![The captain spent all winter and the following spring in perfecting
the “Bull Train,” as it was called. The first serious set-back the plan
received resulted from feeding the steers with unsoaked hard bread,
causing several of them to swell up and die; but the general was not
yet ready to give up the idea, and so continued the organization.
Chancellorsville battle came when all the trains remained in camp.
But the day of trial was near. When the army started on the
Gettysburg campaign, Captain Ford put his train in rear of the corps
wagon-train, and started, with the inevitable result.
The mules and horses walked right away from the oxen, in spite of
the goading and lashing and yelling of their drivers. By nightfall they
were doomed to be two or three miles behind the main train—an
easy prey for Mosby’s guerilla band. At last the labor of keeping it up
and the anxiety for its safety were so intense that before the
Potomac was reached the animals were returned to the herd, the
supplies were transferred or issued, the wagons were burned, and
the pet scheme of General Wadsworth was abandoned as
impracticable.
Quite nearly akin to this Bull Train was the train organized by
Grant after the battle of Port Gibson. His army was east of the
Mississippi, his ammunition train was west of it. Wagon
transportation for ammunition must be had. Provisions could be
taken from the country. He says: “I directed, therefore, immediately
on landing, that all the vehicles and draft animals, whether horses,
mules, or oxen, in the vicinity should be collected and loaded to their
capacity with ammunition. Quite a train was collected during the
30th, and a motley train it was. In it could be found fine carriages,
loaded nearly to the top with boxes of cartridges that had been
pitched in promiscuously, drawn by mules with plough-harness,
straw collars, rope lines, etc.; long-coupled wagons with racks for
carrying cotton-bales, drawn by oxen, and everything that could be
found in the way of transportation on a plantation, either for use or
pleasure.” [Vol. i., p. 488.]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/10504-241006140730-75d8d997/85/Download-full-ebook-of-d-instant-download-pdf-24-320.jpg)
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- 4. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5/E 5th Full chapter download at: https://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for- network-security-essentials-applications-and-standards-5-e-5th-edition-william- stallings/ CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TRUE OR FALSE T F 1. With the introduction of the computer the need for automated tools for protecting files and other information stored on the computer became evident. T F 2. There is a natural tendency on the part of users and system managers to perceive little benefit from security investment until a security failure occurs. T F 3. There are clear boundaries between network security and internet security. T F 4. The CIA triad embodies the fundamental security objectives for both data and for information and computing services. T F 5. In developing a particular security mechanism or algorithm one must always consider potential attacks on those security features. T F 6. A loss of confidentiality is the unauthorized modification or destruction of information. T F 7. Patient allergy information is an example of an asset with a moderate requirement for integrity. T F 8. The more critical a component or service, the higher the level of availability required. T F 9. Data origin authentication provides protection against the duplication or modification of data units. T F 10. The emphasis in dealing with passive attacks is on prevention rather than detection.
- 5. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings T F 11. Data integrity is the protection of data from unauthorized disclosure. T F 12. Information access threats exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users. T F 13. Viruses and worms are two examples of software attacks. T F 14. A connection-oriented integrity service deals with individual messages without regard to any larger context and generally provides protection against message modification only. T F 15. Pervasive security mechanisms are not specific to any particular OSI security service or protocol layer. MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. _________ security consists of measures to deter, prevent, detect, and correct security violations that involve the transmission of information. A. Computer B. Internet C. Intranet D. Network 2. Verifying that users are who they say they are and that each input arriving at the system came from a trusted source. A. authenticity B. accountability C. integrity D. confidentiality 3. __________ assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorized users. A. Integrity B. Availability C. System integrity D. Data confidentiality
- 6. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings 4. __________ assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system. A. Data confidentiality B. Availability C. System integrity D. Privacy 5. The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity is _________ . A. accountability B. authenticity C. privacy D. integrity 6. __________ attacks attempt to alter system resources or affect their operation. A. Active B. Release of message content C. Passive D. Traffic analysis 7. A __________ takes place when one entity pretends to be a different entity. A. passive attack B. masquerade C. modification of message D. replay 8. X.800 defines _________ as a service that is provided by a protocol layer of communicating open systems and that ensures adequate security of the systems or of data transfers. A. replay B. integrity C. authenticity D. security service 9. _________ is a professional membership society with worldwide organizational and individual membership that provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet and is the organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the IETF and the IAB.
- 7. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings A. ITU-T B. ISO C. FIPS D. ISOC 10. The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure is _________ . A. access control B. authentication C. data confidentiality D. nonrepudiation 11. __________ is a U.S. federal agency that deals with measurement science, standards, and technology related to U.S. government use and to the promotion of U.S. private sector innovation. A. ISO B. NIST C. ITU-T D. ISOC 12. The prevention of unauthorized use of a resource is __________ . A. access control B. authentication C. data confidentiality D. nonrepudiation 13. The __________ service addresses the security concerns raised by denial-of- service attacks. A. event detection B. integrity C. availability D. routing control 14. _________ is the insertion of bits into gaps in a data stream to frustrate traffic analysis attempts. A. Notarization B. Authentication exchange
- 8. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings C. Routing control D. Traffic padding 15. _________ is a variety of mechanisms used to assure the integrity of a data unit or stream of data units. A. Data integrity B. Authentication exchange C. Trusted functionality D. Event detection SHORT ANSWER 1. _________ is defined as "the protection afforded to an automated information system in order to attain the applicable objectives of preserving the integrity, availability, and confidentiality of information system resources". 2. Three key objectives that are at the heart of computer security are: confidentiality, availability, and _________ . 3. An intelligent act that is a deliberate attempt to evade security services and violate the security policy of a system is an __________ . 4. A loss of _________ is the disruption of access to or use of information or an information system. 5. __________ is the use of mathematical algorithms to transform data into a form that is not readily intelligible, in which the transformation and subsequent recovery of the data depend on an algorithm and zero or more encryption keys. 6. Student grade information is an asset whose confidentiality is considered to be highly important by students and, in the United States, the release of such information is regulated by the __________. 7. A possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability, a _________ is a potential for violation of security which exists when there is a circumstance, capability, action, or event that could breach security and cause harm. 8. A __________ attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but does not affect system resources. 9. The common technique for masking contents of messages or other information traffic so that opponents, even if they captured the message, could not extract the information from the message is _________ .
- 9. Network Security Essentials Applications and Standards, 5th Edition, by William Stallings 10. Active attacks can be subdivided into four categories: replay, modification of messages, denial of service, and __________ . 11. X.800 divides security services into five categories: authentication, access control, nonrepudiation, data integrity and __________ . 12. In the context of network security, _________ is the ability to limit and control the access to host systems and applications via communications links. 13. The __________ is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies that promote the development of standardization and related activities with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services and to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic activity. 14. __________ prevents either sender or receiver from denying a transmitted message; when a message is sent the receiver can prove that the alleged sender in fact sent the message and when a message is received the sender can prove that the alleged receiver in fact received the message. 15. A __________ is data appended to, or a cryptographic transformation of, a data unit that allows a recipient of the data unit to prove the source and integrity of the data unit and protect against forgery.
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- 11. IX. All Quartermasters and Commissaries of Subsistence will attend in person to the receipt and issue of supplies for their commands, and will keep themselves constantly informed of the situation of the depots, roads, etc. By command of Major General McClellan: S. WILLIAMS, Assistant Adjutant General. Official: Aide-de-Camp. This order quite distinctly shows some of the valuable lessons taught by that eventful campaign before Richmond, more especially the necessity of limiting the amount of camp equipage and the transportation to be used for that purpose. But it further outlines the beginnings of the Supply Trains, and to these I wish to direct special attention. I have thus far only referred to the transportation provided for the camp equipage; but subsistence for man and beast must be taken along; clothing, to replace the wear and tear of service, must be provided; ammunition in quantity and variety must be at ready command; intrenching tools were indispensable in an active campaign,—all of which was most forcibly demonstrated on the Peninsula. Some effort, I believe, was made to establish these trains before that campaign began, but everything was confusion when compared with the system which was now inaugurated by Colonel (now General) Rufus Ingalls, when he became Chief Quartermaster of the Army of the Potomac. Through his persevering zeal, trains for the above purposes were organized. All strife for the lead on the march vanished, for every movement was governed by orders from army headquarters under the direction of the chief quartermaster. He prescribed the roads to be travelled over, which corps trains should lead and which should bring up the rear, where more than one took the same roads. All of the corps trains were massed before
- 12. a march, and the chief quartermaster of some corps was selected and put in charge of this consolidated train. The other corps quartermasters had charge of their respective trains, each in turn having his division and brigade quartermasters, subject to his orders. “There never was a corps better organized than was the quartermaster’s corps with the Army of the Potomac in 1864,” says Grant in his Memoirs. WAGON-TRAIN CROSSING THE RAPPAHANNOCK ON A PONTOON BRIDGE. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. Let us see a little more clearly what a corps train included. I can do no better than to incorporate here the following order of General Meade:— Head-Quarters, Army of the Potomac. August 21, 1863. General Orders, No. 83. In order that the amount of transportation in this Army shall not in any instance exceed the maximum allowance prescribed in General Order, No. 274, of August 7, 1863, from the War Department, and to further modify and reduce baggage and supply trains, heretofore authorized, the
- 13. following allowances are established and will be strictly conformed to, viz.: 1. The following is the maximum amount of transportation to be allowed to this Army in the field: To the Head-Quarters of an Army Corps, 2 wagons or 8 pack mules. To the Head-Quarters of a Division or Brigade, 1 wagon or 5 pack mules. To every three company officers, when detached or serving without wagons, 1 pack mule. To every 12 company officers, when detached, 1 wagon or 4 pack mules. To every 2 staff officers not attached to any Head-Quarters, 1 pack mule. To every 10 staff officers serving similarly, 1 wagon or 4 pack mules. The above will include transportation for all personal baggage, mess chests, cooking utensils, desks, papers, &c. The weight of officers’ baggage in the field, specified in the Army Regulations, will be reduced so as to bring it within the foregoing schedule. All excess of transportation now with Army Corps, Divisions, Brigades, and Regiments, or Batteries, over the allowances herein prescribed, will be immediately turned in to the Quartermaster’s Department, to be used in the trains. Commanding officers of Corps, Divisions, &c., will immediately cause inspections to be made, and will be held responsible for the strict execution of this order. Commissary stores and forage will be transported by the trains. Where these are not convenient of access, and where troops act in detachments, the Quartermaster’s Department
- 14. will assign wagons or pack animals for that purpose; but the baggage of officers, or of troops, or camp equipage, will not be permitted to be carried in the wagons or on the pack animals so assigned. The assignment for transportation for ammunition, hospital stores, subsistence, and forage will be made in proportion to the amount ordered to be carried. The number of wagons is hereinafter prescribed. The allowance of spring wagons and saddle horses for contingent wants, and of camp and garrison equipage, will remain as established by circular, dated July 17, 1863. 2. For each full regiment of infantry and cavalry, of 1000 men, for baggage, camp equipage, &c., 6 wagons. For each regiment of infantry less than 700 men and more than 500 men, 5 wagons. For each regiment of infantry less than 500 men and more than 300 men, 4 wagons. For each regiment of infantry less than 300 men, 3 wagons. 3. For each battery of 4 and 6 guns—for personal baggage, mess chests, cooking utensils, desks, papers, &c., 1 and 2 wagons respectively. For ammunition trains the number of wagons will be determined and assigned upon the following rules: 1st. Multiply each 12 pdr. gun by 122 and divide by 112. 2d. Multiply each rifle gun by 50 and divide by 140. 3d. For each 20 pdr. gun, 1½ wagons. 4th. For each siege gun, 2½ wagons. 5th. For the general supply train of reserve ammunition of 20 rounds to each gun in the Army, to be kept habitually with Artillery Reserve, 54 wagons.
- 15. For each battery, to carry its proportion of subsistence, forage, &c., 2 wagons. 4. The supply train for forage, subsistence, quartermaster’s stores, &c., to each 1000 men, cavalry and infantry, 7 wagons. To every 1000 men, cavalry and infantry, for small arm ammunition, 5 wagons. To each 1500 men, cavalry and infantry, for hospital supplies, 3 wagons. To each Army Corps, except the Cavalry, for entrenching tools, &c., 6 wagons. To each Corps Head-Quarters for the carrying of subsistence, forage and other stores not provided for herein, 3 wagons. To each Division Head-Quarters for similar purpose as above, 2 wagons. To each Brigade Head-Quarters for similar purpose as above, 1 wagon. To each Brigade, cavalry and infantry, for commissary stores for sales to officers, 1 wagon. To each Division, cavalry and infantry, for hauling forage for ambulance animals, portable forges, &c., 1 wagon. To each Division, cavalry and infantry, for carrying armorer’s tools, parts of muskets, extra arms and accoutrements, 1 wagon. It is expected that each ambulance, and each wagon, whether in the baggage, supply or ammunition train, will carry the necessary forage for its own team. By command of Major General Meade:
- 16. S. WILLIAMS, Assistant Adjutant General. Official: Ass’t Adj’t Gen’l. As the transportation was reduced in quantity, the capacity of what remained was put to a severer test. For example, when the Army of the Potomac went into the Wilderness in 1864, each wagon was required to carry five days forage for its animals (600 pounds), and if its other freight was rations it might be six barrels of salt pork and four barrels of coffee, or ten barrels of sugar. Forty boxes of hardtack was a load, not so much because of its weight as because a wagon would hold no more. It even excluded the forage to carry this number. In the final campaign against Lee, Grant allowed for baggage and camp equipage three wagons to a regiment of over seven hundred men, two wagons to a regiment of less than seven hundred and more than three hundred, and one wagon to less than three hundred. One wagon was allowed to a field battery. But, notwithstanding the reductions ordered at different times, extra wagons were often smuggled along. One captain, in charge of a train, tells of keeping a wagon and six mules of his own more than orders allowed, and whenever the inspecting officer was announced as coming, the wagon, in charge of his man, Mike, was driven off under cover and not returned till the inspection was completed. This enabled him to take along quite a personal outfit for himself and friends. But his experience was not unique. There were many other “contraband” mule-teams smuggled along in the same way for the same object. In leaving Chattanooga to advance into Georgia, General Sherman reduced his transportation to one baggage-wagon and one ambulance for a regiment, and a pack-horse or mule for the officers of each company. His supply trains were limited in their loads to food, ammunition, and clothing; and wall tents were forbidden to be taken along, barring one for each headquarters, the gallant old
- 17. veteran setting the example, by taking only a tent-fly, which was pitched over saplings or fence rails. The general has recorded in his “Memoirs” that his orders were not strictly obeyed in this respect, Thomas being the most noted exception, who could not give up his tent, and “had a big wagon, which could be converted into an office, and this we used to call ‘Thomas’s circus.’” In starting on his “march to the sea,” Sherman issued Special Field Orders No. 120; paragraph 3 of this order reads as follows:— “There will be no general train of supplies, but each corps will have its ammunition train and provision train distributed habitually as follows: Behind each regiment should follow one wagon and one ambulance; behind each brigade should follow a due proportion of ammunition-wagons, provision- wagons and ambulances. In case of danger each corps commander should change this order of march, by having his advance and rear brigades unencumbered by wheels. The separate columns will start habitually at 7 a.m., and make about fifteen miles per day, unless otherwise fixed in orders.” I presume the allowance remained about the same for the Wilderness Campaign as that given in Orders No. 83. General Hancock says that he started into the Wilderness with 27,000 men. Now, using this fact in connection with the general order, a little rough reckoning will give an approximate idea of the size of the train of this corps. Without going into details, I may say that the total train of the Second Corps, not including the ambulances, could not have been far from 800 wagons, of which about 600 carried the various supplies, and the remainder the baggage—the camp equipage of the corps. When the army was in settled camp, the supply trains went into park by themselves, but the baggage-wagons were retained with their corps, division, brigade, or regimental headquarters. When a march was ordered, however, these wagons waited only long enough to receive their freight of camp equipage, when away they
- 18. went in charge of their respective quartermasters to join the corps supply train. I have alluded to the strength of a single corps train. But the Second Corps comprised only about one-fifth of the Union army in the Wilderness, from which a little arithmetic will enable one to get a tolerably definite idea of the impedimenta of this one army, even after a great reduction in the original amount had been made. There were probably over 4000 wagons following the Army of the Potomac into the Wilderness. An idea of the ground such a train would cover may be obtained by knowing that a six-mule team took up on the road, say, forty feet, but of course they did not travel at close intervals. The nature of the country determined, in some degree, their distance apart. In going up or down hill a liberal allowance was made for balky or headstrong mules. Colonel Wilson, the chief commissary of the army, in an interesting article to the United Service magazine (1880), has stated that could the train which was requisite to accompany the army on the Wilderness Campaign have been extended in a straight line it would have spanned the distance between Washington and Richmond, being about one hundred and thirty miles. I presume this estimate includes the ambulance-train also. On the basis of three to a regiment, there must have been as many as one hundred and fifty to a corps. These, on ordinary marches, followed immediately in the rear of their respective divisions. When General Sherman started for the sea, his army of sixty thousand men was accompanied by about twenty-five hundred wagons and six hundred ambulances. These were divided nearly equally between his four corps, each corps commander managing his own train. In this campaign the transportation had the roads, while the infantry plodded along by the roadside. The supply trains, it will now be understood, were the travelling depot or reservoir from which the army replenished its needs. When these wagons were emptied, they were at once sent back to the base of supplies, to be reloaded with precisely the same kind of
- 19. material as before; and empty wagons had always to leave the road clear for loaded ones. Unless under a pressure of circumstances, all issues except of ammunition were made at night. By this plan the animals of the supply consumed their forage at the base of supplies, and thus saved hauling it. It was a welcome sight to the soldiers when rations drew low, or were exhausted, to see these wagons drive up to the lines. They were not impedimenta to the army just then. COMMISSARY DEPOT AT CEDAR LEVEL.—FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. It has sometimes been thought that the wagon-train was a glorious refuge from the dangers and hard labors endured at the front, but such was not the case. It was one of the most wearing departments of the service. The officers in immediate charge were especially burdened with responsibility, as the statement above illustrates. They were charged to have their trains at a given point at or before a specified time. It must be there. There was no “if convenient” or “if possible” attached to the order. The troops must have their rations, or, more important still, the ammunition must be at hand in case of need. Sometimes they would accomplish the task assigned without difficulty, but it was the exception. Of course, they could not start until the army had got out of the way. Then, the roads, already cut up somewhat by the artillery, were soon rendered next to impassable by the moving trains. The quartermaster in charge of a train would be called upon to extricate a wagon here
- 20. that was blocking the way, to supply the place of a worn-out horse or mule there; to have a stalled wagon unloaded and its contents distributed among other wagons; to keep the train well closed up; to keep the right road even by night, when, of necessity, much of their travelling was done. And if, with a series of such misfortunes befalling him, the quartermaster reached his destination a few hours late, his chances were very good for being roundly sworn at by his superior officers for his delinquency. During the progress of the train, it may be said, the quartermaster would ease his nervous and troubled spirit by swearing at careless or unfortunate mule-drivers, who, in turn, would make the air blue with profanity addressed to their mules, individually or collectively, so that the anxiety to get through was felt by all the moving forces in the train. A large number of these drivers were civilians early in the war, but owing to the lack of subordination which many of them showed, their places were largely supplied later by enlisted men, upon whom Uncle Sam had his grip, and who could not resign or “swear back” without penalty. The place of the trains on an advance was in the rear of the army; on the retreat, in front, as a rule. If they were passing through a dangerous section of country, they were attended by a guard, sometimes of infantry, sometimes cavalry. The strength of the guard varied with the nature of the danger expected. Sometimes a regiment, sometimes a brigade or division, was detailed from a corps for the duty. The nature of Sherman’s march was such that trains and troops went side by side, as already referred to. The colored division of the Ninth Corps served as train-guard for the transportation of the Army of the Potomac from the Rapidan to the James in 1864. When ammunition was wanted by a battery or a regiment in the line of battle, a wagon was sent forward from the train to supply it, the train remaining at a safe distance in the rear. The nearness of the wagon’s approach was governed somewhat by the nature of the ground. If there was cover to screen it from the enemy, like a hill or
- 21. a piece of woods, it would come pretty near, but if exposed it would keep farther away. When it was possible to do so, supplies both of subsistence and ammunition were brought up by night when the army was in line of battle, for, as I have said elsewhere, a mule- team or a mule-train under fire was a diverting spectacle to every one but the mule-drivers. A MULE-TEAM UNDER FIRE. One of the most striking reminiscences of the wagon-train which I remember relates to a scene enacted in the fall of ’63, in that campaign of manœuvres between Meade and Lee. My own corps (Third) reached Centreville Heights before sunset—in fact, was, I think, the first corps to arrive. At all events, we had anticipated the most of the trains. At that hour General Warren was having a lively row with the enemy at Bristoe Station, eight or nine miles away. As the twilight deepened, the flash of his artillery and the smoke of the conflict were distinctly visible in the horizon. The landscape between this stirring scene and our standpoint presented one of the most animated spectacles that I ever saw in the service. Its most attractive feature was the numerous wagon-trains, whose long lines, stretching away for miles over the open plain, were hastening forward to a place of refuge, all converging towards a common centre—the high ground lying along the hither side of Bull Run. The officers in charge of the trains, made somewhat nervous by the sounds of conflict reaching them from the rear, impatiently urged on
- 22. the drivers, who, in turn, with lusty lungs uttered vigorous oaths at the mules, punctuated by blows or cracks of the black snake that equalled in volume the intonations of a rifle; and these jumped into their harnesses and took the wagons along over stumps and through gullies with as great alacrity as if the chief strain and responsibility of the campaign centred in themselves. An additional feature of animation was presented by the columns of infantry from the other corps, which alternated in the landscape with the lines of wagons, winding along into camp tired and footsore, but without apparent concern. I do not now remember any other time in my experience when so large a portion of the matériel and personnel of the army could have been covered by a single glance as I saw in the gathering twilight of that October afternoon. The system of designating the troops by corps badges was extended to the transportation, and every wagon was marked on the side of the canvas covering with the corps badge, perhaps eighteen inches in diameter, and of the appropriate color to designate the division to which it belonged. In addition to this, the number of its division, brigade, and the nature of its contents, whether rations, forage, clothing, or ammunition,—and, if the latter, the kind, whether artillery or musket, and the calibre,—were plainly stencilled in large letters on the cover. All this and much more went to indicate as perfect organization in the trains as in the army itself, and to these men, who were usually farthest from the fray, for whom few words of appreciation have been uttered by distinguished writers on the war, I gladly put on record my humble opinion that the country is as much indebted as for the work of the soldiers in line. They acted well their part, and all honor to them for it. A regular army officer, who had a large experience in charge of trains, has suggested that a bugler for each brigade or division train would have been a valuable auxiliary for starting or halting the trains, or for regulating the camp duties as in artillery and cavalry. It seems strange that so commendable a proposition was not thought of at the time.
- 23. THE “BULL TRAIN.” In 1863, while the army was lying at Belle Plain after the memorable Mud March, large numbers of colored refugees came into camp. Every day saw some old cart or antiquated wagon, the relic of better days in the Old Dominion, unloading its freight of contrabands, who had thus made their entrance into the lines of Uncle Sam and Freedom. As a large number of these vehicles had accumulated near his headquarters, General Wadsworth, then commanding the first division of the First Corps, conceived the novel idea of forming a supply train of them, using as draft steers, to be selected from the corps cattle herd, and broken for that purpose. His plan, more in detail, was to load the carts at the base of supplies with what rations they would safely carry, despatch them to the troops wherever they might be, issue the rations, slaughter the oxen for fresh beef, and use the wagons for fuel to cook it. A very practical scheme, at first view, surely. A detail of mechanics was made to put the wagons in order, a requisition was drawn for yokes, and Captain Ford of a Wisconsin regiment, who had had experience in such work, was detailed to break in the steers to yoke and draft.
- 24. The captain spent all winter and the following spring in perfecting the “Bull Train,” as it was called. The first serious set-back the plan received resulted from feeding the steers with unsoaked hard bread, causing several of them to swell up and die; but the general was not yet ready to give up the idea, and so continued the organization. Chancellorsville battle came when all the trains remained in camp. But the day of trial was near. When the army started on the Gettysburg campaign, Captain Ford put his train in rear of the corps wagon-train, and started, with the inevitable result. The mules and horses walked right away from the oxen, in spite of the goading and lashing and yelling of their drivers. By nightfall they were doomed to be two or three miles behind the main train—an easy prey for Mosby’s guerilla band. At last the labor of keeping it up and the anxiety for its safety were so intense that before the Potomac was reached the animals were returned to the herd, the supplies were transferred or issued, the wagons were burned, and the pet scheme of General Wadsworth was abandoned as impracticable. Quite nearly akin to this Bull Train was the train organized by Grant after the battle of Port Gibson. His army was east of the Mississippi, his ammunition train was west of it. Wagon transportation for ammunition must be had. Provisions could be taken from the country. He says: “I directed, therefore, immediately on landing, that all the vehicles and draft animals, whether horses, mules, or oxen, in the vicinity should be collected and loaded to their capacity with ammunition. Quite a train was collected during the 30th, and a motley train it was. In it could be found fine carriages, loaded nearly to the top with boxes of cartridges that had been pitched in promiscuously, drawn by mules with plough-harness, straw collars, rope lines, etc.; long-coupled wagons with racks for carrying cotton-bales, drawn by oxen, and everything that could be found in the way of transportation on a plantation, either for use or pleasure.” [Vol. i., p. 488.]
- 25. Here is another incident which will well illustrate the trials of a train quartermaster. At the opening of the campaign in 1864, Wilson’s cavalry division joined the Army of the Potomac. Captain Ludington (now lieutenant-colonel, U. S. A.) was chief quartermaster of its supply train. It is a settled rule guiding the movement of trains that the cavalry supplies shall take precedence in a move, as the cavalry itself is wont to precede the rest of the army. Through some oversight of the chief quartermaster of the army, General Ingalls, the captain had received no order of march, and after waiting until the head of the infantry supply trains appeared, well understanding that his place was ahead of them on the march, he moved out of park into the road. At once he encountered the chief quartermaster of the corps train, and a hot and wordy contest ensued, in which vehement language found ready expression. While this dispute for place was at white heat, General Meade and his staff rode by, and saw the altercation in progress without halting to inquire into its cause. After he had passed some distance up the road, Meade sent back an aid, with his compliments, to ascertain what train that was struggling for the road, who was in charge of it, and with what it was loaded. Captain Ludington informed him that it was Wilson’s cavalry supply train, loaded with forage and rations. These facts the aid reported faithfully to Meade, who sent him back again to inquire particularly if that really was Wilson’s cavalry train. Upon receiving an affirmative answer, he again carried the same to General Meade, who immediately turned back in his tracks, and came furiously back to Ludington. Uttering a volley of oaths, he asked him what he meant by throwing all the trains into confusion. “You ought to have been out of here hours ago!” he continued. “I have a great mind to hang you to the nearest tree. You are not fit to be a quartermaster.” In this manner General Meade rated the innocent captain for a few moments, and then rode away. When he had gone, General Ingalls dropped back from the staff a moment, with a laugh at the interview, and, on learning the captain’s case, told him to remain where he was until he received an order from him. Thereupon Ludington withdrew to a house that stood not far away from the road, and, taking a seat on the veranda, entered into conversation
- 26. with two young ladies who resided there. Soon after he had thus comfortably disposed himself, who should appear upon the highway but Sheridan, who was in command of all the cavalry with the army. On discovering the train at a standstill, he rode up and asked:— “What train is this?” “The supply train of Wilson’s Cavalry Division,” was the reply of a teamster. “Who’s in charge of it?” “Captain Ludington.” “Where is he?” “There he sits yonder, talking to those ladies.” GENERAL MEADE AND THE QUARTERMASTER. “Give him my compliments and tell him I want to see him,” said Sheridan, much wrought up at the situation, apparently thinking that the train was being delayed that its quartermaster might spend further time “in gentle dalliance” with the ladies. As soon as the
- 27. captain approached, the general charged forward impetuously, as if he would ride the captain down, and, with one of those “terrible oaths” for which he was famous, demanded to know what he was there for, why he was not out at daylight, and on after his division. As Ludington attempted to explain, Sheridan cut him off by opening his battery of abuse again, threatening to have him shot for his incompetency and delay, and ordering him to take the road at once with his train. Having exhausted all the strong language in the vocabulary, he rode away, leaving the poor captain in a state of distress that can be only partially imagined. When he had finally got somewhat settled after this rough stirring-up, he took a review of the situation, and, having weighed the threatened hanging by General Meade, the request to await his orders from General Ingalls, the threatened shooting of General Sheridan, and the original order of General Wilson, which was to be on hand with the supplies at a certain specified time and place, Ludington decided to await orders from General Ingalls, and resumed the company of the ladies. At last the orders came, and the captain moved his train, spending the night on the road in the Wilderness, and when morning dawned had reached a creek over which it was necessary for him to throw a bridge before it could be crossed. So he set his teamsters at work to build a bridge. Hardly had they begun felling trees before up rode the chief quartermaster of the Sixth Corps train, anxious to cross. An agreement was entered into, however, that they should build the bridge together; and the corps quartermaster set his pioneers at work with Ludington’s men, and the bridge was soon finished. Recognizing the necessity for the cavalry train to take the lead, the corps quartermaster had assented that it should pass the bridge first when it was completed, and on the arrival of that moment the train was put in motion, but just then a prompt and determined chief quartermaster of a Sixth Corps division train, unaware of the understanding had between his superior, the corps quartermaster, and Captain Ludington, rode forward and insisted on crossing first. A struggle for precedence immediately set in. The contest waxed warm, and language more forcible than polite was waking the woodland echoes when who should appear on the scene again but
- 28. General Meade. On seeing Ludington engaged as he saw him the day before, it aroused his wrath most unreasonably, and, riding up to him, he shouted, with an oath: “What! are you here again!” Then shaking his fist in his face, he continued: “I am sorry now that I did not hang you yesterday, as I threatened.” The captain, exhausted and out of patience with the trials which he had encountered, replied that he sincerely wished he had, and was sorry that he was not already dead. The arrival of the chief quartermaster of the Sixth Corps, at this time, ended the dispute for precedence, and Ludington went his way without further vexatious delays to overtake his cavalry division. “OLD CRONIES”
- 29. CHAPTER XX. ARMY ROAD AND BRIDGE BUILDERS. “A line of black, which bends and floats On the rising tide, like a bridge of boats.” Longfellow. If there is one class of men in this country who more than all others should appreciate spacious and well graded highways, or ready means of transit from one section into another, that class is the veterans of the Union Army; for those among them who “hoofed it” from two to four years in Rebeldom travelled more miles across country in that period than they did on regularly constituted thoroughfares. Now through the woods, now over the open, then
- 30. crossing a swamp, or wading a river of varying depth, here tearing away a fence obstructing the march, there filling a ditch with rails to smooth the passage of the artillery,—in fact, “short cuts” were so common and popular that the men endured the obstacles they often presented with the utmost good-nature, knowing that every rood of travel thus saved meant fewer foot-blisters and an earlier arrival in camp. But there was a portion of the army which could not often indulge in short cuts, which must “find a way or make it,” or have it made for them by others; and as some time and much skill and labor were necessary in laying out and completing such a way in an efficient manner, a body of men was enlisted for the exclusive purpose of doing this kind of work. Such a body was the Engineer Corps, often called the Sappers and Miners of the army; but so little sapping and mining was done, and that little mainly by the fighting forces, I shall speak of this body of men as Engineers—the name which, I believe, they prefer. In the Army of the Potomac this corps was composed of the Fifteenth and Fiftieth New York regiments of volunteers and a battalion of regulars comprising three companies. They started out with McClellan in the Peninsular Campaign, and from that time till the close of the war were identified with the movements of this army. These engineers went armed as infantry for purposes of self- defence only, for fighting was not their legitimate business, nor was it expected of them. There were emergencies in the history of the army when they were drawn up in line of battle. Such was the case with a part of them at least at Antietam, Gettysburg, and the Wilderness, but, so far as I can learn, they were never actively engaged.
- 31. CORDUROYING. The engineers’ special duties were to make roads passable for the army by corduroying sloughs, building trestle bridges across small streams, laying pontoon bridges over rivers, and taking up the same, laying out and building fortifications, and slashing. Corduroying called at times for a large amount of labor, for Virginia mud was such a foe to rapid transit that miles upon miles of this sort of road had to be laid to keep ready communication between different portions of the army. Where the ground was miry, two stringers were laid longitudinally of the road, and on these the corduroy of logs, averaging, perhaps, four inches in diameter, was laid, and a cover of brush was sometimes spread upon it to prevent mules from thrusting their legs through. Where the surface was simply muddy, no stringers were used. It should be said here that by far the greater portion of this variety of work fell to fatigue details from the infantry, as did much more of the labor which came within the scope of the engineers’ duties; for the latter could not have accomplished one- fifth of the tasks devolved upon them in time. In fact, if I except the laying and taking-up of pontoon bridges, and the laying-out and superintending of the building of forts, there were none of the engineers’ duties which were not performed by the fighting force to a large extent. I state this not in detraction of the engineers, who always did well, but in justice to the infantry, who so often supplemented the many and trying duties of their own department with the accomplishments of the engineer corps. The quartermaster of the army had a large number of wagons loaded with intrenching
- 32. tools with which to supply the troops when their services were required as engineers. A TRESTLE BRIDGE, NO. 1. The building of trestle bridges called for much labor from the engineers with the Army of the Potomac, for Virginia is gridironed with small streams. These, bear in mind, the troops could ford easily, but the heavily loaded trains must have bridges to cross on, or each ford would soon have been choked with mired teams. Sometimes the bridges built by the natives were still standing, but they had originally been put up for local travel only, not to endure the tramp and rack of moving armies and their thousands of tons of impedimenta; wherefore the engineers would take them in hand and strengthen them to the point of present efficiency. So well was much of this work done that it endures in places to-day as a monument to their thoroughness and fidelity, and a convenience to the natives of those sections.
- 33. A TRESTLE BRIDGE, NO. 2. When a line of works was laid out through woods, much slashing, or felling of trees, was necessary in its front. This was especially necessary in front of forts and batteries. Much of this labor was done by the engineers. The trees were felled with their tops toward the enemy, leaving stumps about three feet high. The territory covered by these fallen trees was called the Slashes, hence Slashing. No large body of the enemy could safely attempt a passage through such an obstacle. It was a strong defence for a weak line of works. The Gabions, being hollow cylinders of wicker-work without bottom, filled with earth, and placed on the earthworks; the Fascines, being bundles of small sticks bound at both ends and intermediate points, to aid in raising batteries, filling ditches, etc.; Chevaux-de-frise, a piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes, used especially as a defence against cavalry; the Abatis, a row of the large branches of trees, sharpened and laid close together, points outward, with the butts pinned to the ground; the Fraise, a defence of pointed sticks, fastened into the ground at such an incline as to bring the points breast-high;—all these were fashioned by the engineer corps, in vast numbers, when the army was besieging Petersburg in 1864.
- 34. FASCINES. CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE. A LARGE GABION. But the crownin g work of this corps, as it always seemed to me, the department of their labor for which, I believe, they will be the longest remembered, was that of ponton-bridge laying. The word ponton, or pontoon, is borrowed from both the Spanish and French languages, which, in turn, derive it from the parent Latin, pons, meaning a bridge, but it has now come to mean a boat, and the men who build such bridges are called by the French pontoniers. In fact, the system of ponton bridges in use during the Rebellion was copied, I believe, almost exactly from the French model.
- 35. The first ponton bridge which I recall in history was built by Xerxes, nearly twenty-four hundred years ago, across the Hellespont. It was over four thousand feet long. A violent storm broke it up, whereupon the Persian “got square” by throwing two pairs of shackles into the sea and ordering his men to give it three hundred strokes of a whip, while he addressed it in imperious language. Then he ordered all those persons who had been charged with the construction of the bridge to be beheaded. Immediately afterwards he had two other bridges built, “one for the army to pass over, and the other for the baggage and beasts of burden. He appointed workmen more able and expert than the former, who went about it in this manner. They placed three hundred and sixty vessels across, some of them having three banks of oars and others fifty oars apiece, with their sides turned towards the Euxine (Black) Sea; and on the side that faced the Ægean Sea they put three hundred and fourteen. They then cast large anchors into the water on both sides, in order to fix and secure all these vessels against the violence of the winds and the current of the water. On the east side they left three passages or vacant spaces, between the vessels, that there might be room for small boats to go and come easily, when there was occasion, to and from the Euxine Sea. After this, upon the land on both sides, they drove large piles into the earth, with huge rings fastened to them, to which were tied six vast cables, which went over each of the two bridges: two of which cables were made of hemp, and four of a sort of reeds called βιβλος, which were made use of in those times for the making of cordage. Those that were made of hemp must have been of an extraordinary strength and thickness since every cubit in length weighed a talent (42 pounds). The cables, laid over the whole extent of the vessels lengthwise, reached from one side to the other of the sea. When this part of the work was finished, quite over the vessels from side to side, and over the cables just described, they laid the trunks of trees cut for that purpose, and planks again over them, fastened and joined together to serve as a kind of floor or solid bottom; all which they covered over with earth, and added rails or battlements on each side that the
- 36. ABATIS. THE FRAISE. horses and cattle might not be frightened at seeing the sea in their passage.” Compare this bridge of Xerxes with that hereinafter described, and note the points of similarity. One of the earliest pontons used in the Rebellion was made of India-rubber. It was a sort of sack, shaped not unlike a torpedo, which had to be inflated before use. When thus inflated, two of these sacks were placed side by side, and on this buoyant foundation the bridge was laid. Their extreme lightness was a great advantage in transportation, but for some reason they were not used by the engineers of the Army of the Potomac. They were used in the western army, however, somewhat. General F. P. Blair’s division used them in the Vicksburg campaign of 1863. Another ponton which was adopted for bridge service may be described as a skeleton boat-frame, over which was stretched a cotton- canvas cover. This was a great improvement over the tin or copper- covered boat-frames, which had been thoroughly tested and condemned. It was the variety used by Sherman’s army almost exclusively. In starting for Savannah, he distributed his ponton trains among his four corps, giving to each about nine hundred feet of bridge material. These pontons were suitably hinged to form a wagon body, in which was carried the canvas cover, anchor, chains,
- 37. and a due proportion of other bridge materials. This kind of bridge was used by the volunteer engineers of the Army of the Potomac. I recall two such bridges. One spanned the Rapidan at Ely’s Ford, and was crossed by the Second Corps the night of May 3, 1864, when it entered upon the Wilderness campaign. The other was laid across the Po River, by the Fiftieth New York Engineers, seven days afterwards, and over this Hancock’s Veterans crossed—those, at least, who survived the battle of that eventful Tuesday—before nightfall. But all of the long bridges, notably those crossing the Chickahominy, the James, the Appomattox, which now come to my mind, were supported by wooden boats of the French pattern. These were thirty-one feet long, two feet six inches deep, five feet four inches wide at the top, and four feet at the bottom. They tapered so little at the bows and sterns as to be nearly rectangular, and when afloat the gunwales were about horizontal, having little of the curve of the skiff. A CANVAS PONTOON BOAT. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. The floor timbers of the bridge, known as Balks, were twenty-five and one-half feet long, and four and one-half inches square on the end. Five continuous lines of these were laid on the boats two feet ten inches apart. The flooring of the bridge, called chesses, consisted of boards having a uniform length of fourteen feet, a width of twelve inches, and a thickness of one and a half inches.
- 38. To secure the chesses in place, side-rails of about the same dimensions as the balks were laid upon them over the outer balks, to which the rails were fastened by cords known as rack-lashings. The distance between the centres of two boats in position is called a bay. The distance between the boats is thirteen feet ten inches. The distance between the side-rails is eleven feet, this being the width of the roadway. AN ANGLE OF FORT HELL (SEDGWICK) SHOWING GABIONS, CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, ABATIS AND FRAISE. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. An abutment had to be constructed at either end of a bridge, which was generally done by settling a heavy timber horizontally in the ground, level with the top of the bridge, confining it there by stakes. A proper approach was then made to this, sometimes by grading, sometimes by corduroying, sometimes by cutting away the bank. The boats, with all other bridge equipage, were carried upon wagons, which together were known as the Ponton Train. Each wagon was drawn by six mules. A single boat with its anchor and cable formed the entire load for one team. The balks were loaded on wagons by themselves, as were also the chesses, and the side-rails
- 39. on others. This system facilitated the work of the pontoniers. In camp, the Ponton Train was located near army headquarters. On the march it would naturally be in rear of the army, unless its services were soon to be made use of. If, when the column had halted, we saw this train and its body-guard, the engineers, passing to the front, we at once concluded that there was “one wide river to cross,” and we might as well settle down for a while, cook some coffee, and take a nap. In order to get a better idea of ponton-bridge laying, let us follow such a train to the river and note the various steps in the operation. If the enemy is not holding the opposite bank, the wagons are driven as near as practicable to the brink of the water, unloaded, and driven off out of the way. To avoid confusion and expedite the work, the corps is divided up into the abutment, boat, balk, lashing, chess, and side-rail parties. Each man, therefore, knows just what he has to do. The abutment party takes the initiative, by laying the abutment, and preparing the approaches as already described. Sometimes, when the shore was quite marshy, trestle work or a crib of logs was necessary in completing this duty, but, as the army rarely approached a river except over a recognized thoroughfare, such work was the exception. While this party has been vigorously prosecuting its special labors, the boat party, six in number, have got a ponton afloat, manned it, and ridden to a point a proper distance above the line of the proposed bridge, dropped anchor, and, paying out cable, drop down alongside the abutment, and go ashore. The balk party are on hand with five balks, two men to each, and having placed these so that one end projects six inches beyond the outer gunwale of the boat, they make way for the lashing party, who lash them in place at proper intervals as indicated on the gunwales. The boat is then pushed into the stream the length of the balks, the hither ends of which are at once made fast to the abutment.
- 40. A WOODEN PONTOON BOAT. FROM A PHOTOGRAPH. The chess party now step to the front and cover the balks with flooring to within one foot of the ponton. Meanwhile the boat-party has launched another ponton, dropped anchor in the proper place, and brought it alongside the first: the balk party, also ready with another bay of balks, lay them for the lashing party to make fast; the boat being then pushed off broadside-to as before, and the free end of the balks lashed so as to project six inches over the shore gunwale of the first boat. By this plan it may be seen that each balk and bay of balks completely spans two pontons. This gives the bridge a firm foundation. The chess party continue their operations, as before, to within a foot of the second boat. And now, when the third bay of the bridge is begun, the side-rail party appears, placing their rails on the chesses over the outside balks, to which they firmly lash them, the chesses being so constructed that the lashings pass between them for this purpose. The foregoing operations are repeated bay after bay till the bridge reaches the farther shore, when the building of another abutment and its approaches completes the main part of the work. It then remains to scatter the roadway of the bridge with a light covering of hay, or straw, or sand, to protect it from wear, and, perhaps, some straightening here and tightening there may be necessary, but the work is now done, and all of the personnel and matériel may cross with perfect safety. No rapid movements are allowed, however, and man and beast must pass over at a walk. A guard of the engineers is