows the flow of control through an algorithm, allowing a reader to

determine what operations will be performed, in what order, and

under what circumstances, but not what kinds of data will be input

to and output from the system, nor where the data will come from

and go to, nor where the data will be stored (all of which are shown

on a DFD).

6.2 OVERVIEW OF DFD:

It is common practice to draw a context-level data flow

diagram first, which shows the interaction between the system and

external agents which act as data sources and data sinks. On the

context diagram (also known as the 'Level 0 DFD') the system's

interactions with the outside world are modelled purely in terms of

data flows across the system boundary. The context diagram84

shows the entire system as a single process, and gives no clues as

to its internal organization.

This context-level DFD is next "exploded", to produce a

Level 1 DFD that shows some of the detail of the system being

modeled. The Level 1 DFD shows how the system is divided into

sub-systems (processes), each of which deals with one or more of

the data flows to or from an external agent, and which together

provide all of the functionality of the system as a whole. It also

identifies internal data stores that must be present in order for the

system to do its job, and shows the flow of data between the

various parts of the system.

Data-flow diagrams were proposed by Larry Constantine, the

original developer of structured design, based on Martin and

Estrin's "data-flow graph" model of computation.

Data-flow diagrams (DFDs) are one of the three essential

perspectives of the structured-systems analysis and design

method SSADM. The sponsor of a project and the end users will

need to be briefed and consulted throughout all stages of a

system's evolution. With a data-flow diagram, users are able to

visualize how the system will operate, what the system will

accomplish, and how the system will be implemented. The old

system's dataflow diagrams can be drawn up and compared with

the new system's data-flow diagrams to draw comparisons to

implement a more efficient system. Data-flow diagrams can be

used to provide the end user with a physical idea of where the data

they input ultimately has an effect upon the structure of the whole

system from order to dispatch to report. How any system is

developed can be determined through a data-flow diagram.

6.2.1 How to develop Data Flow Diagram:

Top-down approach

1. The system designer makes a context level DFD or Level 0,

which shows the "interaction" (data flows) between "the system"

(represented by one process) and "the system environment"

(represented by terminators).

2. The system is "decomposed in lower-level DFD (Level 1)" into a

set of "processes, data stores, and the data flows between

these processes and data stores".

3. Each process is then decomposed into an "even-lower-level

diagram containing its sub processes".

4. This approach "then continues on the subsequent sub

processes", until a necessary and sufficient level of detail is

reached which is called the primitive process (aka chewable in

one bite).85

Diagram: Example of DFD flow:

6.2.2 Notation for to Draw Data Flow Diagram:

Data flow diagrams present the logical flow of information

through a system in graphical or pictorial form. Data flow diagrams

have only four symbols, which makes useful for communication

between analysts and users. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) show the

data used and provided by processes within a system. DFDs make

use of four basic symbols.

Create structured analysis, information flow, processoriented, data-oriented, and data process
diagrams as well as

data flowcharts.86

External Entity

An external entity is a source or destination of a data flow

which is outside the area of study. Only those entities which

originate or receive data are represented on a business process

diagram. The symbol used is an oval containing a meaningful and

unique identifier.

Process

A process shows a transformation or manipulation of data

flows within the system. The symbol used is a rectangular box

which contains 3 descriptive elements:

Firstly an identification number appears in the upper left

hand corner. This is allocated arbitrarily at the top level and serves

as a unique reference.

Secondly, a location appears to the right of the identifier and

describes where in the system the process takes place. This may,

for example, be a department or a piece of hardware. Finally, a

descriptive title is placed in the centre of the box. This should be a

simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example

'maintain customer records' or 'find driver'.

Data Flow

A data flow shows the flow of information from its source to

its destination. A data flow is represented by a line, with

arrowheads showing the direction of flow. Information always flows

to or from a process and may be written, verbal or electronic. Each

data flow may be referenced by the processes or data stores at its

head and tail, or by a description of its contents.

Data Store

A data store is a holding place for information within the system:

It is represented by an open ended narrow rectangle. Data

stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, or may be

short-term accumulations: for example batches of documents that

are waiting to be processed. Each data store should be given a

reference followed by an arbitrary number.

Resource Flow

A resource flow shows the flow of any physical material from

its source to its destination. For this reason they are sometimes

referred to as physical flows.

The physical material in question should be given a

meaningful name. Resource flows are usually restricted to early,

high-level diagrams and are used when a description of the

physical flow of materials is considered to be important to help the

analysis.87

External Entities

It is normal for all the information represented within a

system to have been obtained from, and/or to be passed onto, an

external source or recipient. These external entities may be

duplicated on a diagram, to avoid crossing data flow lines. Where

they are duplicated a stripe is drawn across the left hand corner,

like this.

The addition of a lowercase letter to each entity on the

diagram is a good way to uniquely identify them.

Processes

When naming processes, avoid glossing over them, without

really understanding their role. Indications that this has been done

are the use of vague terms in the descriptive title area - like

'process' or 'update'.

The most important thing to remember is that the description

must be meaningful to whoever will be using the diagram.

Data Flows

Double headed arrows can be used (to show two-way flows)

on all but bottom level diagrams. Furthermore, in common with

most of the other symbols used, a data flow at a particular level of a

diagram may be decomposed to multiple data flows at lower levels.

Data Stores

Each store should be given a reference letter, followed by an

arbitrary number. These reference letters are allocated as follows:

'D' - indicates a permanent computer file

'M' - indicates a manual file

'T' - indicates a transient store, one that is deleted after processing.

In order to avoid complex flows, the same data store may be drawn

several times on a diagram. Multiple instances of the same data

store are indicated by a double vertical bar on their left hand edge.

6.2.3 Data Flow Diagram Example:

A data flow Diagram example is a graphic representation

of all the major steps of a process. It can help you:

• Understand the complete process.

• Identify the critical stages of a process.

• Locate problem areas.

• Show relationships between different steps in a process.

Professional looking examples and templates of Data Flow

Diagram which help you create data flow diagrams rapidly.

Document 6 Sigma and ISO 9000 processes.88

Example:

Data flow diagrams can be used to provide a clear

representation of any business function. The technique starts with

an overall picture of the business and continues by analyzing each

of the functional areas of interest. This analysis can be carried out

to precisely the level of detail required. The technique exploits a

method called top-down expansion to conduct the analysis in a

targeted way.

Data Flow Diagrams – Diagram Notation

There are only five symbols that are used in the drawing of

business process diagrams (data flow diagrams). These are now

explained, together with the rules that apply to them.

This diagram represents a banking process, which

maintains customer accounts. In this example, customers can

withdraw or deposit cash, request information about their account

or update their account details. The five different symbols used in

this example represent the full set of symbols required to draw any

business process diagram.

External Entity

An external entity is a source or destination of a data flow

which is outside the area of study. Only those entities which89

originate or receive data are represented on a business process

diagram. The symbol used is an oval containing a meaningful and

unique identifier.

Process

A process shows a transformation or manipulation of data flows

within the system. The symbol used is a rectangular box which

contains 3 descriptive elements:

Firstly an identification number appears in the upper left hand

corner. This is allocated arbitrarily at the top level and serves as a

unique reference.

Secondly, a location appears to the right of the identifier and

describes where in the system the process takes place. This may,

for example, be a department or a piece of hardware. Finally, a

descriptive title is placed in the centre of the box. This should be a

simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example

'maintain customer records' or 'find driver'.

Data Flow

A data flow shows the flow of information from its source

to its destination. A data flow is represented by a line, with

arrowheads showing the direction of flow. Information always flows

to or from a process and may be written, verbal or electronic. Each

data flow may be referenced by the processes or data stores at its

head and tail, or by a description of its contents.

Data Store

A data store is a holding place for information within the system:

It is represented by an open ended narrow rectangle.

Data stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, or may

be short-term accumulations: for example batches of documents90

that are waiting to be processed. Each data store should be given a

reference followed by an arbitrary number.

ResourceFlow

A resource flow shows the flow of any physical material from

its source to its destination. For this reason they are sometimes

referred to as physical flows.

The physical material in question should be given a

meaningful name. Resource flows are usually restricted to early,

high-level diagrams and are used when a description of the

physical flow of materials is considered to be important to help the

analysis.

Example for Online Inventory System:

13

0.0

Online Inventory

System

Vendor

Employee

Management

Gives vendor details

Receive enquiry details

Sends quotation details

Receive purchase order details

Gives delivery challan details

Give employee details

Receive challan details

Give GRN details

Gives purchase return details

Receives stock details

Receives quotation details

Gives purchase order details

Views report details

Take GRN

Gives enquiry details

Data Flow Diagram91

Examples of Data Flow Diagram

6.3 SUMMARY:

This chapter based on systematic flow of data with the help

of some notation, symbol which established by scientist. The flow of

data indicates sequence to execute and process data in the

system. This DFD is an analysis method to analyze the data up to

user satisfied level.

Questions:

1.Explain DFD with example?

Ans: refer 6.2

2.Draw a DFD for Sale & Purchase Management System for

Manufacturing Industry.

Ans: refer 6.2

3. .Draw a DFD for Event Management System for Hotel.

Ans: refer 6.2

vvvv 92

7

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM

Unit Structure

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Entity

7.3 Entity Relationship Diagram Methodology

7.3.1 Solved Example

7.4 Data Dictionary

7.4.1 Example of Data Dictionary

7.5 UML Diagram

7.5.1 What is UML?

7.5.2 How UML Started?

7.6 Class Diagram

7.6.1 Example

7.7 Communication Diagram

7.8 Activity Diagram

7.9 Component Diagram

7.9.1 Example

7.10 Deployment Diagram

7.10.1 Example

7.11 Summary

7.1 INTRODUCTION:

This activity is designed to help you understand the process

of designing and constructing ERDs using Systems Architect. Entity

Relationship Diagrams are a major data modeling tool and will help

organize the data in your project into entities and define the

relationships between the entities. This process has proved to

enable the analyst to produce a good database structure so that the

data can be stored and retrieved in a most efficient manner.93

7.2 ENTITY

A data entity is anything real or abstract about which we

want to store data. Entity types fall into five classes: roles, events,

locations, tangible things or concepts. E.g. employee, payment,

campus, book. Specific examples of an entity are

called instances. E.g. the employee John Jones, Mary Smith's

payment, etc.

Relationship

A data relationship is a natural association that exists

between one or more entities. E.g. Employees process

payments. Cardinality defines the number of occurrences of one

entity for a single occurrence of the related entity. E.g. an employee

may process many payments but might not process any payments

depending on the nature of her job.

Attribute

A data attribute is a characteristic common to all or most

instances of a particular entity. Synonyms include property, data

element, field. E.g. Name, address, SSN, pay rate are all attributes

of the entity employee. An attribute or combination of attributes that

uniquely identifies one and only one instance of an entity is called

a primary key or identifier. E.g. SSN is a primary key for

Employee.

7.3 ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM

METHODOLOGY

1. Identify Entities Identify the roles, events, locations, tangible

things or concepts about which the end-users

want to store data.

2. Find

Relationships

Find the natural associations between pairs of

entities using a relationship matrix.

3. Draw Rough

ERD

Put entities in rectangles and relationships on

line segments connecting the entities.

4. Fill in

Cardinality

Determine the number of occurrences of one

entity for a single occurrence of the related

entity.

5. Define Primary

Keys

Identify the data attribute(s) that uniquely

identify one and only one occurrence of each

entity.

6. Draw KeyBased ERD

Eliminate Many-to-Many relationships and

include primary and foreign keys in each entity.

7. Identify

Attributes

Name the information details (fields) which are

essential to the system under development.94

8. Map Attributes For each attribute, match it with exactly one

entity that it describes.

9. Draw fully

attributed ERD

Adjust the ERD from step 6 to account for

entities or relationships discovered in step 8.

10. Check Results Does the final Entity Relationship Diagram

accurately depict the system data?

7.3.1 Solved Example:

A company has several departments. Each department has

a supervisor and at least one employee. Employees must be

assigned to at least one, but possibly more departments. At least

one employee is assigned to a project, but an employee may be on

vacation and not assigned to any projects. The important data fields

are the names of the departments, projects, supervisors and

employees, as well as the supervisor and employee SSN and a

unique project number.

1. Identify Entities

The entities in this system are Department, Employee,

Supervisor and Project. One is tempted to make Company an

entity, but it is a false entity because it has only one instance in this

problem. True entities must have more than one instance.

2. Find Relationships:

We construct the following Entity Relationship Matrix:

Dept. Employee Supervisor Project

Department is assigned run by

Employee belongs to Works on

Supervisor runs Project Uses

3. Draw Rough ERD:

We connect the entities whenever a relationship is shown in the

entity Relationship Matrix.

__________ ________

| Department |______________Run by___ _____________| Supervisor |

||||

-------------- --------------

|

|

| ------------ -----------

|___Is_____| Employee |_______Works on__________| Project |

assigned | | | |

------------ -----------95

4. Fill in Cardinality

From the description of the problem we see that:

· Each department has exactly one supervisor.

· A supervisor is in charge of one and only one department.

· Each department is assigned at least one employee.

· Each employee works for at least one department.

· Each project has at least one employee working on it.

· An employee is assigned to 0 or more projects.

__________ __________

| Department | Run by | Supervisor |

| |-++------------------------++-| |

--|----------- --------------

W

+

| ------------ -----------

| Is | Employee | Works on | Project |

--------+<-| |->+-----------------------0<-| |

Assigned ------------ -----------

5. Define Primary Keys

The primary keys are Department Name, Supervisor SSN,

Employee SSN, Project Number.

6. Draw Key-Based ERD

There are two many-to-many relationships in the rough ERD

above, between Department and Employee and between Employee

and Project. Thus we need the associative entities DepartmentEmployee and Employee-Project.
The primary key for DepartmentEmployee is the concatenated key Department Name and

Employee SSN. The primary key for Employee-Project is the

concatenated key Employee SSN and Project Number.96

Example for Inventory Management System:

ERD:

Stock

Enquiry Quotation

Item

PO Challan

Vendor

Purchase ret.

Invoice

GRN

employee

m1

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

m

1

mm

mm

m

m

m

1

1

11

1

m

m

1

111

1

m1

11

1

11

1

has

has

has

has

has

has

has

has

has

has

Ouotation_item

Purchase_order_item

Enquiry_item

Challan_item

Purchase_return_item

GRN_item97

Example to draw ERD for Travelling Service:

7. Identify Attributes

The only attributes indicated are the names of the

departments, projects, supervisors and employees, as well as the

supervisor and employee SSN and a unique project number.

8. Map Attributes

Attribute Entity Attribute Entity

Department Name Department Supervisor SSN

Supervisor

Employee SSN Employee Supervisor Name

Supervisor

Employee Name Employee Project Name Project

Project ID Project

User

Traveller Service provider Admin

Flight

Configure

Flight schedule

has

Booking

has

cancellation

has

refund has Cancellation charges

payment

has

has

has

has fare

has has Tariff Plan

Baggage allowed

1

*

1

*

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

11

1

1

1

1

1

*

1

*

1

Is a98

9. Draw Fully Attributed ERD

________________ 9. Draw Fully Attributed

ERD

______________ __________________

| Department | Run by | Supervisor |

|___Key Data___|-++---------------------------++-|___Key Data________|

|Dept Name[PK1]| |Supervisor SSN[PK1]|

--|------------- |____Non-Key Data___|

+ | Supervisor Name |

+ ---------------------

|

| -------------------- -------------------

| Is | Employee-Dept | involves | Employee |

--------+<-|____Key Data______|->+--------------++-|____Key Data___|

Assigned |Dept Name[PK1][FK]| |Employee SSN[PK1]|

|Emp. SSN[PK1][FK] | |___Non-Key DATA__|

-------------------- | Employee Name |

-------------------

+

+

Works|on

|

0

M

-------------------- -------------------

| Project | Includes |Employee-Project |

|____Key Data______|++--------------------+<-|____Key Data_____|

|Project Num.[PK1] | |Emp. SSN[PK1][FK]|

|___Non-Key Data___| |Proj Num[PK1][FK]|

| Project Name | -------------------

--------------------

10. Check Results

The final ERD seems to model the data in this system well.

7.4 DATA DICTIONARY:

A data dictionary, a.k.a. metadata repository, as defined in

the IBM Dictionary of Computing, is a "centralized repository of

information about data such as meaning, relationships to other

data, origin, usage, and format." The term may have one of several

closely related meanings pertaining to databases and database

management systems (DBMS):

§ a document describing a database or collection of databases

§ an integral component of a DBMS that is required to

determine its structure

§ a piece of middleware that extends or supplants the native

data dictionary of a DBMS99

Database users and application developers can benefit from

an authoritative data dictionary document that catalogs the

organization, contents, and conventions of one or more

databases. This typically includes the names and descriptions of

various tables and fields in each database, plus additional details,

like the type and length of each data element. There is no universal

standard as to the level of detail in such a document, but it is

primarily a weak kind of data.

7.4.1 Example of Data Dictionary:

7.5 UML DIAGRAM:

Unified Modelling Language (UML) is a standardized generalpurpose modelling language in the
field of software engineering.

The standard is managed, and was created by, the Object

Management Group.100

The Unified Modelling Language (UML) is used to specify,

visualize, modify, construct and document the artifacts of an objectoriented software intensive
system under development.[1] UML

offers a standard way to visualize a system's architectural

blueprints, including elements such as:

§ actors

§ business processes

§ (logical) components

§ activities

§ programming language statements

§ database schemas, and

§ reusable software components

7.5.1 What is UML?

The Unified Modelling Language was originally developed at

Rational Software but is now administered by the Object

Management Group (see link). It is a modelling syntax aimed

primarily at creating models of software-based systems, but can be

used in a number of areas. It is:

Syntax only - UML is just a language; it tells you what model

elements and diagrams are available and the rules associated with

them. It does not tell you what diagrams to create.

Process-independent - the process by which the models are

created is separate from the definition of the language. You will

need a process in addition to the use of UML itself.

Tool-independent - UML leaves plenty of space for tool vendors to

be creative and add value to visual modelling with UML. However,

some tools will be better than others for particular applications.

Well documented - the UML notation guide is available as a

reference to all the syntax available in the language.

Its application is not well understood - the UML notation guide is not

sufficient to teach you how to use the language. It is a generic

modelling language and needs to be adapted by the user to

particular applications.

Originally just for system modelling - some user-defined extensions

are becoming more widely used now, for example, for business

modelling and modelling the design of web-based applications.

7.5.2 How UML Started?

UML came about when James Rumbaugh joined Grady

Booch at Rational Software. They both had object-oriented101

syntaxes and needed to combine them. Semantically, they were

very similar; it was mainly the symbols that needed to be unified.

UML Diagram is divided into four types:

-Activity Diagrams - a generic flow chart used much in business

modelling and sometimes in use case modelling to indicate the

overall flow of the use case. This diagram type replaces the need

for dataflow diagrams but is not a main diagram type for the

purposes of analysis and design.

-State Machine Diagrams - in information systems these tend to be

used to descibe the lifecycle of an important data entity. In real-time

systems they tend to be used to describe state dependent

behaviour

- Component Diagrams - show the types of components, their

interfaces and dependencies in the software architecture that is the

solution to the application being developed.

- Deployment Diagrams - show actual computing nodes, their

communication relationships and the processes or components that

run on them.

UML can be used to model a business, prior to automating it

with computers. The same basic UML syntax is used; however, a

number of new symbols are added, in order to make the diagrams

more relevant to the business process world. A commonly-used set

of these symbols is available in current versions of Rational Rose.

The most commonly used UML extensions for web

applications were developed by Jim Conallen. You can access his

own website to learn more about them by following the link. These

symbols are also available in current versions of Rational Rose.

UML is designed to be extended in this way. Extensions

to the syntax are created by adding 'stereotypes' to a model

element. The stereotype creates a new model element from an

existing one with an extended, user-defined meaning. User defined

symbols, which replace the original UML symbol for the model

element, can then be assigned to the stereotype. UML itself uses

this mechanism, so it is important to know what stereotypes are

predefined in UML in order not to clash with them when creating

new ones.

The use case diagram shows the functionality of the

system from an outside-in viewpoint.102

-Actors (stick men) are anything outside the system that interacts

with the system.

- Use Cases (ovals) are the procedures by which the actors interact

with the system.

- Solid lines indicate which actors interact with the system as part of

which procedures.

- Dashed lines show dependencies between use cases, where one

use case is 'included' in or 'extends' another.

7.6 CLASS DIAGRAM:

Class diagrams show the static structure of the systems.

Classes define the properties of the objects which belong to them.

These include:

-Attributes - (second container) the data properties of the classes

including type, default value and constraints.103

7.6.1 Example:

- Operations - (third container) the signature of the functionality that

can be applied to the objects of the classes including parameters,

parameter types, parameter constraints, return types and the

semantics.

- Associations - (solid lines between classes) the references,

contained within the objects of the classes, to other objects,

enabling interaction with those objects.

Sequence Diagram:

Sequence diagrams show potential interactions between

objects in the system being defined. Normally these are specified

as part of a use case or use case flow and show how the use case

will be implemented in the system. They include:

- Objects - oblong boxes or actors at the top - either named or just

shown as belonging to a class, from, or to which messages are

sent to other objects.104

Example:

- Messages - solid lines for calls and dotted lines for data returns,

showing the messages that are sent between objects including the

order of the messages which is from the top to the bottom of the

diagram.

- Object lifelines - dotted vertical lines showing the lifetime of the

objects.

- Activation - the vertical oblong boxes on the object lifelines

showing the thread of control in a synchronous system.

7.7 COMMUNICATION DIAGRAM:

Communication Diagrams show similar information to sequence

diagrams, except that the vertical sequence is missing. In its place

are:105

- Object Links - solid lines between the objects. These represent

the references between objects that are needed for them to interact

and so show the static structure at object level.

- Messages - arrows with one or more message name that show

the direction and names of the messages sent between objects.

7.8 ACTIVITY DIAGRAM:

A UML Activity Diagram is a general purpose flowchart with

a few extras. It can be used to detail a business process, or to help

define complex iteration and selection in a use case description. It

includes:

- Active states - oblongs with rounded corners which describe what

is done.

- Transitions - which show the order in which the active states occur

and represent a thread of activity?

- Conditions - (in square brackets) which qualify the transitions.

-Decisions - (nodes in the transitions) which cause the thread to

select one of multiple paths.106

7.9 COMPONENT DIAGRAM:

Component Diagrams show the types of software

components in the system, their interfaces and dependencies.

7.9.1 Example:

7.10 DEPLOYMENT DIAGRAM:

Deployment diagrams show the computing nodes in the system,

their communication links, the components that run on them and

their dependencies.

7.10.1 Example:107

7.11 SUMMARY :

In this chapter we discussed many points related to system

development and analysis model. These model helps to us to

represent any system like online and offline system.

Questions:

1.Explain ER- Diagram in detail?

Ans: refer 7.2

2.Explain UML diagram in detail?

Ans: refer 7.5

3.Draw an ERD for Hotel Mangament System.

Ans: refer 7.2

4.Draw a Use case diagram for Online Shopping for Greeting card.

Ans: refer 7.5

vvvv 108

8

DESIGN

Unit Structure

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Local Design

8.3 Physical Design

8.4 Alternative design method

8.4.1 Rapid Application Development (RAD)

8.4.2 Joint Application Development (JAD)

8.5 Embedded System

8.6 Design Phase Activities

8.7 Baselines in the SDLC

8.8 System Flow chart

8.8.1 Symbols for to draw Flowchart

8.8.2 An example of a system flowchart is shown below

8.8.3 Flowchart Symbols

8.9 Structure Chart

8.9.1 Applications of Structure Chart

8.9.2 Example

8.10 Transactional Analysis

8.10.1 The three ego states presented by Berne are

8.10.2 The four basic types of transaction

8.10.3 Example

8.11 Summary

8.1 INTRODUCTION:

Systems design is the process or art of defining the

architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for

a system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as the

application of systems theory to product development. There is

some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems

architecture and systems engineering.109

Object-oriented analysis and design methods are becoming

the most widely used methods for computer system design.

The

UML has become the standard language used in Object-oriented

analysis and design. It is widely used for modeling software

systems and is increasingly used for high designing non-software

systems and organizations.

8.2 LOCAL DESIGN:

The logical design of a system pertains to an abstract

representation of the data flows, inputs and outputs of the system.

This is often conducted via modelling, which involves a simplistic

(and sometimes graphical) representation of an actual system. In

the context of systems design, modelling can undertake the

following forms, including:

§ Data flow diagrams

§ Entity Life Histories

§ Entity Relationship Diagrams

8.3 PHYSICAL DESIGN:

The physical design relates to the actual input and output

processes of the system. This is laid down in terms of how data is

inputted into a system, how it is verified/authenticated, how it is

processed, and how it is displayed as output.

Physical design, in this context, does not refer to the tangible

physical design of an information system. To use an analogy, a

personal computer's physical design involves input via a keyboard,

processing within the CPU, and output via a monitor, printer, etc. It

would not concern the actual layout of the tangible hardware, which

for a PC would be a monitor, CPU, motherboard, hard drive,

modems, video/graphics cards, USB slots, etc

8.4 ALTERNATIVE DESIGN METHOD:

8.4.1 Rapid Application Development (RAD)

Rapid Application Development (RAD) is a methodology in

which a systems designer produces prototypes for an end-user.

The end-user reviews the prototype, and offers feedback on its

suitability. This process is repeated until the end-user is satisfied

with the final system.110

8.4.2 Joint Application Development (JAD)

JAD is a methodology which evolved from RAD, in which a

systems designer consults with a group consisting of the following

parties:

§ Executive sponsor

§ Systems Designer

§ Managers of the system

8.5 EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to

perform one or a few dedicated functions often with real-time

computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device

often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a

general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is

designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user

needs.

Characteristics:

1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task,

rather than be a general-purpose computer for multiple tasks.

Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be

met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have

low or no performance requirements, allowing the system

hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.

2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many

embedded systems consist of small, computerized parts within

a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For

example, the Gibson Robo Guitar features an embedded

system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the

Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music. Similarly, an

embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function

as a subsystem of the car itself.

3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are

referred to as firmware, and are stored in read-only memory

or Flash memory chips. They run with limited computer

hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent

keyboard and/or screen.

8.6 DESIGN PHASE ACTIVITIES:

1.The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), or Software

Development Life Cycle in systems engineering, information

systems and software engineering, is the process of creating or111

altering systems, and the models and methodologies that people

use to develop these systems. The concept generally refers

to computer or information systems.

2. Work breakdown structure organization:

The upper section of the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a

summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an

overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part

of the initial project description effort leading to project approval.

8.7 BASELINES IN THE SDLC:

Baselines are an important part of the Systems Development

Life Cycle (SDLC). These baselines are established after four of the

five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the iterative nature of

the model.. Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the

SDLC.

§ Functional Baseline: established after the conceptual design

phase.

§ Allocated Baseline: established after the preliminary design

phase.

§ Product Baseline: established after the detail design and

development phase.

§ Updated Product Baseline: established after the production

construction phase.

8.8 SYSTEM FLOW CHART:

A system flowchart explains how a system works using a

diagram. The diagram shows the flow of data through a system.

8.8.1 Symbols for to draw Flowchart:112

The symbols are linked with directed lines (lines with arrows)

showing the flow of data through the system.

8.8.2 An example of a system flowchart is shown below:

Transactions are input, validated and sorted and then used

to update a master file.

Note: The arrows show the flow of data through the system. The

dotted line shows that the Updated master file is then used as input

for the next Update process.

A flowchart is a type of diagram, that represents

an algorithm or process, showing the steps as boxes of various

kinds, and their order by connecting these with arrows. This

diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a

given problem. Data is represented in these boxes, and arrows

connecting them represent flow / direction of flow of data.

Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or

managing a process or program in various fields.113

Example:

8.8.3 Flowchart Symbols:

A typical flowchart from older to computer science textbooks

may have the following kinds of symbols:

Start and end symbols

Represented as circles, ovals or rounded rectangles, usually

containing the word "Start" or "End", or another phrase signalling

the start or end of a process, such as "submit enquiry" or "receive

product".

Arrows

Showing what's called "flow of control" in computer science.

An arrow coming from one symbol and ending at another symbol

represents that control passes to the symbol the arrow points to.

Processing steps

Represented as rectangles. Examples: "Add 1 to X";

"replace identified part"; "save changes" or similar.

Input/Output

Represented as a parallelogram.

Examples: Get X from the user; display X.

8.9 STRUCTURE CHART:

A Structure Chart (SC) in software engineering and organizational

theory is a chart, which shows the breakdown of the configuration

system to the lowest manageable levels.114

This chart is used in structured programming to arrange the

program modules in a tree structure. Each module is represented

by a box, which contains the module's name. The tree structure

visualizes the relationships between the modules.

Overview:

A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool,

constructed of squares representing the different modules in

the system, and lines that connect them. The lines represent the

connection and or ownership between activities and sub activities

as they are used in organization charts.

In structured analysis structure charts, according to Wolber

(2009), "are used to specify the high-level design, or architecture, of

a computer program. As a design tool, they aid the programmer in

dividing and conquering a large software problem, that is,

recursively breaking a problem down into parts that are small

enough to be understood by a human brain. The process is called

top-down design, or functional decomposition. Programmers use a

structure chart to build a program in a manner similar to how an

architect uses a blueprint to build a house. In the design stage, the

chart is drawn and used as a way for the client and the various

software designers to communicate. During the actual building of

the program (implementation), the chart is continually referred to as

the master-plan".

A structure chart is also used to diagram associated

elements that comprise a run stream or thread. It is often

developed as a hierarchical diagram, but other representations are

allowable. The representation must describe the breakdown of

the configuration system into subsystems and the lowest

manageable level. An accurate and complete structure chart is the

key to the determination of the configuration items, and a visual

representation of the configuration system and the internal

interfaces among its CIs. During the configuration control process,

the structure chart is used to identify CIs and their associated

artifacts that a proposed change may impact.

8.9.1 Applications of Structure Chart:

Use a Structure Chart to illustrate the high level overview of

software structure. Structure Charts do not show module

internals. Use a method, such as Pseudo code or Structured

English, to show the detailed internals of modules.

Following are few advantage points:

-Representing Sequence, Repetition, and Condition on a Structure

Chart115

-Modules on a Structure Chart

-Interrelationships among Modules

-Information Transfers

-Reducing Clutter on a Structure Chart.

8.9.2 Example: The example Structure Chart illustrates the

structure of the modules to process a customer order.

8.10 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:

Transactional Analysis is a theory developed by Dr. Eric

Berne in the 1950s. Transactional analysis, commonly known

as TA to its adherents, is an integrative approach to the theory

of psychology and psychotherapy.

Transactional analysis can serve as a sophisticated,

elegant, and effective system on which to base the practical116

activities of professionals in psychotherapy, counselling, education,

and organizational consultation.

It is a sophisticated theory of personality, motivation, and

problem solving that can be of great use to psychotherapists,

counsellors, educators, and business consultants.

Transactional analysis can be divided into five theoretical

and practical conceptual clusters. These five clusters enjoy varying

degrees of recognition within the behavioural sciences. They are

listed below along with (between quotes) concepts that parallel

them in the behavioural sciences.

1. The Strokes Cluster. This cluster finds correlates in existing

theories of "attachment," "intimacy," "warmth," "tender loving

care," "need to belong," "contact," "closeness," "relationships,"

"social support," and "love."

2. The OK Cluster. This cluster finds correlates in existing theories

of "positive psychology," "flow," "human potential," "resiliency,"

"excellence," "optimism," "subjective well-being," "positive selfconcept," "spontaneous
healing," "nature's helping hand," "vis

medicatrix naturae" (the healing power of nature), and "the

healing power of the mind."

3. The Script and Games Cluster. This cluster finds correlates in

existing theories of "narratives," "maladaptive schemas," "selfnarratives," "story schemas,"
"story grammars," "personal

myths," "personal event memories," "self-defining memories,"

"nuclear scenes," "gendered narratives," "narrative coherence,"

"narrative complexity," "core self-beliefs," and "self-concept."

4. The Ego States and Transactions Cluster. The idea of three

egos states and the transactional interactions between them are

the most distinctive feature of transactional analysis and yet

have the least amount of resonance in the literature. However,

the utility of this concept is the principal reason why people

become interested and maintain their interest in transactional

analysis.

5. The Transactional Analysis Theory of Change Cluster.

Transactional analysis is essentially a cognitive-behavioural

theory of personality and change that nevertheless retains an

interest in the psychodynamic aspect of the personality.

Transactional Analysis is a contractual approach. A contract

is "an explicit bilateral commitment to a well-defined course of

action" Berne E. (1966). This means that all parties need to agree:117

· why they want to do something

· with whom

· what they are going to do

· by when

· Any fees, payment or exchanges there will be..

The fact that these different states exist is taken as being

responsible for the positive or negative outcomes to conversations.

Berne showed the transactional stimulus and response through the

use of a simple diagram showing parent (P), adult (A), child and

(C), ego states and the transactional links between them.

PP

AA

CC

8.10.1 The three ego states presented by Berne are:

Parent

The parent ego state is characterized by the need to

establish standards, direct others, in still values and criticize. There

are two recognized sub-groups of this ego state, being controlling

parents who show signs of being authoritarian, controlling and

negative, and nurturing parents who tend to be positive and

supportive, but who can become suffocating.

Adult

The adult ego state is characterized by the ability to act in a

detached and rational manner, logically as a decision maker

utilizing information to its maximum. The archetypal example of this

ego state might be Mr Spock!

Child

The child ego state is characterized by a greater

demonstration of emotion, either positive or negative. Once again,

as with the parent, there are sub-groups of this ego state, in this

case three. The first is the natural child state, with uninhibited

actions, which might include energy and raw enthusiasm, to

curiosity and fear. It is essentially self- centred. The adapted child

state is a state where emotions are still strong, but there is some

attempt to control, ending in compliant or withdrawn behaviours.

Finally, the 'little professor' is a child ego state that shows emerging

adult traits, and a greater ability to constrain emotions.

Transactions can be brief, can involve no verbal content at

all (looking at some-one across a room), or can be long and

involved. However, Berne believed that there were four basic types

of transaction:118

8.10.2 The four basic types of transaction:

Complementary

A transaction where the ego states complement each other,

resulting in a positive exchange. This might include two teachers

discussing some assessment data in order to solve a problem

where they are both inhabiting the adult ego state.

Duplex

This is a transaction that can appear simple, but entails two

levels of communication, one often implicit. At a social level, the

transaction might be adult to adult, but at a psychological level it

might be child to child as a hidden competitive communication.

Angular

Here, the stimulation appears to be aimed at one ego state,

but covertly is actually aimed at another, such as the use of

sarcasm. This may then lead to a different ego state response from

that which might be expected.

Crossed

Here, the parent acts as a controlling parent, but in aiming

the stimulus at the child ego state, a response from the adult ego

state, although perhaps perfectly reasonable but unexpected,

brings conflict.

As a result, where there are crossed transactions, there is a

high possibility of a negative development to a conversation, often

resulting in confrontation or bad feeling?

8.10.3 Example:

Transactional Analysis in the classroom:

Within any classroom there is a constant dynamic

transactional process developing. How this is man-aged can have

important ramifications for both short and long term relationships

between staff and students.

If we take as a starting point the more traditional style of

relationship between teacher and student, this will often occur as a

parental stimulus directed at a child, expecting a child reaction.

Hence, this translates to a simple transaction such as that below

(shown by the solid lines).

However, as all teachers know, students at secondary level

are beginning to re-establish their boundaries as people and are

becoming increasingly independent. As a result, it is increasingly

likely that as the children become older, a parental stimulus

directed at a child ego state will result in an adult to adult response.119

Even though the response is perfectly reasonable, and indeed

would be sought in most circumstances, in this case it leads to a

crossed transaction and the potential for a negative conversation.

8.11 SUMMARY

This chapter is based on System design and their different design

models like flow chart, UML diagram, structure chart, activity

diagram. These diagram helps to represent flow and working of

data.

vvvv 120

9

SOFTWARE DESIGN AND

DOCUMENTATION TOOLS

Unit Structure

9.1 Introduction

9.2 People and Software

9.3 Requirements documentation

9.4 Architecture/Design documentation

9.5 Technical documentation

9.6 User documentation

9.7 Marketing documentation

9.8 Hipo chart

9.9 Warnier Orr diagram

9.10 Summary

9.1 INTRODUCTION:

Software documentation or source code documentation is

written text that accompanies computer software. It either explains

how it operates or how to use it, and may mean different things to

people in different roles.

9.2 PEOPLE AND SOFTWARE:

Documentation is an important part of software engineering. Types

of documentation include:

1. Requirements - Statements that identify attribute capabilities,

characteristics, or qualities of a system. This is the foundation

for what shall be or has been implemented.

2. Architecture/Design - Overview of software. Includes relations to

an environment and construction principles to be used in design

of software components.

3. Technical - Documentation of code, algorithms, interfaces, and

APIs.

4. End User - Manuals for the end-user, system administrators and

support staff.121

5. Marketing - How to market the product and analysis of the

market demand.

9.3 REQUIREMENTS DOCUMENTATION:

Requirements documentation is the description of what

particular software does or shall do. It is used

throughout development to communicate what the software does or

shall do. It is also used as an agreement or as the foundation for

agreement on what the software shall do. Requirements are

produced and consumed by everyone involved in the production of

software: end users, customers, product managers, project

anagers, sales, marketing, software architects, usability

experts, interaction designers, developers, and testers, to name a

few. Thus, requirements documentation has many different

purposes.

The need for requirements documentation is typically related

to the complexity of the product, the impact of the product, and the

life expectancy of the software. If the software is very complex or

developed by many people (e.g., mobile phone software),

requirements can help to better communicate what to achieve. If

the software is safety-critical and can have negative impact on

human life (e.g., nuclear power systems, medical equipment), more

formal requirements documentation is often required. If the

software is expected to live for only a month or two (e.g., very small

mobile phone applications developed specifically for a certain

campaign) very little requirements documentation may be needed.

If the software is a first release that is later built upon, requirements

documentation is very helpful when managing the change of the

software and verifying that nothing has been broken in the software

when it is modified.

9.4 ARCHITECTURE/DESIGN DOCUMENTATION:

Architecture documentation is a special breed of design

document. In a way, architecture documents are third derivative

from the code (design document being second derivative, and code

documents being first). Very little in the architecture documents is

specific to the code itself. These documents do not describe how to

program a particular routine, or even why that particular routine

exists in the form that it does, but instead merely lays out the

general requirements that would motivate the existence of such a

routine. A good architecture document is short on details but thick

on explanation. It may suggest approaches for lower level design,

but leave the actual exploration trade studies to other documents.122

A very important part of the design document in enterprise

software development is the Database Design Document (DDD). It

contains Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Design Elements. The

DDD includes the formal information that the people who interact

with the database need. The purpose of preparing it is to create a

common source to be used by all players within the scene. The

potential users are:

§ Database Designer

§ Database Developer

§ Database Administrator

§ Application Designer

§ Application Developer

When talking about Relational Database Systems, the

document should include following parts:

· Entity - Relationship Schema, including following information

and their clear definitions:

· Entity Sets and their attributes

· Relationships and their attributes

· Candidate keys for each entity set

· Attribute and Tuple based constraints

· Relational Schema, including following information:

· Tables, Attributes, and their properties

· Views

· Constraints such as primary keys, foreign keys,

· Cardinality of referential constraints

· Cascading Policy for referential constraints

· Primary keys

It is very important to include all information that is to be

used by all actors in the scene. It is also very important to update

the documents as any change occurs in the database as well.

9.5 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION:

This is what most programmers mean when using the

term software documentation. When creating software, code alone

is insufficient. There must be some text along with it to describe

various aspects of its intended operation. It is important for the

code documents to be thorough, but not so verbose that it becomes

difficult to maintain them. Several How-to and overview

documentation are found specific to the software application or123

software product being documented by API Writers. This

documentation may be used by developers, testers and also the

end customers or clients using this software application.

Many programmers really like the idea of auto-generating

documentation for various reasons. For example, because it is

extracted from the source code itself (for example,

through comments), the programmer can write it while referring to

the code, and use the same tools used to create the source code to

make the documentation. This makes it much easier to keep the

documentation up-to-date.

9.6 USER DOCUMENTATION:

Unlike code documents, user documents are usually far

more diverse with respect to the source code of the program, and

instead simply describe how it is used.

In the case of a software library, the code documents and

user documents could be effectively equivalent and are worth

conjoining, but for a general application this is not often true. On the

other hand, the Lisp machine grew out of a tradition in which every

piece of code had an attached documentation string. In

combination with strong search capabilities (based on a Unixlike apropos command), and online
sources, Lisp users could look

up documentation prepared by these API Writers and paste the

associated function directly into their own code. This level of ease

of use is unheard of in putatively more modern systems.

Typically, the user documentation describes each feature of

the program, and assists the user in realizing these features. A

good user document can also go so far as to provide

thorough troubleshooting assistance. It is very important for user

documents to not be confusing, and for them to be up to date. User

documents need not be organized in any particular way, but it is

very important for them to have a thorough index. Consistency and

simplicity are also very valuable. User documentation is considered

to constitute a contract specifying what the software will do. API

Writers are very well accomplished towards writing good user

documents as they would be well aware of the software

architecture and programming techniques used. See also Technical

Writing.

There are three broad ways in which user documentation

can be organized:

1. Tutorial: A tutorial approach is considered the most useful for a

new user, in which they are guided through each step of

accomplishing particular tasks.124

2. Thematic: A thematic approach, where chapters or sections

concentrate on one particular area of interest, is of more general

use to an intermediate user. Some authors prefer to convey

their ideas through a knowledge based article to facilitating the

user needs. This approach is usually practiced by a dynamic

industry, such as Information technology, where the user

population is largely correlated with

the troubleshooting demands.

3. List or Reference: The final type of organizing principle is one in

which commands or tasks are simply listed alphabetically or

logically grouped, often via cross-referenced indexes. This latter

approach is of greater use to advanced users who know exactly

what sort of information they are looking for.

9.7 MARKETING DOCUMENTATION:

For many applications it is necessary to have some

promotional materials to encourage casual observers to spend

more time learning about the product. This form of documentation

has three purposes:-

1. To excite the potential user about the product and in still in

them a desire for becoming more involved with it.

2. To inform them about what exactly the product does, so that

their expectations are in line with what they will be receiving.

3. To explain the position of this product with respect to other

alternatives.

4. To completely shroud the function of the product in mystery.

9.8 HIPO CHART:

HIPO for hierarchical input process output is a "popular

1970s systems analysis design aid and documentation technique

for representing the modules of a system as a hierarchy and for

documenting each module.

It was used to develop requirements, construct the design,

and support implementation of an expert system to demonstrate

automated rendezvous. Verification was then conducted

systematically because of the method of design and

implementation.

The overall design of the system is documented using HIPO

charts or structure charts. The structure chart is similar in

appearance to an organizational chart, but has been modified to125

show additional detail. Structure charts can be used to display

several types of information, but are used most commonly to

diagram either data structures or code structures.

Why we use HIPO chart?

The HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input-Process-Output) technique

is a tool for planning and/or documenting a computer program. A

HIPO model consists of a hierarchy chart that graphically

represents the program’s control structure and a set of IPO (InputProcess-Output) charts that
describe the inputs to, the outputs

from, and the functions (or processes) performed by each module

on the hierarchy chart.

Advantages of HIPO Chart:

Using the HIPO technique, designers can evaluate and

refine a program’s design, and correct flaws prior to

implementation. Given the graphic nature of HIPO, users and

managers can easily follow a program’s structure. The hierarchy

chart serves as a useful planning and visualization document for

managing the program development process. The IPO charts

define for the programmer each module’s inputs, outputs, and

algorithms.

Limitation of HIPO Chart:

-HIPO provides valuable long-term documentation. However, the

“text plus flowchart” nature of the IPO charts makes them difficult to

maintain, so the documentation often does not represent the

current state of the program.

-By its very nature, the HIPO technique is best used to plan and/or

document a hierarchically structured program.

Example: Set of Tasks to Be Performed by an Interactive

Inventory Program:-

1.0 Manage inventory

2.0 Update stock

2.1 Process sale

2.2 Process return

2.3 Process shipment

3.0 Generate report

3.1 Respond to query

3.2 Display status report

4.0 Maintain inventory data

4.1 Modify record

4.2 Add record

4.3 Delete record126

Diagrammatically presentation: A hierarchy chart for an

interactive inventory control program.

9.9 WARNIER-ORR DIAGRAM:

A Warnier/Orr diagram (also known as a logical

construction of a program/system) is a kind

of hierarchical flowchart that allow the description of the

organization of data and procedures.

Warnier/Orr diagrams show the processes and sequences in

which they are performed. Each process is defined in a hierarchical

manner i.e. it consists of sets of subprocesses, that define it. At

each level, the process is shown in bracket that groups its

components.

Since a process can have many different subprocesses,

Warnier/Orr diagram uses a set of brackets to show each level of

the system. Critical factors in s/w definition and development are

iteration or repetition and alteration. Warnier/Orr diagrams show

this very well.

To develop a Warnier/Orr diagram, the analyst works

backwards, starting with systems output and using output oriented127

analysis. On paper, the development moves from right to left. First,

the intended output or results of the processing are defined. At the

next level, shown by inclusion with a bracket, the steps needed to

produce the output are defined. Each step in turn is further defined.

Additional brackets group the processes required to produce the

result on the next level.

Construct the Warnier-orr diagram:

There are four basic constructs used on Warnier/Orr

diagrams: hierarchy, sequence, repetition, and alternation. There

are also two slightly more advanced concepts that are occasionally

needed: concurrency and recursion.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy is the most fundamental of all of the Warnier/Orr

constructs. It is simply a nested group of sets and subsets shown

as a set of nested brackets. Each bracket on the diagram

(depending on how you represent it, the character is usually more

like a brace "{" than a bracket "[", but we call them "brackets")

represents one level of hierarchy. The hierarchy or structure that is

represented on the diagram can show the organization of data or

processing. However, both data and processing are never shown

on the same diagram.

Sequence

Sequence is the simplest structure to show on a Warnier/Orr

diagram. Within one level of hierarchy, the features listed are

shown in the order in which they occur. In other words, on the Fig.

6 the step listed first is the first that will be executed (if the diagram

reflects a process), while the step listed last is the last that will be

executed. Similarly with data, the data field listed first is the first that

is encountered when looking at the data, the data field listed last is

the final one encountered.

Repetition

Repetition is the representation of a classic "loop" in

programming terms. It occurs whenever the same set of data

occurs over and over again (for a data structure) or whenever the

same group of actions is to occur over and over again (for a

processing structure).

lternation

Alternation, or selection, is the traditional "decision" process

whereby a determination is made to execute one process or

another. It is indicated as a relationship between two subsets.

Concurrency

Concurrency is one of the two advanced constructs used in

the methodology. It is used whenever sequence is unimportant.128

Recursion

Recursion is the least used of the constructs. It is used to

indicate that a set contains an earlier or a less ordered version of

itself.

Example: Warnier-orr diagram for Data Structure.129

Example: Warnier Orr diagram for Payroll cycle.

Example:

A Warnier/Orr diagram is a style of diagram which is

extremely useful for describing complex processes (e.g. computer

programs, business processes, instructions) and objects (e.g. data

structures, documents, parts explosions). Warnier/Orr diagrams are

elegant, easy to understand and easy to create. When you interpret

one of B-liner's diagrams as a Warnier/Orr diagram, you give a

simple, yet formal meaning to the elements of the diagram.

The following is a quick description of the main elements of a

Warnier/Orr diagram.

Bracket: A bracket encloses a level of decomposition in a

diagram. It reveals what something "consists of" at the

next level of detail.

Sequence: The sequence of events is defined by the top-tobottom order in a diagram. That is, an
event occurs

after everything above it in a diagram, but before

anything below it.

OR: You represent choice in a diagram by placing an "OR"

operator between the items of a choice. The "OR"

operator looks either like or .

AND: You represent concurrency in a diagram by placing an

"AND" operator between the concurrent actions. The

"AND" operator looks either like or .130

Repetition: To show that an action repeats (loops), you simply put

the number of repetitions of the action in parentheses

below the action.

The diagram below illustrates the use of these constructs to

describe a simple process.

You could read the above diagram like this:

"Welcoming a guest to your home (from 1 to many

times) consists of greeting the guest and taking the guest's coat at

the same time, then showing the guest in. Greeting a

guest consists of saying "Good morning" if it's morning, or saying

"Good afternoon" if it's afternoon, or saying "Good evening" if it's

evening. Taking the guest's coat consists of helping the guest

remove their coat, then hanging the coat up."

As you can see, the diagram is much easier to understand

than the description.131

9.10 SUMMARY

This chapter used different software tools to find out working

style, process flow, data determination with the help of some latest

tools.

Questions:

1. Explain Requirements documentation in detail?

Ans: Refer 9.3

2. Explain Architecture/Design documentation in detail?

Ans: refer 9.4

3. Explain Technical documentation in detail?

Ans: refer 9.5

4. Explain Hipo chart?

Ans: refer 9.8

vvvv 132

10

DESIGNING INPUT, OUTPUT & USER

INTERFACE

Unit Structure

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Output Design

10.3 Input Design

10.4 User Interface

10.5 Golden rules of Interface Design

10.6 Summary

10.1 INTRODUCTION:

Output is what the customer is buying when he or she pay

for a development of project. Inputs, databases, and processes are

present to provide output.

A data input specification is a detailed description of the

individual fields (data elements) on an input document together with

their characteristics. In this chapter we will learn about Input design,

Output design and User Interface.

10.2 OUTPUT DESIGN:

Output is the most important task of any system. These

guidelines apply for the most part to both paper and screen outputs.

Output design is often discussed before other feature of design

because, from the customer’s point of view, the output is the

system. Output is what the customer is buying when he or she pay

for a development of project. Inputs, databases, and processes are

present to provide output. Problems often associated with business

information output are information hold-up, information (data)

overload, paper domination, extreme distribution, and no tailoring.

For example:

Mainframe printers: high volume, high speed, located in the

data centre Remote site printers: medium speed, close to end user.133

COM is Computer Output Microfilm. It is more compressed

than traditional output and may be produced as fast as non-impact

printer output.

· Turnaround documents trim down the cost of internal

information processing by reducing both data entry and

associated errors.

· Periodic reports have set frequencies such as daily or

weekly; ad hoc reports are produced at irregular intervals.

· Detail and summary reports differ in the former support dayto-day operation of the business
while the latter include

statistics and ratios used by managers to consider the health

of operations.

· Page breaks and control breaks allow for abstract totals on

key fields. Report requirements documents include general

report information and field specifications; print layout sheets

present a picture of what the report will actually look like.

· Page decoupling is the separation of pages into cohesive

groups.

Two ways to create output for strategic purposes are

(1) Make it compatible with processes outside the immediate

scope of the system

(2) Turn action documents into turnaround documents.

People often receive reports they do not require because the

number of reports received is perceived as a measure of power.

Fields on a report should be selected carefully to provide organized

reports, facilitate 80-column remote printing, and reduce

information (data) overload.

The types of fields which should be considered for business

output are: key fields for access to information, fields for control

breaks, fields that change, and exception fields.

Output may be designed to aid future change by stressing

formless reports, defining field size for future growth, making field

constants into variables, and leaving room on review reports for

added ratios and statistics.

Output can now be more easily tailored to the needs of

individual users because inquiry-based systems allow users

themselves to generate ad hoc reports. An output intermediary can

restrict access to key information and avoid illegal access. An

information clearinghouse (or information centre) is a service centre134

that provides consultation, assistance, and documentation to

encourage end-user development and use of applications. The

specifications essential to describe the output of a system are: data

flow diagrams, data flow specifications, data structure

specifications, and data element specifications.

· Output Documents

· Printed Reports

· External Reports: for use or distribution outside the

organization; often on pre-printed forms.

· Internal Reports: for use within the organization; not as

"pretty", stock paper, greenbar, etc.

· Periodic Reports: produced with a set frequency (daily,

weekly, monthly, every fifth Tuesday, etc.)

· Ad-Hoc (On Demand) Reports: unbalanced interval;

produced upon user demand.

· Detail Reports: one line per transaction.

Review Reports: an overview.

· Exception Reports: only shows errors, problems, out-ofrange values, or unexpected
conditions or events.

10.3 INPUT DESIGN

A source document differs from a turnaround document in

that the former holds data that revolutionize the status of a resource

while the latter is a machine readable document. Transaction

throughput is the number of error-free transactions entered during a

specified time period. A document should be concise because

longer documents contain more data and so take longer to enter

and have a greater chance of data entry errors.

Numeric coding substitutes numbers for character data (e.g.,

1=male, 2=female); mnemonic coding represents data in a form

that is easier for the user to understand and remember. (e.g.,

M=male, F=female). The more quickly an error is detected, the

nearer the error is to the person who generated it and so the error

is more easily corrected. An example of an illogical combination in

a payroll system would be an option to eliminate federal tax

withholding.

By "multiple levels" of messages, I mean allowing the user to

obtain more detailed explanations of an error by using a help

option, but not forcing a long-lasting message on a user who does

not want it. An error suspense record would include the following135

fields: data entry operator identification, transaction entry date,

transaction entry time, transaction type, transaction image, fields in

error, error codes, date transaction re-entered successfully.

· A data input specification is a detailed description of the

individual fields (data elements) on an input document

together with their characteristics (i.e., type and length).

· Be specific and precise, not general, ambiguous, or vague.

(BAD: Syntax error, Invalid entry, General Failure)

· Don't JUST say what's wrong---- Be constructive; propose

what needs to be done to correct the error condition.

· Be positive; Avoid condemnation. Possibly even to the point

of avoiding pejorative terms such as "invalid" "illegal" or

"bad."

· Be user-centric and attempt to convey to the user that he or

she is in control by replacing imperatives such as "Enter

date" with wording such as "Ready for date."

· Consider multiple message levels: the initial or default error

message can be brief but allow the user some mechanism to

request additional information.

· Consistency in terminology and wording.

i. Place error messages in the same place on the

screen

ii. Use consistent display characteristics (blinking,

colour, beeping, etc.)

10.4 USER INTERFACE

i. The primary differences between an inter active and batch

environment are:

· interactive processing is done during the organization's

prime work hours

· interactive systems usually have multiple, simultaneous

users

· the experience level of users runs from novice to highly

experienced

· developers must be good communicators because of the

need to design systems with error messages, help text, and

requests for user responses.

ii. The seven step path that grades the structure of an

interactive system is

a. Greeting screen (e.g., company logo)136

b. Password screen -- to prevent unauthorized use

c. Main menu -- allow choice of several available

applications

d. Intermediate menus -- further delineate choice of

functions

e. Function screens -- updating or deleting records

f. Help screens -- how to perform a task

g. Escape options -- from a particular screen or the

application

iii. An intermediate menu and a function screen differ in that the

former provides choices from a set of related operations

while the latter provides the ability to perform tasks such as

updates or deletes.

iv. The difference between inquiry and command language

dialogue modes is that the former asks the user to provide a

response to a simple question (e.g., "Do you really want to

delete this file?") where the latter requires that the user know

what he or she wants to do next (e.g., MS-DOS C:> prompt;

VAX/VMS $ prompt; Unix shell prompt). GUI Interface

(Windows, Macintosh) provide Dialog Boxes to prompt user

to input required information/parameters.

v. Directions for designing form-filling screens:

a) Fields on the screen should be in the same sequence

as on the source document.

b) Use cuing to provide the user with information such

as field formats (e.g., dates)

c) Provide default values.

d) Edit all entered fields for transaction errors.

e) Move the cursor automatically to the next entry field

f) Allow entry to be free-form (e.g., do not make the user

enter leading zeroes)

Consider having all entries made at the same position on the

screen.

vi. A default value is a value automatically supplied by the

application when the user leaves a field blank. For example,

at SXU the screen on which student names and addresses

are entered has a default value of "IL" for State since the

majority of students have addresses in Illinois. At one time

"312" was a default value for Area Code, but with the

additional Area Codes now in use (312, 773, 708, 630, 847)

providing a default value for this field is no longer as useful.137

vii. The eight parts of an interactive screen menu are:

0. Locator -- what application the user is currently in

1. Menu ID -- allows the more experienced user access

without going through the entire menu tree.

2. Title

3. User instructions

4. Menu list

5. Escape option

6. User response area

7. System messages (e.g., error messages)

viii. Highlighting should be used for gaining attention and so

should be limited to critical information, unusual values, high

priority messages, or items that must be changed.

ix. Potential problems associated with the overuse of color are:

· Colors have different meanings to different people and in

different cultures.

· A certain percentage of the population is known to have

color vision deficiency.

· Some color combinations may be disruptive.

x. Information density is important because density that is too

high makes it more difficult to discern the information

presented on a screen, especially for novice users.

xi. Rules for defining message content include:

· Use active voice.

· Use short, simple sentences.

· Use affirmative statements.

· Avoid hyphenation and unnecessary punctuation.

· Separate text paragraphs with at least one blank line.

· Keep field width within 40 characters for easy reading.

· Avoid word contractions and abbreviations.

· Use non threatening language.

· Avoid godlike language.

· Do not patronize.

· Use mixed case (upper and lower case) letters.

· Use humour carefully.

xii. Symmetry is important to screen design because it is

aesthetically pleasing and thus more comforting.138

xiii. Input verification is asking the user to confirm his or her most

recent input (e.g., "Are you sure you want to delete this

file?")

xiv. Adaptive models are useful because they adapt to the user's

experience level as he or she moves from novice to

experienced over time as experience with the system grows.

xv. "Within User" sources of variation include: warm up, fatigue,

boredom, environmental conditions, and extraneous events.

xvi. The elements of the adaptive model are:

· Triggering question to determine user experience level

· Differentiation among user experience

· Alternative processing paths based on user level

· Transition of casual user to experienced processing path

· Transition of novice user to experienced processing path

· Allowing the user to move to an easier processing path

xvii. Interactive tasks can be designed for closure by providing

the user with feedback indicating that a task has been

completed.

xviii. Internal locus of control is making users feel that they are in

control of the system, rather than that the system is in

control of them.

xix. Examples of distracting use of surprise are:

• Highlighting

• Input verification

• Flashing messages

• Auditory messages

xx. Losing the interactive user can be avoided by using short

menu paths and "You are here" prompts.

xxi. Some common user shortcuts are: direct menu access,

function keys, and shortened response time.

10.5 GOLDEN RULES OF INTERFACE DESIGN:

1. Strive for consistency.

2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts.

3. Offer informative feedback.

4. Design dialogs to yield closure.

5. Offer error prevention and simple error handling.

6. Permit easy reversal of actions.139

7. Support internal locus of control.

8. Reduce short-term memory load.

10.6 SUMMARY:

In above chapter, we learn the concept of Output Design

(Output is what the customer is buying when he or she pay for a

development of project), Input Design, User Interface and rules of

Interface design.

Questions:

1. Explain Golden rules of Interface Design?

Ans: refer 10.5

2. Explain Input design, output design and user interface in detail?

Ans: refer 10.2, 10.3 and 10.4

vvvv 140

11

SOFTWARE TESTING STRATEGY

Unit Structure

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Strategic approach to software testing

11.3 Organizing for Software Testing

11.4 A Software Testing Strategy

11.5 Unit Testing

11.6 Integration testing

11.6.1 Top down Integration

11.6.2 Bottom-up Integration

11.7 Regression Testing

11.8 Comments on Integration Testing

11.9 The art of debugging

11.9.1 The Debugging Process

11.10 Summary

11.1 INTRODUCTION:

A strategy for software testing must accommodate low-level

tests that are necessary to verify that a small source code segment

has been correctly implemented as well as high-level tests that

validate major system functions against customer requirements. A

strategy must provide guidance for the practitioner and a set of

milestones for the manager. Because the steps of the test strategy

occur at a time when dead-line pressure begins to rise, progress

must be measurable and problems must surface as early as

possible.

11.2 STRATEGIC APPROACH TO SOFTWARE

TESTING

Testing is a set of activities that can be planned in advance

and conducted systematically. For this reason a template for

software testing -- a set of steps into which we can place specific141

test case design techniques and testing methods -- should be

defined for the software process.

A number of software testing strategies have been proposed

in the literature. All provide the software developer with a template

for testing and all have the following generic characteristics.

Ø Testing begins at the component level and works 'outward'

toward the integration of the entire computer-based system,

Ø Different testing techniques are appropriate at different

points in time.

Ø Testing is conducted by the developer of the software and

(for large projects) an independent test group.

Ø Testing and debugging are different activities, but

debugging must be accommodated in any testing strategy,

A strategy for software testing must accommodate low-level

tests that are necessary to verify that a small source code segment

has been correctly implemented as well as high-level tests that

validate major system functions against customer requirements. A

strategy must provide guidance for the practitioner and a set of

milestones for the manager. Because the steps of the test strategy

occur at a time when dead-line pressure begins to rise, progress

must be measurable and problems must surface as early as

possible.

11.3 ORGANIZING FOR SOFTWARE TESTING

For every software project, there is an inherent conflict of

interest that occurs as testing begins. The people who have built

the software are now asked to test the software. This seems

harmless in itself; after all, who knows the program better than its

developers? Unfortunately, these same developers have a vested

interest in demonstrating that the program is error free, that it works

according to customer requirements, and that it will be completed

on schedule and within budget. Each of these interests mitigate

against thorough testing.

From a psychological point of view, software analysis and

design (along with coding) are constructive tasks. The software

engineer creates a computer program, its documentation, and

related data structures. Like any builder, the software engineer is

proud of the edifice that has been built and looks askance at

anyone who attempts to tear it down. When testing commences,

there is a subtle, yet definite, attempt to 'break' the thing that the

software engineer has built. From the point of view of the builder,

testing can be considered to be (psychologically) destructive.142

There are often a number of misconceptions that can be

erroneously inferred from the preceding discussion:

Ø That the developer of software should do no testing at all.

Ø That the software should be ‘tossed over the wall’ to

strangers who will test it mercilessly,

Ø That tester gets involved with the project only when the

testing steps are about to begin.

Each of these above statements is incorrect.

The software developer is always responsible for testing the

individual units (components) of the program, ensuring that each

performs the function for which it was designed. In many cases, the

developer also conducts integration testing -- a testing step that

leads to the construction (and test) of the complete program

structure. Only after the software architecture is complete does an

independent test group become involved.

The role of an independent test group (ITG) is to remove the

inherent problems associated with letting the builder test the thing

that has been built. Independent testing removes the conflict of

interest that may otherwise be present. After all, personnel in the

independent group team are paid to find errors.

However, the software engineer doesn’t turn the program

over to ITG and walk away. The developer and the ITG work

closely throughout a software project to ensure that thorough tests

will be conducted: While testing is conducted, the developer must

be available to correct errors that are uncovered.

The ITG is part of the software development project team in

the sense that it becomes involved during the specification activity

and stays involved (planning and specifying test procedures)

throughout a large project. However, in many cases the ITG reports

to the software quality assurance organization, thereby achieving a

degree of independence that might not be possible if it were a part

of the software engineering organization.

11.4 A SOFTWARE TESTING STRATEGY

The software engineering process may be viewed as the

spiral illustrated in figure below. Initially, system engineering

defines the role of software and leads to software requirements

analysis. Where the information domain, function, behaviour,

performance, constraints. And validation criteria for software are

established. Moving inward along the spiral we come to design and

finally to coding. To develop computer software, we spiral inward143

along streamlines that decrease the level of abstraction on each

turn.

A strategy for software testing may also be viewed in the

context of the spiral (figure above). Unit testing begins at the vortex

of the spiral and concentrates on each unit (i.e, component) of the

software as implemented in source code. Testing progresses by

moving outward along the spiral to integration testing, where the

focus is on design and the construction of the software architecture.

Taking another turn outward on the spiral, we encounter validation

testing, where requirements established as part of software

requirements analysis are validated against the software that has

been constructed. Finally, we arrive at system testing, where the

software and other system elements are tested as a whole. To test

computer software, we spiral out along streamlines that broaden

the scope of testing with each turn.

Initially, tests focus on each component individually,

ensuring that it functions properly as a unit. Hence, the name unit

testing. Unit testing makes heavy use of white-box testing

techniques, exercising specific paths in a module's control structure

to ensure complete coverage and maximum error detection. Next,

components must be assembled or integrated to form the complete

software package. Integration testing addresses the issues

associated with the dual problems of verification and program

construction. Black-box test case design techniques are the most

prevalent during integration, although a limited amount of white-box

testing may be used to ensure coverage of major control paths.

After the software has been integrated (constructed), a set of highorder tests are conducted
Validation criteria (established during

requirements analysis) must be tested. Validation testing provides

final assurance that software meets all functional, behavioural, and

performance requirement. Black box testing techniques arc used

exclusively during validation.

The last high-order testing step falls outside the boundary of

software engineering and into the broader context of computer

system engineering. Software, once validated, must be combined

with other system elements (e.g., hardware, people, and

databases). System testing verifies that all elements mesh properly

and that overall system function/performance is achieved.

11.5 UNIT TESTING

Unit testing focuses verification effort on the smallest unit of

software design -- the software component or module. Using the

component-level design description as a guide, important control

paths are tested to uncover errors within the boundary of the

module. The relative complexity of tests and uncovered errors is144

limited by the constrained scope established for unit testing. The

unit test is white-box oriented, and the step can be conducted in

parallel for multiple components.

11.6 INTEGRATION TESTING

A neophyte in the software world might ask a seemingly

legitimate question once all modules have been unit tested: "If they

all work individually, why do you doubt that they'll work when we put

them together?" The problem, or course, is putting them together --

interfacing. Data can be lost across an interface; one module can

have an inadvertent, adverse affect on another; sub-functions,

when combined, may not produce the desired major function;

individually acceptable imprecision may be magnified to

unacceptable levels; global data structures can present problems.

Sadly, the list goes on and on.

Integration testing is a systematic technique for constructing

the program structure while at the same time conducting tests to

uncover errors associated with interfacing. The objective is to take

unit tested components and build a program structure that has

been dictated by design.

There is often a tendency to attempt non-incremental

integration; that is, to construct the program using a ‘big bang’

approaches. All components are combined in advance. The entire

program is tested as a whole. And chaos usually results! A set of

errors is encountered. Correction is difficult because isolation or

causes is complicated by the vast expanse of the entire program.

Once these errors are corrected, new ones appear and the process

continues in a seemingly endless loop.

Incremental integration is the antithesis of the big bang

approach. The program is constructed and tested in small

increments, where errors are easier to isolate and correct;

interfaces are more likely to be tested completely; and a systematic

test approach may be applied. In the sections that follow, a number

of different incremental integration strategies are discussed.

11.6.1 Top down Integration

Top down integration testing is an incremental approach to

construction or program structure. Modules are integrated by

moving downward through the control hierarchy beginning with the

main control module (main program). Modules subordinate (and

ultimately subordinate) to the main control module are incorporated

into the structure in either a depth-first or breadth-first manner.

Referring to Figure below depth-first integration would integrate all

components on a major control path of the structure. Selection of a

major path is somewhat arbitrary and depends on application-145

specific characteristics. For example, selecting the left hand path,

components M1 M2 and M5 would be integrated first. Next, M8 or

(if necessary proper functioning of M2) M6 would be integrated.

Then, the central and right hand control paths are built. Breadth first

integration incorporates all components directly sub-ordinate at

each level, moving across the structure horizontally.

M1

M2

M3 M4

M5 M6 M7

M8

The integration process is performed in a series of five steps:

1. The main control module is used as a test driver and stubs

are substituted for all components directly sub-ordinate to

the main control module.

2. Depending on the integration approach selected ( i.e., depth

or breadth first), sub-ordinate stubs are replaced one at a

time with actual components.

3. Tests are conducted as each component is integrated.

4. On completion of each set of tests, another stub is replaced

with the real components.

5. Regression testing may be conducted to ensure that new

errors have not been introduced.

The process continues from step 2 until the entire program

structure is built.

The top-down integration strategy verifies major control or

decision points early in the test process. In a well-factored program

structure, decision making occurs at upper levels in the hierarchy

and is therefore encountered first. If major control problems do

exist, early recognition is essential. If depth-first integration is

selected, a complete function of the software may be implemented

and demonstrated.

Top-down strategy sounds relatively uncomplicated, but in

practice, logistical problems can arise. The most common of these146

problems occurs when processing at low levels in the hierarchy is

required to adequately test upper levels. Stubs replace low-level

modules at the beginning of top-down testing; therefore, no

significant data can now upward in the program structure. The

tester is left will three choices;

Ø Delay many tests until stubs are replaced with actual

modules.

Ø Develop stubs that perform limited functions that simulate

the actual module, or

Ø Integrate the software from the bottom of the hierarchy

upward.

The first approach (delay tests until stubs are replaced by

actual modules) causes us to loose some control over

correspondence between specific tests and incorporation of specific

modules. This can lead to difficulty in determining the cause of

errors and tends to violate the highly constrained nature of the topdown approach. The second
approach is workable but can lead to

significant overhead, as stubs become more and more complex.

The third approach is called bottom-up testing.

11.6.2 Bottom-up Integration

Bottom-up integration testing, as its name implies, begins

construction and testing with atomic modules (i.e., components at

the lowest levels in the program structure). Because components

are integrated from the bottom up, processing required for

components subordinate to a given level is always available and

the need for stubs is eliminated.

A bottom-up integration strategy may be implemented with the

following steps:

Ø Low-level components are combined into clusters

(sometimes called builds) that perform a specific software

sub-function.

Ø A driver (a control program for testing) is written to

coordinate test case input and output.

Ø The cluster is tested.

Ø Drivers are removed and clusters are combined moving

upward in the program structure.147

Integration follows the pattern illustrated in Figure below.

Components are combined to form clusters 1,2, and 3.

Mc

Ma Mb

D1 D2 D3

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

Cluster 1

Each of the clusters is tested using a driver (shown as a

dashed block). Components in clusters 1 and 2 are subordinate to

Ma. Drivers D1 and D2 are removed and the clusters are interfaced

directly to Ma. Similarly, driver D3 for cluster 3 is removed prior to

integration with module Mb. Both Ma and Mb will ultimately be

integrated with component Mc, and so forth.

As integration moves upward the need for separate test

drivers lessens. In fact, if the top two levels of program structure

are integrated top down, the number of drivers can be reduced

substantially and integration of clusters is greatly simplified.

11.7 REGRESSION TESTING

Each time a new module is added as part of integration

testing, the software changes. New data flow paths are established,

new I/O may occur, and new control logic is invoked. These

changes may cause problems with functions that previously worked

flawlessly. In the context of an integration test strategy, regression

testing is the re-execution of some subset of tests that have already

been conducted to ensure that changes have not propagated

unintended side effects.148

In a broader context, successful tests (of any kind) result in

the discovery of errors, and errors must be corrected. Whenever

software is corrected, some aspect of the software configuration

(the program, its documentation, or the data that support it) is

changed. Regression testing is the activity that hclp5 to en5ure that

changes (due to testing or for other reasons) do not introduce

unintended behaviour or additional errors.

For instance, suppose you are going to add new functionality

to your software, or you are going to modify a module to improve its

response time. The changes, of course, may introduce errors into

software that was previously correct. For example, suppose the

program fragment

x := c + 1 ;

proc (z);

c := x + 2; x:= 3;

works properly. Now suppose that in a subsequent redesign it is

transformed into

proc(z);

c := c + 3;

x:= 3;

in an attempt at program optimization. This may result in an error if

procedure proc accesses variable x.

Thus, we need to organize testing also with the purpose of

verifying possible regressions of software during its life, i.e.,

degradations of correctness or other qualities due to later

modifications. Properly designing and documenting test cases with

the purpose of making tests repeatable, and using test generators,

will help regression testing. Conversely, the use of interactive

human input reduces repeatability and thus hampers regression

testing.

Finally, we must treat test cases in much the same way as

software. It is clear that such factors as resolvability, reusability,

and verifiability are just as important in test cases as they are in

software. We must apply formality and rigor and all of our other

principles in the development and management of test cases.

11.8 COMMENTS ON INTEGRATION TESTING

There has been much discussion of the relative advantages

and disadvantages of top-down versus bottom-up integration

testing. In general, the advantages of one strategy tend to result in

disadvantages for the other strategy. The major disadvantage of

the top-down approach is the need for stubs and the attendant

testing difficulties that can be associated with them. Problems149

associated with stubs may be offset by the advantage of testing

major control functions early. The major disadvantage of bottom-up

integration is that the program as an entity does not exist until the

last module is added. This drawback is tempered by easier test

case design and a lack of stubs.

Selection of an integration strategy depends upon software

characteristics and, sometimes, project schedule. In general, a

combined approach (sometimes called sandwich testing) that uses

top-down tests for upper levels of the program structure, coupled

with bottom-up tests for subordinate levels may be the best

compromise.

As integration testing is conducted, the tester should identify

critical modules. A critical module has one or more of the following

characteristics:

Ø addresses several software requirements,

Ø has a high level of control (resides relatively high in the

program structure),

Ø is complex or error prone (cyclomatic complexity may be

used as an indicator), or

Ø has definite performance requirements.

Ø Critical modules should be tested as early as is possible.

In addition, regression tests should focus on critical module

function.

11.9 THE ART OF DEBUGGING

Software testing is a process that can be systematically

planned and specified. Test case design can be conducted, a

strategy can be defined, and results can be evaluated against

prescribed expectations.

Debugging occurs as a consequence or successful testing.

That is, when a test case uncovers an error, debugging is the

process that results in the removal or the error. Although

debugging can and should be an orderly process, it is still very

much an art. A software engineer, evaluating the results or a test, is

often confronted with a "symptomatic" indication or a software

problem. That is, the external manifestation or the error and the

internal cause or the error may have no obvious relationship to one

another. The poorly understood mental process that connects a

symptom to a cause is debugging.150

11.9.1 The Debugging Process

Debugging is not testing but always occurs as a

consequence of testing. Referring to Figure in the next page, the

debugging process begins with the execution or a test case.

Results are assessed and a lack or correspondence between

expected and actual performance is encountered. In many cases,

the non-corresponding data are a symptom of an underlying cause

as yet hidden. The debugging process attempts to match symptom

with cause thereby leading to error correction.

The debugging process will always have one or two outcomes:

1. The cause will be found and corrected, or

2. The cause will not be found.

In the latter case, the person performing debugging may

suspect a cause, design a test case to help validate that suspicion,

and work toward error correction in an iterative fashion.

Why is debugging so difficult? In all likelihood, human

psychology has more to do with an answer than software

technology. However, a few characteristics or bugs provide some

clues:

Ø The symptom and the cause may be geographically

remote. That is, the symptom may appear in one part or a

program, while the cause may actually be located at a site

that is far removed. Highly coupled program structures

exacerbate this situation.

Test cases

Result

Correction

Debugging

Regression Test

Execution of cases

Identify Causes

Additional Test

Suspected causes151

Ø The symptom may disappear (temporarily) when another

error is corrected.

Ø The symptom may actually be caused by non-errors (e.g.,

round-off inaccuracies).

Ø The symptom may be caused by human error that is not

easily traced.

Ø The symptom may be a result, or timing problems, rather

than processing problems.

Ø It may be difficult to accurately reproduce input conditions

(e.g., a real-time application in which input ordering is

indeterminate).

Ø The symptom may be intermittent. This is particularly

common in embedded systems that couple hardware and

software inextricably.

Ø The symptom may be due to causes that are distributed

across a number of tasks running on different processors.

During debugging, we encounter errors that range from

mildly annoying (e,g., an incorrect output format) to catastrophic

(e.g. the system fails, causing serious economic or physical

damage). As the consequences or an error increase, the amount of

pressure to find the cause also increases. Often, pressure

sometimes forces a sort- ware developer to fix one error and at the

same time introduce two more.

10.10 SUMMARY:

In this way, we learned above Strategic approach to

software testing, Unit Testing, Integration Testing and Debugging

process in detail.

Questions:

1. Explain Unit Testing?

Ans: Refer 11.5

2. Explain Integration testing?

Ans: Refer 11.6

3. Explain Regression Testing?

Ans: Refer 11.7

4. Explain Debugging Process in detail?

Ans: Refer 11.9.1

vvvv 152

12

CATEGORIES OF TESTING

Unit Structure

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Testing process and the Software Testing Life Cycle

12.3 Types of Testing

12.4 Testing Techniques

12.5 Black Box and White Box testing

12.6 Black box testing

12.6.1 Black box testing Methods

12.6.2 Advantages of Black Box Testing

12.6.3 Disadvantages of Black Box Testing

12.7 White Box Testing

12.7.1 Code Coverage Analysis

12.7.2 Control Structure testing

12.7.3 Advantages of White Box Testing

12.7.4 Disadvantages of White Box Testing

12.8 Difference between Black Box Testing and White Box

Testing

12.9 Summary

12.1 INTRODUCTION:

In this Chapter, we will learn the testing life cycle of software

and also testing methods like white box testing and black box

testing. Also we trying to cover the sub processes of white box

testing and black box testing methods such as Integration Testing,

Unit Testing, Regression Testing, System Testing and much more.

12.2 THE TESTING PROCESS AND THE SOFTWARE

TESTING LIFE CYCLE:

Every testing project has to follow the waterfall model of the

testing process.

The waterfall model is as given below

1. Test Strategy & Planning153

2. Test Design

3. Test Environment setup

4. Test Execution

5. Defect Analysis & Tracking

6. Final Reporting

According to the respective projects, the scope of testing can

be tailored, but the process mentioned above is common to any

testing activity.

Software Testing has been accepted as a separate discipline to the

extent that there is a separate life cycle for the testing activity.

Involving software testing in all phases of the software

development life cycle has become a necessity as part of the

software quality assurance process. Right from the Requirements

study till the implementation, there needs to be testing done on

every phase. The V-Model of the Software Testing Life Cycle along

with the Software Development Life cycle given below indicates the

various phases or levels of testing.

Requirement Production

Study Verification

testing

High Level User acceptance

testing Design

Low Level System Testing

Design

Unit

Testing Integration Testing

SDLC - STLC

There are two categories of testing activities that can be

done on software, namely,

Ø Static Testing

Ø Dynamic Testing154

The kind of verification we do on the software work products

before the process of Compilation and creation of an executable is

more of Requirement review, design review, code review,

walkthrough and audits. This type of testing is called Static Testing.

When we test the software by executing and comparing the actual

& expected results, it is called Dynamic Testing

12.3 TYPES OF TESTING

From the V-model, we see that are various levels or phases

of testing, namely, Unit testing, Integration testing, System testing,

User Acceptance testing etc.

Let us see a brief definition on the widely employed types of testing.

Unit Testing: The testing done to a unit or to a smallest piece of

software. Done to verify if it satisfies its functional specification or

its intended design structure.

Integration Testing: Testing which takes place as sub elements

are combined (i.e. integrated) to form higher-level elements

Regression Testing: Selective re-testing of a system to verify the

modification (bug fixes) have not caused unintended effects and

that system still complies with its specified requirements

System Testing: Testing the software for the required

specifications on the intended hardware

Acceptance Testing: Formal testing conducted to determine

whether or not a system satisfies its acceptance criteria, which

enables a customer to determine whether to accept the system or

not.

Performance Testing: To evaluate the time taken or response

time of the system to perform it’s required functions in comparison

Stress Testing: To evaluate a system beyond the limits of the

specified requirements or ystem resources (such as disk space,

memory, processor utilization) to ensure the system do not reak

unexpectedly

Load Testing: Load Testing, a subset of stress testing, verifies that

a web site can handle a particular number of concurrent users while

maintaining acceptable response times

Alpha Testing: Testing of a software product or system conducted

at the developer’s site by the customer155

Beta Testing: Testing conducted at one or more customer sites by

the end user of a delivered software product system.

12.4 THE TESTING TECHNIQUES

To perform these types of testing, there are two widely used

testing techniques. The above said testing types are performed

based on the following testing techniques.

Black-Box testing technique:

This technique is used for testing based solely on analysis of

requirements (specification, user documentation.). Also known as

functional testing.

White-Box testing technique:

This technique us used for testing based on analysis of

internal logic (design, code, etc.)(But expected results still come

requirements). Also known as structural testing.

12.5 BLACK BOX AND WHITE BOX TESTING:

Test Design refers to understanding the sources of test cases, test

coverage, how to develop and document test cases, and how to

build and maintain test data. There are 2 primary methods by which

tests can be designed and they are:

- BLACK BOX

- WHITE BOX

Black-box test design treats the system as a literal "black-box", so

it doesn't explicitly use knowledge of the internal structure. It is

usually described as focusing on testing functional requirements.

Synonyms for black-box include: behavioural, functional, opaque -

box, and closed-box.

White-box test design allows one to peek inside the "box", and it

focuses specifically on using internal knowledge of the software to

guide the selection of test data. It is used to detect errors by means

of execution-oriented test cases.

Synonyms for white-box include:

Structural, glass-box and clear-box.

While black-box and white-box are terms that are still in popular

use, many people prefer the terms "behavioural" and "structural".

Behavioural test design is slightly different from black-box test

design because the use of internal knowledge isn't strictly

forbidden, but it's still discouraged. In practice, it hasn't proven

useful to use a single test design method. One has to use a mixture

of different methods so that they aren't hindered by the limitations156

of a particular one. Some call this "gray-box" or "translucent-box"

test design, but others wish we'd stop talking about boxes

altogether!!!

12.6 BLACK BOX TESTING

Black Box Testing is testing without knowledge of the internal

workings of the item being tested. For example, when black box

testing is applied to software engineering, the tester would only

know the "legal" inputs and what the expected outputs should be,

but not how the program actually arrives at those outputs. It is

because of this that black box testing can be considered testing

with respect to the specifications, no other knowledge of the

program is necessary. For this reason, the tester and the

programmer can be independent of one another, avoiding

programmer bias toward his own work. For this testing, test groups

are often used, Though centered around the knowledge of user

requirements, black box tests do not necessarily involve the

participation of users. Among the most important black box tests

that do not involve users are functionality testing, volume tests,

stress tests, recovery testing, and benchmarks. Additionally, there

are two types of black box test that involve users, i.e. field and

laboratory tests. In the following the most important aspects of

these black box tests will be described briefly.

· Black box testing - without user involvement

The so-called ``functionality testing'' is central to most testing

exercises. Its primary objective is to assess whether the program

does what it is supposed to do, i.e. what is specified in the

requirements. There are different approaches to functionality

testing. One is the testing of each program feature or function in

sequence. The other is to test module by module, i.e. each function

where it is called first.

The objective of volume tests is to find the limitations of the

software by processing a huge amount of data. A volume test can

uncover problems that are related to the efficiency of a system, e.g.

incorrect buffer sizes, a consumption of too much memory space,

or only show that an error message would be needed telling the

user that the system cannot process the given amount of data.

During a stress test, the system has to process a huge

amount of data or perform many function calls within a short period

of time. A typical example could be to perform the same function

from all workstations connected in a LAN within a short period of

time (e.g. sending e-mails, or, in the NLP area, to modify a term

bank via different terminals simultaneously).157

The aim of recovery testing is to make sure to which extent

data can be recovered after a system breakdown. Does the system

provide possibilities to recover all of the data or part of it? How

much can be recovered and how? Is the recovered data still correct

and consistent? Particularly for software that needs high reliability

standards, recovery testing is very important.

The notion of benchmark tests involves the testing of

program efficiency. The efficiency of a piece of software strongly

depends on the hardware environment and therefore benchmark

tests always consider the soft/hardware combination. Whereas for

most software engineers benchmark tests are concerned with the

quantitative measurement of specific operations, some also

consider user tests that compare the efficiency of different software

systems as benchmark tests. In the context of this document,

however, benchmark tests only denote operations that are

independent of personal variables.

· Black box testing - with user involvement

For tests involving users, methodological considerations are

rare in SE literature. Rather, one may find practical test reports that

distinguish roughly between field and laboratory tests. In the

following only a rough description of field and laboratory tests will

be given.

E.g. Scenario Tests. The term ``scenario'' has entered software

evaluation in the early 1990s . A scenario test is a test case which

aims at a realistic user background for the evaluation of software as

it was defined and performed It is an instance of black box testing

where the major objective is to assess the suitability of a software

product for every-day routines. In short it involves putting the

system into its intended use by its envisaged type of user,

performing a standardised task.

In field tests users are observed while using the software

system at their normal working place. Apart from general usabilityrelated aspects, field tests are
particularly useful for assessing the

interoperability of the software system, i.e. how the technical

integration of the system works. Moreover, field tests are the only

real means to elucidate problems of the organisational integration

of the software system into existing procedures. Particularly in the

NLP environment this problem has frequently been underestimated.

A typical example of the organisational problem of implementing a

translation memory is the language service of a big automobile

manufacturer, where the major implementation problem is not the

technical environment, but the fact that many clients still submit

their orders as print-out, that neither source texts nor target texts158

are properly organised and stored and, last but not least, individual

translators are not too motivated to change their working habits.

Laboratory tests are mostly performed to assess the general

usability of the system. Due to the high laboratory equipment costs

laboratory tests are mostly only performed at big software houses

such as IBM or Microsoft. Since laboratory tests provide testers

with many technical possibilities, data collection and analysis are

easier than for field tests.

12.6.1 Black box testing Methods

· Graph-based Testing Methods

ü Black-box methods based on the nature of the relationships

(links) among the program objects (nodes), test cases are

designed to traverse the entire graph

ü Transaction flow testing (nodes represent steps in some

transaction and links represent logical connections between

steps that need to be validated)

ü Finite state modelling (nodes represent user observable

states of the software and links represent transitions

between states)

ü Data flow modelling (nodes are data objects and links are

transformations from one data object to another)

ü Timing modelling (nodes are program objects and links are

sequential connections between these objects, link weights

are required execution times)

· Equivalence Partitioning

Black-box technique that divides the input domain into

classes of data from which test cases can be derived. An ideal test

case uncovers a class of errors that might require many arbitrary

test cases to be executed before a general error is observed

Equivalence class guidelines:

1. If input condition specifies a range, one valid and two invalid

equivalence classes are defined

2. If an input condition requires a specific value, one valid and two

invalid equivalence classes are defined

3. If an input condition specifies a member of a set, one valid and

one invalid equivalence class is defined

4. If an input condition is Boolean, one valid and one invalid

equivalence class is defined159

· Comparison Testing

Black-box testing for safety critical systems in which

independently developed implementations of redundant systems

are tested for conformance to specifications. Often equivalence

class partitioning is used to develop a common set of test cases for

each implementation.

· Orthogonal Array Testing

Black-box technique that enables the design of a reasonably

small set of test cases that provide maximum test coverage. Focus

is on categories of faulty logic likely to be present in the software

component (without examining the code) · Priorities for assessing

tests using an orthogonal array

1. Detect and isolate all single mode faults

2. Detect all double mode faults

3. Multimode faults

12.6.2 Advantages of Black Box Testing

· More effective on larger units of code than glass box testing

· Tester needs no knowledge of implementation, including specific

programming languages

· Tester and programmer are independent of each other

· Tests are done from a user's point of view

· Will help to expose any ambiguities or inconsistencies in the

specifications

· Test cases can be designed as soon as the specifications are

complete

12.6.3 Disadvantages of Black Box Testing

· Only a small number of possible inputs can actually be tested, to

test every possible input stream would take nearly forever

· Without clear and concise specifications, test cases are hard to

design

· There may be unnecessary repetition of test inputs if the tester is

not informed of test cases the programmer has already tried

· May leave many program paths untested

· Cannot be directed toward specific segments of code which may

be very complex (and therefore more error prone)

· Most testing related research has been directed toward glass box

testing160

12.7 WHITE BOX TESTING

Software testing approaches that examine the program

structure and derive test data from the program logic. Structural

testing is sometimes referred to as clear-box testing since white

boxes are considered opaque and do not really permit visibility into

the code.

· Synonyms for white box testing

· Glass Box testing

· Structural testing

· Clear Box testing

· Open Box Testing

· The purpose of white box testing

Initiate a strategic initiative to build quality throughout the life cycle

of a software product or service.

Provide a complementary function to black box testing.

Perform complete coverage at the component level.

Improve quality by optimizing performance.

12.7.1 Code Coverage Analysis

· Basis Path Testing

A testing mechanism proposed by McCabe whose aim is to

derive a logical complexity measure of a procedural design and use

this as a guide for defining a basic set of execution paths. These

are test cases that exercise basic set will execute every statement

at least once.

· Flow Graph Notation

A notation for representing control flow similar to flow charts

and UML activity diagrams.

· Cyclomatic Complexity

The cyclomatic complexity gives a quantitative measure of

4the logical complexity. This value gives the number of

independent paths in the basis set, and an upper bound for the

number of tests to ensure that each statement is executed at least

once. An independent path is any path through a program that

introduces at least one new set of processing statements or a new

condition (i.e., a new edge). Cyclomatic complexity provides upper

bound for number of tests required to guarantee coverage of all

program statements.161

12.7.2 Control Structure testing

· Conditions Testing

Condition testing aims to exercise all logical conditions in a

program module. They may define:

ü Relational expression: (E1 op E2), where E1 and E2 are

arithmetic expressions.

ü Simple condition: Boolean variable or relational expression,

possibly proceeded by a NOT operator.

ü Compound condition: composed of two or more simple

conditions, Boolean operators and parentheses.

ü Boolean expression: Condition without Relational

expressions.

· Data Flow Testing

Selects test paths according to the location of definitions and use of

variables.

· Loop Testing

Loops fundamental to many algorithms. Can define loops as imple,

concatenated, nested, and unstructured.

Examples:

Note that unstructured loops are not to be tested . rather, they are

redesigned.

· Design by Contract (D b C)

DbC is a formal way of using comments to incorporate

specification information into the code itself. Basically, the code

specification is expressed unambiguously using a formal language

that describes the code's implicit contracts. These contracts specify

such requirements as:

ü Conditions that the client must meet before a method is

invoked.

ü Conditions that a method must meet after it executes.

ü Assertions that a method must satisfy at specific points of its

execution

· Profiling

Profiling provides a framework for analyzing Java code

performance for speed and heap memory use. It identifies routines

that are consuming the majority of the CPU time so that problems

may be tracked down to improve performance.162

· Error Handling

Exception and error handling is checked thoroughly are

simulating partial and complete fail-over by operating on error

causing test vectors. Proper error recovery, notification and logging

are checked against references to validate program design.

· Transactions

Systems that employ transaction, local or distributed, may

be validated to ensure that ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,

Durability). Each of the individual parameters is tested individually

against a reference data set.

Transactions are checked thoroughly for partial/complete

commits and rollbacks encompassing databases and other XA

compliant transaction processors.

12.7.3 Advantages of White Box Testing

· Forces test developer to reason carefully about implementation

· Approximate the partitioning done by execution equivalence

· Reveals errors in "hidden" code

· Beneficent side-effects

12.7.4 Disadvantages of White Box Testing

· Expensive

· Cases omitted in the code could be missed out.

12.8 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BLACK BOX TESTING

AND WHITE BOX TESTING

An easy way to start up a debate in a software testing forum

is to ask the difference between black box and white box testing.

These terms are commonly used, yet everyone seems to have a

different idea of what they mean.

Black box testing begins with a metaphor. Imagine you’re

testing an electronics system. It’s housed in a black box with lights,

switches, and dials on the outside. You must test it without opening

it up, and you can’t see beyond its surface. You have to see if it

works just by flipping switches (inputs) and seeing what happens to

the lights and dials (outputs). This is black box testing. Black box

software testing is doing the same thing, but with software. The

actual meaning of the metaphor, however, depends on how you

define the boundary of the box and what kind of access the

“blackness” is blocking.163

An opposite test approach would be to open up the

electronics system, see how the circuits are wired, apply probes

internally and maybe even disassemble parts of it. By analogy, this

is called white box testing, To help understand the different ways

that software testing can be divided between black box and white

box techniques, consider the Five-Fold Testing System. It lays out

five dimensions that can be used for examining testing:

1. People (who does the testing)

2. Coverage (what gets tested)

3. Risks (why you are testing)

4. Activities (how you are testing)

5. Evaluation (how you know you’ve found a bug)

Let’s use this system to understand and clarify the

characteristics of black box and white box testing.

People: Who does the testing?

Some people know how software works (developers) and others

just use it (users).

Accordingly, any testing by users or other non-developers is

sometimes called “black box” testing. Developer testing is called

“white box” testing. The distinction here is based on what the

person knows or can understand.

Coverage: What is tested?

If we draw the box around the system as a whole, “black

box” testing becomes another name for system testing. And testing

the units inside the box becomes white box testing.

This is one way to think about coverage. Another is to

contrast testing that aims to cover all the requirements with testing

that aims to cover all the code. These are the two most commonly

used coverage criteria. Both are supported by extensive literature

and commercial tools. Requirements-based testing could be called

“black box” because it makes sure that all the customer

requirements have been verified. Code-based testing is often called

“white box” because it makes sure that all the code (the statements,

paths, or decisions) is exercised.

Risks: Why are you testing?

Sometimes testing is targeted at particular risks. Boundary

testing and other attack-based techniques are targeted at common

coding errors. Effective security testing also requires a detailed

understanding of the code and the system architecture. Thus, these

techniques might be classified as “white box”. Another set of risks

concerns whether the software will actually provide value to users.

Usability testing focuses on this risk, and could be termed “black

box.”164

Activities: How do you test?

A common distinction is made between behavioural test

design, which defines tests based on functional requirements, and

structural test design, which defines tests based on the code itself.

These are two design approaches. Since behavioural testing is

based on external functional definition, it is often called “black box,”

while structural testing—based on the code internals—is called

“white box.” Indeed, this is probably the most commonly cited

definition for black box and white box testing. Another activitybased distinction contrasts
dynamic test execution with formal code

inspection. In this case, the metaphor maps test execution

(dynamic testing) with black box testing, and maps code inspection

(static testing) with white box testing. We could also focus on the

tools used. Some tool vendors refer to code-coverage tools as

white box tools, and tools that facilitate applying inputs and

capturing inputs—most notably GUI capture replay tools—as black

box tools. Testing is then categorized based on the types of tools

used.

Evaluation: How do you know if you’ve found a bug?

There are certain kinds of software faults that don’t always

lead to obvious failures. They may be masked by fault tolerance or

simply luck. Memory leaks and wild pointers are examples. Certain

test techniques seek to make these kinds of problems more visible.

Related techniques capture code history and stack information

when faults occur, helping with diagnosis. Assertions are another

technique for helping to make problems more visible. All of these

techniques could be considered white box test techniques, since

they use code instrumentation to make the internal workings of the

software more visible.

These contrast with black box techniques that simply look at

the official outputs of a program.

White box testing is concerned only with testing the software

product, it cannot guarantee that the complete specification has

been implemented. Black box testing is concerned only with testing

the specification, it cannot guarantee that all parts of the

implementation have been tested. Thus black box testing is testing

against the specification and will discover faults of omission,

indicating that part of the specification has not been fulfilled.

White box testing is testing against the implementation and

will discover faults of commission, indicating that part of the

implementation is faulty. In order to fully test a software product

both black and white box testing are required.

White box testing is much more expensive than black box

testing. It requires the source code to be produced before the tests165

can be planned and is much more laborious in the determination of

suitable input data and the determination if the software is or is not

correct. The advice given is to start test planning with a black box

test approach as soon as the specification is available. White box

planning should commence as soon as all black box tests have

been successfully passed, with the production of flow graphs and

determination of paths. The paths should then be checked against

the black box test plan and any additional required test runs

determined and applied.

The consequences of test failure at this stage may be

very expensive. A failure of a white box test may result in a change

which requires all black box testing to be repeated and the redetermination of the white box
paths

12.9 SUMMARY:

To conclude, apart from the above described analytical

methods of both white and black box testing, there are further

constructive means to guarantee high quality software end

products. Among the most important constructive means are the

usages of object-oriented programming tools, the integration of

CASE tools, rapid prototyping, and last but not least the

involvement of users in both software development and testing

procedures.

Questions:

1. Explain Software Testing Life Cycle in detail?

Ans: Refer 12.2

2. Explain Types of Testing in detail?

Ans: Refer 12.3

3. Explain Black Box and White Box testing?

Ans: Refer 12.5

vvvv 166

13

SOFTWARE TESTING

Unit Structure

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Scope Of Software Testing

13.3 Software Testing Key Concepts

13.4 Software Testing Types

13.5 Software Testing Methodologies

13.6 Software Testing Artifacts

13.7 Available tools, techniques, and metrics

13.8 Summary

13.1 INTRODUCTION:

Software testing is an art. Most of the testing methods and

practices are not very different from 20 years ago. It is nowhere

near maturity, although there are many tools and techniques

available to use. Good testing also requires a tester's creativity,

experience and intuition, together with proper techniques

Before moving further towards introduction to software

testing, we need to know a few concepts that will simplify the

definition of software testing.

· Error: Error or mistake is a human action that produces

wrong or incorrect result.

· Defect (Bug, Fault): A flaw in the system or a product

that can cause the component to fail.

· Failure: It is the variance between the actual and

expected result.

· Risk: Risk is a factor that could result in negativity or a

chance of loss or damage.

Thus Software testing is the process of finding defects/bugs

in the system, which occurs due to an error in the application, which

could lead to failure of the resultant product and increase in167

probability of high risk. In short, software testing has different goals

and objectives, which often include:

1. finding defects;

2. gaining confidence in and providing information about the

level of quality;

3. Preventing defects.

13.2 SCOPE OF SOFTWARE TESTING

The primary function of software testing is to detect bugs

in order to correct and uncover it. The scope of software testing

includes execution of that code in various environments and also to

examine the aspects of code - does the software do what it is

supposed to do and function according to the specifications? As we

move further we come across some questions such as "When to

start testing?" and "When to stop testing?" It is recommended to

start testing from the initial stages of the software development.

This not only helps in rectifying tremendous errors before the last

stage, but also reduces the rework of finding the bugs in the initial

stages every now and then. It also saves the cost of the defect

required to find it. Software testing is an ongoing process, which is

potentially endless but has to be stopped somewhere, due to the

lack of time and budget. It is required to achieve maximum profit

with good quality product, within the limitations of time and money.

The tester has to follow some procedural way through which he can

judge if he covered all the points required for testing or missed out

any.

13.3 SOFTWARE TESTING KEY CONCEPTS

· Defects and Failures: As we discussed earlier, defects are

not caused only due to the coding errors, but most

commonly due to the requirement gaps in the non-functional

requirement, such as usability, testability, scalability,

maintainability, performance and security. A failure is caused

due to the deviation between an actual and an expected

result. But not all defects result to failures. A defect can turn

into a failure due to the change in the environment and or

the change in the configuration of the system requirements.

· Input Combination and Preconditions: Testing all

combination of inputs and initial state (preconditions), is not

feasible. This means finding large number of infrequent

defects is difficult.

· Static and Dynamic Analysis: Static testing does not

require execution of the code for finding defects, whereas in168

dynamic testing, software code is executed to demonstrate

the results of running tests.

· Verification and Validation: Software testing is done

considering these two factors.

1. Verification: This verifies whether the product is done

according to the specification?

2. Validation: This checks whether the product meets the

customer requirement?

· Software Quality Assurance: Software testing is an

important part of the software quality assurance. Quality

assurance is an activity, which proves the suitability of the

product by taking care of the quality of a product and

ensuring that the customer requirements are met.

13.4 SOFTWARE TESTING TYPES

Software test type is a group of test activities that are aimed

at testing a component or system focused on a specific test

objective; a non-functional requirement such as usability, testability

or reliability. Various types of software testing are used with the

common objective of finding defects in that particular component.

Software testing is classified according to two basic types of

software testing: Manual Scripted Testing and Automated Testing.

Manual Scripted Testing:

· Black Box Testing

· White Box Testing

· Gray Box Testing

The level of software testing life cycle includes:

· Unit Testing

· Integration Testing

· System Testing

· Acceptance Testing

1.Alpha Testing

2.Beta Testing

Other types of software testing are:

· Functional Testing

· Performance Testing169

1. Load Testing

2.Stress Testing

· Smoke Testing

· Sanity Testing

· Regression Testing

· Recovery Testing

· Usability Testing

· Compatibility Testing

· Configuration Testing

· Exploratory Testing

For further explanation of these concepts, read more on

types of software testing.

Automated Testing: Manual testing is a time consuming process.

Automation testing involves automating a manual process. Test

automation is a process of writing a computer program in the form

of scripts to do a testing which would otherwise need to be done

manually. Some of the popular automation tools are Winrunner,

Quick Test Professional (QTP), Load Runner, Silk Test, Rational

Robot, etc. Automation tools category also includes maintenance

tool such as Test Director and many other.

13.5 SOFTWARE TESTING METHODOLOGIES

The software testing methodologies or process includes

various models that built the process of working for a particular

product. These models are as follows:

· Waterfall Model

· V Model

· Spiral Model

· Rational Unified Process(RUP)

· Agile Model

· Rapid Application Development(RAD)

These models are elaborated briefly in software testing

methodologies.

13.6 SOFTWARE TESTING ARTIFACTS

Software testing process can produce various artifacts such as:

· Test Plan: A test specification is called a test plan. A test

plan is documented so that it can be used to verify and170

ensure that a product or system meets its design

specification.

· Traceability matrix: This is a table that correlates or design

documents to test documents. This verifies that the test

results are correct and is also used to change tests when the

source documents are changed.

· Test Case: Test cases and software testing strategies are

used to check the functionality of individual component that

is integrated to give the resultant product. These test cases

are developed with the objective of judging the application

for its capabilities or features.

· Test Data: When multiple sets of values or data are used to

test the same functionality of a particular feature in the test

case, the test values and changeable environmental

components are collected in separate files and stored as test

data.

· Test Scripts: The test script is the combination of a test

case, test procedure and test data.

· Test Suite: Test suite is a collection of test cases.

Software Testing Process

Software testing process is carried out in the following

sequence, in order to find faults in the software system:

1. Create Test Plan

2. Design Test Case

3.Write Test Case

4. Review Test Case

5.Execute Test Case

6.Examine Test Results

7.Perform Post-mortem Reviews

8.Budget after Experience

13.7 AVAILABLE TOOLS, TECHNIQUES, AND

METRICS

· There are an abundance of software testing tools exist. The

correctness testing tools are often specialized to certain

systems and have limited ability and generality. Robustness

and stress testing tools are more likely to be made generic.

· Mothora [DeMillo91] is an automated mutation testing tool-set

developed at Purdue University. Using Mothora, the tester can

create and execute test cases, measure test case adequacy,171

determine input-output correctness, locate and remove faults

or bugs, and control and document the test.

· NuMega's Boundschecker [NuMega99] Rational's Purify

[Rational99]. They are run-time checking and debugging aids.

They can both check and protect against memory leaks and

pointer problems.

· Ballista COTS Software Robustness Testing Harness

[Ballista99]. The Ballista testing harness is a full-scale

automated robustness testing tool. The first version supports

testing up to 233 POSIX function calls in UNIX operating

systems. The second version also supports testing of user

functions provided that the data types are recognized by the

testing server. The Ballista testing harness gives quantitative

measures of robustness comparisons across operating

systems. The goal is to automatically test and harden

Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software against

robustness failures.

13.8 SUMMARY:

Software testing is an art. Most of the testing methods and

practices are not very different from 20 years ago. It is nowhere

near maturity, although there are many tools and techniques

available to use. Good testing also requires a tester's creativity,

experience and intuition, together with proper techniques.

Questions:

1. Explain Software Testing Key Concepts?

Ans: refer

2. Explain Software Testing Methodologies

Ans: refer 13.5

3. Explain Available tools, techniques in detail?

Ans: refer 13.7

vvvv 172

14

IMPLEMENTATION & MAINTENANCE

Unit Structure

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Data Entry and Data Storage

14.3 Date Formats

14.4 Data Entry Methods

14.5 System Implementation

14.6 System Maintenance

14.7 System Evaluation

14.8 Summary

14.1 INTRODUCTION:

The quality of data input agrees on the quality of information

output. Systems analysts can support accurate data entry through

success of three broad objectives: effective coding, effective and

efficient data capture and entry, and assuring quality through

validation. In this Chapter, we will learn Data Entry and Data

Format.

14.2 DATA ENTRY AND DATA STORAGE

The quality of data input determines the quality of

information output. Systems analysts can support accurate data

entry through achievement of three broad objectives: effective

coding, effective and efficient data capture and entry, and assuring

quality through validation. Coding aids in reaching the objective of

efficiency, since data that are coded require less time to enter and

reduce the number of items entered. Coding can also help in

appropriate sorting of data during the data transformation process.

Additionally, coded data can save valuable memory and storage

space.

In establishing a coding system, systems analysts should

follow these guidelines:

•Keep codes concise.

•Keep codes stable.173

•Make codes that are unique.

•Allow codes to be sort.

•Avoid confusing codes.

•Keep codes uniform.

•Allow for modification of codes.

•Make codes meaningful.

The simple sequence code is a number that is assigned to

something if it needs to be numbered. It therefore has no relation to

the data itself. Classification codes are used to distinguish one

group of data, with special characteristics, from another.

Classification codes can consist of either a single letter or number.

The block sequence code is an extension of the sequence code.

The advantage of the block sequence code is that the data are

grouped according to common characteristics, while still taking

advantage of the simplicity of assigning the next available number

within the block to the next item needing identification.

A mnemonic is a memory aid. Any code that helps the dataentry person remembers how to
enter the data or the end-user

remembers how to use the information can be considered a

mnemonic. Mnemonic coding can be less arbitrary, and therefore

easier to remember, than numeric coding schemes. Compare, for

example, a gender coding system that uses "F" for Female and "M"

for Male with an arbitrary numeric coding of gender where perhaps

"1" means Female and "2" means Male. Or, perhaps it should be

"1" for Male and "2" for Female? Or, why not "7" for Male and "4"

for Female? The arbitrary nature of numeric coding makes it more

difficult for the user.

14.3 DATE FORMATS

An effective format for the storage of date values is the

eight-digit YYYYMMDD format as it allows for easy sorting by date.

Note the importance of using four digits for the year. This eliminates

any ambiguity in whether a value such as 01 means the year 1901

or the year 2001. Using four digits also insures that the correct sort

sequence will be maintained in a group of records that include year

values both before and after the turn of the century (e.g., 1999,

2000, 2001).

Remember, however, that the date format you use for

storage of a date value need not be the same date format that you

present to the user via the user interface or require of the user for

data entry. While YYYYMMDD may be useful for the storage of

date values it is not how human beings commonly write or read

dates. A person is more likely to be familiar with using dates that

are in MMDDYY format. That is, a person is much more likely to be174

comfortable writing the date December 25, 2001 as "12/25/01" than

"20011225."

Fortunately, it is a simple matter to code a routine that can

be inserted between the user interface or data entry routines and

the data storage routines that read from or write to magnetic disk.

Thus, date values can be saved on disk in whatever format is

deemed convenient for storage and sorting while at the same time

being presented in the user interface, data entry routines, and

printed reports in whatever format is deemed convenient and

familiar for human users.

14.4 DATA ENTRY METHODS

•keyboards

•optical character recognition (OCR)

•magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

•mark-sense forms

•punch-out forms

•bar codes

•intelligent terminals

Tests for validating input data include: test for missing data,

test for correct field length, test for class or composition, test for

range or reasonableness, test for invalid values, test for comparison

with stored data, setting up self-validating codes, and using check

digits. Tests for class or composition are used to check whether data

fields are correctly filled in with either numbers or letters. Tests for

range or reasonableness do not permit a user to input a date such

as October 32.

This is sometimes called a sanity check.

Database

A database is a group of related files. This collection is

usually organized to facilitate efficient and accurate inquiry and

update. A database management system (DBMS) is a software

package that is used to organize and maintain a database.

Usually when we use the word "file" we mean traditional or

conventional files. Sometimes we call them "flat files." With these

traditional, flat files each file is a single, recognizable, distinct entity

on your hard disk. These are the kind of files that you can see

cataloged in your directory. Commonly, these days, when we use

the word "database" we are not talking about a collection of this

kind of file; rather we would usually be understood to be talking

about a database management system. And, commonly, people

who work in a DBMS environment speak in terms of "tables" rather175

than "files." DBMS software allows data and file relationships to be

created, maintained, and reported. A DBMS offers a number of

advantages over file-oriented systems including reduced data

duplication, easier reporting, improved security, and more rapid

development of new applications. The DBMS may or may not store

a table as an individual, distinct disk file. The software may choose

to store more than one table in a single disk file. Or it may choose

to store one table across several distinct disk files, or even spread it

across multiple hard disks. The details of physical storage of the

data are not important to the end user who only is concerned about

the logical tables, not physical disk files.

In a hierarchical database the data is organized in a tree

structure. Each parent record may have multiple child records, but

any child may only have one parent. The parent-child relationships

are established when the database is first generated, which makes

later modification more difficult.

A network database is similar to a hierarchical database

except that a child record (called a "member") may have more than

one parent (called an "owner"). Like in a hierarchical database, the

parent-child relationships must be defined before the database is

put into use, and the addition or modification of fields requires the

relationships to be redefined.

In a relational database the data is organized in tables that

are called "relations." Tables are usually depicted as a grid of rows

("tuples") and columns ("attributes"). Each row is a record; each

column is a field. With a relational database links between tables

can be established at any time provided the tables have a field in

common. This allows for a great amount of flexibility.

14.5 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

Systems implementation is the construction of the new

system and its delivery into ‘production’ or day-to-day operation.

The key to understanding the implementation phase is to

realize that there is a lot more to be done than programming.

During implementation you bring your process, data, and network

models to life with technology. This requires programming, but it

also requires database creation and population, and network

installation and testing. You also need to make sure the people are

taken care of with effective training and documentation. Finally, if

you expect your development skills to improve over time, you need

to conduct a review of the lessons learned.176

During both design and implementation, you ought to be

looking ahead to the support phase. Over the long run, this is

where most of the costs of an application reside.

Systems implementation involves installation and

changeover from the previous system to the new one, including

training users and making adjustments to the system. Many

problems can arise at this stage. You have to be extremely careful

in implementing new systems. First, users are probably nervous

about the change already. If something goes wrong they may never

trust the new system. Second, if major errors occur, you could lose

important business data.

A crucial stage in implementation is final testing. Testing and

quality control must be performed at every stage of development, but

a final systems test is needed before staff entrust the company's

data to the new system. Occasionally, small problems will be noted,

but their resolution will be left for later.

In any large system, errors and changes will occur, the key

is to identify them and determine which ones must be fixed

immediately. Smaller problems are often left to the software

maintenance staff. Change is an important part of MIS. Designing

and implementing new systems often causes changes in the

business operations. Yet, many people do, not like changes.

Changes require learning new methods, forging new relationships

with people and managers, or perhaps even loss of jobs. Changes

exist on many levels: in society, in business, and in information

systems. Changes can occur because of shifts in the environment,

or they can be introduced by internal change agents. Left to

themselves, most organizations will resist even small changes.

Change agents are objects or people who cause or facilitate

changes. Sometimes it might be a new employee who brings fresh

ideas; other times changes can be mandated by top-level

management. Sometimes an outside event such as arrival of a new

competitor or a natural disaster forces an organization to change.

Whatever the cause, people tend to resist change.

However, if organizations do not change, they cannot

survive. The goal is to implement systems in a manner that

recognizes resistance to change but encourages people to accept

the new system. Effective implementation involves finding ways to

reduce this resistance. Sometimes, implementation involves the

cooperation of outsiders such as suppliers.

Because implementation is so important, several techniques

have been developed to help implement new systems. Direct cutover

is an obvious technique, where the old system is simply dropped and

the new one started. If at all possible, it is best to avoid this177

technique, because it is the most dangerous to data. If anything goes

wrong with the new system, you run the risk of losing valuable

information because the old system is not available.

In many ways, the safest choice is to use parallel

implementation. In this case, the new system is introduced

alongside the old one. Both systems are operated at the same time

until you determine that the new system is acceptable. The main

drawback to this method is that it can be expensive because data

has to be entered twice. Additionally, if users are nervous about the

new system, they might avoid the change and stick with the old

method. In this case, the new system may never get a fair trial.

If you design a system for a chain of retail stores, you could

pilot test the first implementation in one store. By working with one

store at a time, there are likely to be fewer problems. But if

problems do arise, you will have more staff members around to

overcome the obstacles. When the system is working well in one

store, you can move to the next location. Similarly, even if there is

only one store, you might be able to split the implementation into

sections based on the area of business. You might install a set of

computer cash registers first. When they work correctly, you can

connect them to a central computer and produce daily reports.

Next, you can move on to annual summaries and payroll.

Eventually the entire system will be installed.

Let us now see the Process of Implementation which involves the

following steps:

• Internal or outsourcing (trend is "outsourcing")

• Acquisition: purchasing software, hardware, etc.

• Training: employee (end-users) training, technical staff

training. SQL training in 5 days costs around $2000, +

airplane, hotel, meals, rental car ($3000 to 5000); evaluation

• Testing:

• a bigger system requires more testing time

• a good career opportunity for non-technical people who wish

to get in the door in the IT jobs.

• Documentation:

• backup

• knowledge management system

• Actual Installation

• Conversion: Migration from the old system to a new system

• Maintenance: very important; if you don't maintain the new

system properly, it's useless to develop a new system.

• monitor the system,178

• Upgrade,

• Trouble-shooting,

• Continuous improvement

14.6 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Once the system is installed, the MIS job has just begun.

Computer systems are constantly changing. Hardware upgrades

occur continually, and commercial software tools may change every

year. Users change jobs. Errors may exist in the system. The

business changes, and management and users demand new

information and expansions. All of these actions mean the system

needs to be modified. The job of overseeing and making these

modifications is called software maintenance.

The pressures for change are so great that in most

organizations today as much as 80 per cent of the MIS staff is

devoted to modifying existing programs. These changes can be

time consuming and difficult. Most major systems were created by

teams of programmers and analysts over a long period. In order to

make a change to a program, the programmer has to understand

how the current program works.

Because the program was written by many different people

with varying styles, it can be hard to understand. Finally, when a

programmer makes a minor change in one location, it can affect

another area of the program, which can cause additional errors or

necessitate more changes.

One difficulty with software maintenance is that every time

part of an application is modified, there is a risk of adding defects

(bugs). Also, over time the application becomes less structured and

more complex, making it harder to understand. These are some of

the main reasons why the year 2000 alterations were so expensive

and time consuming. At some point, a company may decide to

replace or improve the heavily modified system. There are several

techniques for improving an existing system, ranging from rewriting

individual sections to restructuring the entire application.. The

difference lies in scope-how much of the application needs to be

modified. Older applications that were subject to modifications over

several years tend to contain code that is no longer used, poorly

documented changes, and inconsistent naming conventions. These

applications are prime candidates for restructuring, during which

the entire code is analyzed and reorganized to make it more

efficient. More important, the code is organized, standardized, and

documented to make it easier to make changes in the future.179

14.7 SYSTEM EVALUATION

An important phase in any project is evaluating the resulting

system. As part of this evaluation, it is also important to assess the

effectiveness of the particular development process. There are

several questions to ask. Were the initial cost estimates accurate?

Was the project completed on time? Did users have sufficient

input? Are maintenance costs higher than expected?

Evaluation is a difficult issue. How can you as a manager tell

the difference between a good system and a poor one? In some

way, the system should decrease costs, increase revenue, or

provide a competitive advantage. Although these effects are

important, they are often subtle and difficult to measure. The

system should also be easy to use and flexible enough to adapt to

changes in the business. If employees or customers continue to

complain about a system, it should be re-examined.

A system also needs to be reliable. It should be available

when needed and should produce accurate output. Error detection

can be provided in the system to recognize and avoid common

problems. Similarly, some systems can be built to tolerate errors,

so that when errors arise, the system recognizes the problem and

works around it. For example, some computers exist today that

automatically switch to backup components when one section fails,

thereby exhibiting fault tolerance.

Managers concern to remember when dealing with new

systems is that the evaluation mechanism should be determined at

the start. The question of evaluation is ignored until someone

questions the value of the finished product. It is a good design

practice to ask what would make this system a good system when it

is finished or how we can tell a good system from a bad one in this

application. Even though these questions may be difficult to

answer, they need to be asked. The answers, however incomplete,

will provide valuable guidance during the design stage.

Recall that every system needs a goal, a way of measuring

progress toward that goal, and a feedback mechanism.

Traditionally, control of systems has been the task of the computer

programming staff. Their primary goal was to create error-free

code, and they used various testing techniques to find and correct

errors in the code. Today, creating error-free code is not a sufficient

goal. We have all heard the phrase, "The customer is always right."

The meaning behind this phrase is that sometimes people have

different opinions on whether a system is behaving correctly. When

there is a conflict, the opinion that is most important is that of the

customer. In the final analysis, customers are in control because

they can always take their business elsewhere. With information180

systems, the users are the customers and the users should be the

ones in control. Users determine whether a system is good. If the

users are not convinced that the system performs useful tasks, it is

not a good system.

Feasibility comparison Cost and budget Compare actual costs to

budget estimates Time estimates Revenue effects Was project

completed on time?

Maintenance costs Does system produce additional revenue?

Project goals how much money and time are spent on changes?

Does system meet the initial goals of the project?

User satisfaction how do users (and management) evaluate the

system?

System performance

System reliability: Are the results accurate and on time?

System availability: Is the system available continually?

System security: Does the system provides access to authorized

users?

Summary: In this chapter, we learned Data Format, Data Entry and

Data Storage, Date Formats, Data Entry Methods, System

Implementation, System Maintenance, System Evaluation.

Questions:

1. Explain System Implementation in detail?

Ans: refer 14.5

2. Explain System Maintenance in detail?

Ans: refer 14.6

3. Explain System Evaluation?

Ans: refer 14.7

vvvv 181

15

DOCUMENTATION

Unit Structure

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Requirements documentation

15.3 Architecture/Design documentation

15.4 Technical documentation

15.5 User documentation

15.6 Marketing documentation

15.7 CASE Tools and their importance

15.8 Summary

15.1 INTRODUCTION:

Documentation is an important part of software engineering. Types

of documentation include:

Requirements - Statements that identify attributes capabilities,

characteristics, or qualities of a system. This is the foundation for

what shall be or has been implemented.

1. Architecture/Design - Overview of software. Includes

relations to an environment and construction principles to be

used in design of software components.

2. Technical - Documentation of code, algorithms, interfaces,

and APIs.

3. End User - Manuals for the end-user, system administrators

and support staff.

4. Marketing - How to market the product and analysis of the

market demand.

15.2 REQUIREMENTS DOCUMENTATION

Requirements documentation is the description of what

particular software does or shall do. It is used throughout

development to communicate what the software does or shall do. It

is also used as an agreement or as the foundation for agreement182

on what the software shall do. Requirements are produced and

consumed by everyone involved in the production of software: end

users, customers, product managers, project managers, sales,

marketing, software architects, usability experts, interaction

designers, developers, and testers, to name a few. Thus,

requirements documentation has many different purposes.

Requirements come in a variety of styles, notations and

formality. Requirements can be goal-like (e.g., distributed work

environment), close to design (e.g., builds can be started by rightclicking a configuration file and
select the 'build' function), and

anything in between. They can be specified as statements in

natural language, as drawn figures, as detailed mathematical

formulas, and as a combination of them all.

The variation and complexity of requirements documentation

makes it a proven challenge. Requirements may be implicit and

hard to uncover. It is difficult to know exactly how much and what

kind of documentation is needed and how much can be left to the

architecture and design documentation, and it is difficult to know

how to document requirements considering the variety of people

that shall read and use the documentation. Thus, requirements

documentation is often incomplete (or non-existent). Without proper

requirements documentation, software changes become more

difficult—and therefore more error prone (decreased software

quality) and time-consuming (expensive).

The need for requirements documentation is typically related

to the complexity of the product, the impact of the product, and the

life expectancy of the software. If the software is very complex or

developed by many people (e.g., mobile phone software),

requirements can help to better communicate what to achieve. If

the software is safety-critical and can have negative impact on

human life (e.g., nuclear power systems, medical equipment), more

formal requirements documentation is often required. If the

software is expected to live for only a month or two (e.g., very small

mobile phone applications developed specifically for a certain

campaign) very little requirements documentation may be needed.

If the software is a first release that is later built upon, requirements

documentation is very helpful when managing the change of the

software and verifying that nothing has been broken in the software

when it is modified.

Traditionally, requirements are specified in requirements

documents (e.g. using word processing applications and

spreadsheet applications). To manage the increased complexity

and changing nature of requirements documentation (and software

documentation in general), database-centric systems and specialpurpose requirements
management tools are advocated.183

15.3 ARCHITECTURE/DESIGN DOCUMENTATION

Architecture documentation is a special breed of design

document. In a way, architecture documents are third derivative

from the code (design document being second derivative, and code

documents being first). Very little in the architecture documents is

specific to the code itself. These documents do not describe how to

program a particular routine, or even why that particular routine

exists in the form that it does, but instead merely lays out the

general requirements that would motivate the existence of such a

routine. A good architecture document is short on details but thick

on explanation. It may suggest approaches for lower level design,

but leave the actual exploration trade studies to other documents.

Another breed of design docs is the comparison document,

or trade study. This would often take the form of a whitepaper. It

focuses on one specific aspect of the system and suggests

alternate approaches. It could be at the user interface, code,

design, or even architectural level. It will outline what the situation

is, describe one or more alternatives, and enumerate the pros and

cons of each. A good trade study document is heavy on research,

expresses its idea clearly (without relying heavily on obtuse jargon

to dazzle the reader), and most importantly is impartial. It should

honestly and clearly explain the costs of whatever solution it offers

as best. The objective of a trade study is to devise the best

solution, rather than to push a particular point of view. It is perfectly

acceptable to state no conclusion, or to conclude that none of the

alternatives are sufficiently better than the baseline to warrant a

change. It should be approached as a scientific endeavour, not as a

marketing technique.

A very important part of the design document in enterprise

software development is the Database Design Document (DDD). It

contains Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Design Elements. The

DDD includes the formal information that the people who interact

with the database need. The purpose of preparing it is to create a

common source to be used by all players within the scene. The

potential users are:

· Database Designer

· Database Developer

· Database Administrator

· Application Designer

· Application Developer

When talking about Relational Database Systems, the

document should include following parts:184

· Entity - Relationship Schema, including following information

and their clear definitions:

o Entity Sets and their attributes

o Relationships and their attributes

o Candidate keys for each entity set

o Attribute and Tuple based constraints

· Relational Schema, including following information:

o Tables, Attributes, and their properties

o Views

o Constraints such as primary keys, foreign keys,

o Cardinality of referential constraints

o Cascading Policy for referential constraints

o Primary keys

It is very important to include all information that is to be

used by all actors in the scene. It is also very important to update

the documents as any change occurs in the database as well.

15.4 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION

This is what most programmers mean when using the term

software documentation. When creating software, code alone is

insufficient. There must be some text along with it to describe

various aspects of its intended operation. It is important for the

code documents to be thorough, but not so verbose that it becomes

difficult to maintain them. Several How-to and overview

documentation are found specific to the software application or

software product being documented by API Writers. This

documentation may be used by developers, testers and also the

end customers or clients using this software application. Today, we

see lot of high end applications in the field of power, energy,

transportation, networks, aerospace, safety, security, industry

automation and a variety of other domains. Technical

documentation has become important within such organizations as

the basic and advanced level of information may change over a

period of time with architecture changes. Hence, technical

documentation has gained lot of importance in recent times,

especially in the software field.

Often, tools such as Doxygen, NDoc, javadoc, EiffelStudio,

Sandcastle, ROBODoc, POD, TwinText, or Universal Report can

be used to auto-generate the code documents—that is, they extract

the comments and software contracts, where available, from the

source code and create reference manuals in such forms as text or185

HTML files. Code documents are often organized into a reference

guide style, allowing a programmer to quickly look up an arbitrary

function or class.

Many programmers really like the idea of auto-generating

documentation for various reasons. For example, because it is

extracted from the source code itself (for example, through

comments), the programmer can write it while referring to the code,

and use the same tools used to create the source code to make the

documentation. This makes it much easier to keep the

documentation up-to-date.

Of course, a downside is that only programmers can edit this

kind of documentation, and it depends on them to refresh the

output (for example, by running a job to update the documents

nightly). Some would characterize this as a pro rather than a con.

Donald Knuth has insisted on the fact that documentation can be a

very difficult afterthought process and has advocated literate

programming, writing at the same time and location as the source

code and extracted by automatic means.

Elucidative Programming is the result of practical

applications of Literate Programming in real programming contexts.

The Elucidative paradigm proposes that source code and

documentation be stored separately. This paradigm was inspired by

the same experimental findings that produced Kelp. Often, software

developers need to be able to create and access information that is

not going to be part of the source file itself. Such annotations are

usually part of several software development activities, such as

code walks and porting, where third party source code is analysed

in a functional way. Annotations can therefore help the developer

during any stage of software development where a formal

documentation system would hinder progress. Kelp stores

annotations in separate files, linking the information to the source

code dynamically.

15.5 USER DOCUMENTATION

Unlike code documents, user documents are usually far

more diverse with respect to the source code of the program, and

instead simply describe how it is used.

In the case of a software library, the code documents and

user documents could be effectively equivalent and are worth

conjoining, but for a general application this is not often true. On the

other hand, the Lisp machine grew out of a tradition in which every

piece of code had an attached documentation string. In

combination with strong search capabilities (based on a Unix-like

apropos command), and online sources, Lisp users could look up186

documentation prepared by these API Writers and paste the

associated function directly into their own code. This level of ease

of use is unheard of in putatively more modern systems.

Typically, the user documentation describes each feature of

the program, and assists the user in realizing these features. A

good user document can also go so far as to provide thorough

troubleshooting assistance. It is very important for user documents

to not be confusing, and for them to be up to date. User documents

need not be organized in any particular way, but it is very important

for them to have a thorough index. Consistency and simplicity are

also very valuable. User documentation is considered to constitute

a contract specifying what the software will do. API Writers are very

well accomplished towards writing good user documents as they

would be well aware of the software architecture and programming

techniques used. See also Technical Writing.

There are three broad ways in which user documentation

can be organized.

1. Tutorial: A tutorial approach is considered the most useful for a

new user, in which they are guided through each step of

accomplishing particular tasks .

2. Thematic: A thematic approach, where chapters or sections

concentrate on one particular area of interest, is of more general

use to an intermediate user. Some authors prefer to convey

their ideas through a knowledge based article to facilitating the

user needs. This approach is usually practiced by a dynamic

industry, such as Information technology, where the user

population is largely correlated with the troubleshooting

demands.

3. List or Reference: The final type of organizing principle is one

in which commands or tasks are simply listed alphabetically or

logically grouped, often via cross-referenced indexes. This latter

approach is of greater use to advanced users who know exactly

what sort of information they are looking for.

A common complaint among users regarding software

documentation is that only one of these three approaches was

taken to the near-exclusion of the other two. It is common to limit

provided software documentation for personal computers to online

help that give only reference information on commands or menu

items. The job of tutoring new users or helping more experienced

users get the most out of a program is left to private publishers,

who are often given significant assistance by the software

developer.187

15.6 MARKETING DOCUMENTATION

For many applications it is necessary to have some

promotional materials to encourage casual observers to spend

more time learning about the product. This form of documentation

has three purposes:-

1. To excite the potential user about the product and instil in

them a desire for becoming more involved with it.

2. To inform them about what exactly the product does, so that

their expectations are in line with what they will be receiving.

3. To explain the position of this product with respect to other

alternatives.

4. To completely shroud the function of the product in mystery.

One good marketing technique is to provide clear and

memorable catch phrases that exemplify the point we wish to

convey, and also emphasize the interoperability of the program with

anything else provided by the manufacturer.

15.7 CASE TOOLS AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

CASE tools stand for Computer Aided Software

Engineering tools. As the name implies they are computer based

programs to increase the productivity of analysts. They permit

effective communication with users as well as other members of the

development team. They integrate the development done during

each phase of a system life cycle and also assist in correctly

assessing the effects and cost of changes so that maintenance cost

can be estimated.

· Available CASE tools

Commercially available systems provide tools (i.e. computer

program packages) for each phase of the system development life

cycle. A typical package is Visual Analyst which has several tools

integrated together. Tools are also in the open domain which can

be downloaded and used. However, they do not usually have very

good user interfaces.

Following types of tools are available:

System requirements specification documentation tool

Data flow diagramming tool

System flow chart generation tool

Data dictionary creation

Formatting and checking structured English process logic

Decision table checking188

Screen design for data inputting

Form design for outputs.

E-R diagramming

Data base normalization given the dependency information

· When are tools used

Tools are used throughout the system design phase. CASE

tools are sometimes classified as upper CASE tools and lower

CASE tools. The tools we have described so far are upper CASE

tools.

They are tools which will generate computer screen code

from higher level descriptions such as structured English and

decision tables, such tools are called lower CASE tools

· Object Oriented System Design Tools

Unified Modelling Language is currently the standard. UML

tool set is marketed by Rational Rose a company whose tools are

widely used. This is an expensive tool and not in our scope in his

course.

· How to use the tools

•Most tools have a user’s guide which is given as help files along

with the tool

•Many have FAQ’s and search capabilities

•Details on several open domain tools and what they do is given

below.

· System Flowchart and ER-Diagram generation Tool

Name of the tool: SMARTDRAW

URL: This Software can be downloaded from:

http://www.smartdraw.com. This is a paid software, but a 30-day

free trial for learning can be downloaded.

Requirements to use the tool: PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT.

The latest versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and

about 20MB of free space.

What the tool does: Smartdraw is a perfect suite for drawing all

kinds of diagrams and charts: Flowcharts, Organizational charts,

Gantt charts, Network diagrams, ERdiagrams etc.

The drag and drop readymade graphics of thousands of

templates from built-in libraries makes drawing easier. It has a large189

drawing area and drawings from this tool can be embedded into

Word, Excel and PowerPoint by simply copy-pasting. It has an

extensive collection of symbols for all kinds of drawings.

How to use: The built-in tips guides as the drawing is being

created. Tool tips automatically label buttons on the tool bar.

There is online tutorial provided in:

http://www.smartdraw.com/tutorials/flowcharts/tutorials1.htm

http://www.ttp.co.uk/abtsd.html

· Data Flow Diagram Tool

Name of the tool: IBMS/DFD

URL: This a free software that can be downloaded from:

http://viu.eng.rpi.edu

Requirements to use the tool: The following installation

instructions assume that the user uses a PC running Windows 95,

98 or NT. Additionally, the instructions assume the use of the latest

versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. To download

the zip files & extract them you will need WinZip or similar software.

If needed download at http://www.winzip.com.

What the tool does: The tool helps the users draw a standard data

flow diagram (a process-oriented model of information systems) for

systems analysis.

How to use: Double click on the IBMS icon to see the welcome

screen. Click Any where inside the welcome screen to bring up the

first screen.

Under "Tools" menu, select DFD Modelling. The IBMS will

pop up the Data Flow Diagram window. Its menu bar has the File,

Edit, Insert, Font, Tool, Window and Help options. Its tool box on

the right contains 10 icons, representing (from left to right and top

to bottom) pointer, cut, data flow, process, external entity, data

store, zoom-out, zoom-in, decompose, and compose operations,

respectively.

Left click on the DFD component to be used in the toolbox,

key in the information pertaining to it in the input dialogue box that

prompts for information.

To move the DFD components: Left click on the Pointer icon

in the tool box, point to the component, and hold Left Button to

move to the new location desired in the work area.

To edit information of the DFD components: Right click on

the DFD component. The input dialogue box will prompt you to edit

information of that component.190

Levelling of DFD: Use the Decompose icon in the tool box

for levelling.

To save the DFD: Under File menu, choose Save or

SaveAs. Input the name and extension of the DFD (the default

extension is DFD) and specify folder for the DFD to be saved. Click

OK.

· System requirement specification documentation tool

Name of the tool: ARM

URL: The tool can be downloaded without cost at

http://sw-assurance.gsfc.nasa.gov/disciplines/quality/index.php

What the tool does: ARM or Automated Requirement

Measurement tool aids in writing the System Requirements

Specifications right. The user writes the SRS in a text file, the ARM

tool scans this file that contains the requirement specifications and

gives a report file with the same prefix name as the user’s source

file and adds an extension of “.arm”. This report file contains a

category called INCOMPLETE that indicate the words and phrases

that are not fully developed.

Requirements to use the tool: PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT.

The latest versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and

about 8MB of free space.

How to use the tool : On clicking the option Analyze under File

menu and selecting the file that contains the System Requirements

Specifications, the tool processes the document to check if the

specifications are right and generate a ARM report.

The WALKTHROUGH option in the ARM tool assists a user

by guiding him as to how to use the tool apart from the HELP

menu. The README.doc file downloaded during installation also

contains description of the usage of this tool.

· A Tool for designing and Manipulating Decision tables

Name of the tool: Prologa V.5

URL: http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa

Note: This tool can be downloaded from the above given URL, after

obtaining the password.

What the tool does: The purpose of the tool is to allow the

decision maker to construct and manipulate (systems of) decision

tables. In this construction process, the features available are

automatic table contraction, automatic table optimization,

(automatic) decomposition and composition of tables, verification191

and validation of tables and between tables, visual development,

and rule based specification.

15.8 SUMMARY:

In this Chapter, we learned the concept of Documentation

and types of documentation such as Requirements documentation

Architecture/Design documentation, Technical documentation, User

documentation, Marketing documentation and CASE Tools and

their importance.

Questions:

1. Explain Requirements documentation?

Ans: refer 15.2

2. Explain Architecture/Design documentation?

Ans: refer 15.3

3. Explain Technical documentation?

Ans: refer 15.4

4. Explain User documentation?

Ans: refer 15.5

5. Explain Marketing documentation?

Ans: refer 15.6

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