![great naval Power will not, as a rule, be in a position to
concentrate all its striking force against us. But even if it should
succeed in meeting us with considerable superiority of strength,
the defeat of a strong German Fleet would so substantially
weaken the enemy that, in spite of the victory he might have
obtained, his own position in the world would no longer be
secured by an adequate fleet.”
Lord Fisher had not studied the progress of the German naval
movement without realising that in this passage was to be found the
secret of the strategic plan which the German naval authorities had
formed. With the instinct of a great strategist, he reorganised the
whole world-wide machinery of the British Navy, in order to suit the
new circumstances then developing.
The war in the Far East had shown that changes were necessary
in the design of British ships of all classes. The First Sea Lord
insisted that the matter should have immediate attention, and a
powerful committee of naval officers, shipbuilders, and scientists
began its sittings at the Admiralty. The moment its report was
available, Parliament was asked for authority to lay down groups of
ships of new types, of which the “Dreadnought” was the most
famous. In the preceding six years, sixteen battleships had been laid
down for Great Britain, while Germany had begun thirteen; our sea
power, as computed in modern ships of the line, had already begun
to shrink. Secretly and rapidly, four units of the new type—the
“Dreadnought,” with her swift sisters, the “Indomitable,” “Inflexible,”
and “Invincible”—were rushed to completion. No battleship building
abroad carried more than four big guns; the “Dreadnought” had ten
big guns, and her swift consorts eight.[3] Thus was the work of
rebuilding the British Fleet initiated. Destroyers of a new type were
placed in hand, and redoubled progress was made in the
construction of submarines, which Lord Fisher was the first to realise
were essential to this country, and were capable of immense
development as offensive engines of warfare. We gained a lead of
eighteen months over other Powers by the determined policy
adopted.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/66784276-250320122827-1ea833b9/85/Ebook-Comuterr-Assisted-Language-Learning-Theory-to-Practice-by-Hassan-Soleimani-52-320.jpg)
![[3] It is officially admitted by the United States Navy Department that it
had prepared plans for a ship similar in armament to the Dreadnought in
1904, and was awaiting the approval of Congress before beginning
construction. American officers had come to the same conclusions as to
the inevitable tendency of battleship design as the British Admiralty.
Owing to the delay imposed by the necessity of obtaining the consent of
Congress, the United States lost the advantage; in the exercise of its
powers, the British Admiralty acted directly the designs of the new ships
were ready.
Just as the task of rebuilding the Fleet had been initiated, a
change of Government occurred, and there was reason to fear that
the stupendous task of reorganising and re-creating the bases of our
naval power would be delayed, if not abandoned. In Lord Fisher the
nation had, fortunately, a man of iron will. Though Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman, above all things desirous of arresting the
rivalry in naval armaments, was Prime Minister, and Lord
Tweedmouth was First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Fisher, supported
by his colleagues on the Board, insisted on essentials. Delays
occurred in German shipbuilding, and the Admiralty agreed that
British shipbuilding could be delayed. In 1906, 1907, and 1908 only
eight Dreadnoughts were begun. Subsequent events tend to show
that this policy was a political mistake, though we eventually
obtained more powerful ships by the delay. Germany was
encouraged to believe that under a Liberal Administration she could
overtake us. Between 1906 and 1908 inclusive we laid down eight
large ships of the Dreadnought type; and Germany laid down nine,
and began to accelerate her programme of 1909.
Then occurred a momentous change in British affairs. Lord
Tweedmouth, after the famous incident of the German Emperor’s
letter, retired from office (1908), and his place was taken by Mr.
Reginald McKenna, who was to show that a rigid regard for economy
was not incompatible with a high standard of patriotism. In
association with the Sea Lords, he surveyed the naval situation. In
the following March occurred the naval crisis. Germany had
accelerated her construction, and our sea power was in peril. The
whole Board of Admiralty determined that there was no room for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/66784276-250320122827-1ea833b9/85/Ebook-Comuterr-Assisted-Language-Learning-Theory-to-Practice-by-Hassan-Soleimani-53-320.jpg)
![ever devoted to naval defence—£51,500,000. In the course of his
speech on these Estimates he made the announcement that there
would be no naval manœuvres in 1914. He stated:
“We have decided to substitute this year for the grand
manœuvres—not, of course, for the numberless exercises the
Fleet is always carrying out—a general mobilisation of the Third
Fleet.[4] We are calling up the whole of the Royal Fleet Reserve
for a period of eleven days, and those who come up for that
period will be excused training next year, and will receive £1
bounty in addition to their regular pay.
“We have had a most admirable response. 10,170 men,
seamen, and others, and 1,409 marines, are required to man
the ships of the Third Fleet. We have already, in the few days
our circular has been out, received replies from 10,334 men
volunteers, and from 3,321 marines. I think that reflects great
credit on the spirit of the Reserve generally, and also reflects
credit upon the employers, who must have greatly facilitated
this operation all over the country. I hereby extend to them the
thanks of the Admiralty.
“This test is one of the most important that could possibly be
made, and it is really surprising to me that it has never been
undertaken before. The cost, including the bounty of £1, will be
about £50,000. Having no grand manœuvres yields a saving of
£230,000, so there is a net saving on the substitution of
£180,000.”
[4] The Third Fleet consists of the oldest ships of the Navy maintained
in peace with skeleton crews.
It was hardly surprising in the circumstances that many persons
thought the Admiralty was bent merely upon economy. If the naval
authorities had had foreknowledge of the course of events they
could not, in fact, have adopted a wiser course. From March
onwards, week by week down to the middle of July, the elaborate
and complicated drafting arrangements were examined and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/66784276-250320122827-1ea833b9/85/Ebook-Comuterr-Assisted-Language-Learning-Theory-to-Practice-by-Hassan-Soleimani-57-320.jpg)
(Ebook) Comuterr Assisted Language Learning: Theory to Practice by Hassan Soleimani
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- 5. Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice By: Hassan Soleimani Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics Payame Noor University
- 8. Table of Contents Foreword V List of Abbreviations VI Section One: Approaches 1 Chapter One: Technology: A Retrospect 3 Chapter Two: Technology and Language Learning 13 Chapter Three: Computer Assisted Language Learning 26 Chapter Four: CALL and Complex System Theory 48 Chapter Five: Sociocultural Theory of Language Learning 74 Chapter Six: Constructivism and CALL: Revisited 86 Chapter Seven: Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 96 Chapter Eight: Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in CALL 109 Chapter Nine: Moodle and Language Learning /Teaching 123 Chapter Ten: Materials Development in CALL 133 Chapter Eleven: Teacher Education in CALL 146 Chapter Twelve: Literacy in CALL 165 Section Two: Technology and Language Skills 183 Chapter Thirteen: Reading in CALL 185 Chapter Fourteen: Writing in CALL 194 Chapter Fifteen: Listening in CALL 201 Chapter Sixteen: Speaking in CALL 208 APPENDIX: Sites for Teachers and Students 217 V
- 9. Foreword Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an academic multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field which connects language learning and teaching to computer technology. Generally speaking, the role of CALL is to make insights drawn from areas of language, learning, teaching, and technology relevant to decision-making in language learning pedagogy. In this sense, CALL mediates between theory and practice. This book Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice is a work covering key issues in technology and foreign language learning and teaching. The book is divided into two sections: Theory and practice. The section on theory includes twelve chapters with topics commonly referred to in the literature of CALL, and the section on practice has four chapters focusing on using technology for actual practice in the four language skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing). Attempts have been made to identify various technologies and software programs that might be regularly used in the classroom setting for all EFL students to improve their learning. Each chapter provides the reader with an overview of one of the areas of the field. As a teacher of CALL, I have been teaching CALL courses since 2014 to MA and PhD students in computer assisted language learning courses. The book is the result of my years of experience in the CALL courses. Therefore, the book is intended for a diverse audience in VII
- 10. applied linguistics, but is firmly directed to MA students in TEFL. The book might also be useful for teachers, graduate students, researchers, and practitioners to familiarize themselves with the field. I take responsibility for the contents of the book, including its flaws. Hassan Soleimani Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and TEFL Payame Noor University VIII
- 11. List of Abbreviations ALLP: Athena Language Learning Project ALM: Audiolingual Method API: Application Programming Interface AR: Augmented Reality BASE: British Academic Spoken English Corpus CAI: Computer Assisted Instruction CALL: Computer Assisted Language Learning CALT: Computer Assisted Language Teaching CALT: Computer Assisted Language Testing CBLT: Computer-Based Language Teaching CELL: Computer-Enhanced Language Learning CERN: The European Organization for Nuclear Research CMC: Computer Mediated Communication CMS: Course Management Systems COCA: Corpus of Contemporary American English CSCL: Computer Supported Collaborative Learning CTML: Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning EFL: English as a Foreign Language ESL: English as a Second Language GTM: Grammar Translation Method ICT: Information Communication Technology IRC: Internet Relay Chat IT: Information Technology IX
- 12. ITS: Intelligent Tutoring System LINDSEI: Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage LMS: Learning Management Systems MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning MICASE: Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English MOODLE: Multiple Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment NELL: Network Enhanced Language Learning NBLL: Network-Based Language Learning NBLT: Network Based Language Teaching NLP: Natural Language Processing OLC: Online Learning Community PC: Personal Computer PLATO: Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations PL: Programmed Learning RQM: Retrodictive Qualitative Modelling SCT: Sociocultural Theory SLA: Second Language Acquisition SLAR: Second Language Acquisition Research SoLET: Science of Learning and Educational Technology TELL: Technology Enhanced Language Learning TPACK: Technological Practical, and Content Knowledge TTS: Text to Speech UNIX: UNiversal Interactive eXecutive VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol VLE: Virtual Learning Environment VR: Virtual Reality WWW: World Wide Web ZPD: Zone of Proximal Distance X
- 15. Chapter One Technology: A Retrospect Introduction The application of technology in education in general and language teaching and learning in particular is not a recent endeavour in pedagogy. The term technology, as a key concept, is an umbrella term that covers a range of technological assets utilized by human beings throughout history to control their environment. Therefore, technology covers an array of old, new, and emerging technologies used to help learning and teaching. In this sense, technology both brings challenges and presents exciting opportunities to enhance learning and teaching. It is challenging since it demands creativity and innovation on the part of curriculum participants (EFL teachers, learners, materials developers, syllabus designers, and policy makers). In the present book, technology is referred to as modern “computer technologies” in the context of language learning and teaching. Later we discuss what “computer technology” actually implies and the scope of technologies that might be called computerized, from Pod/Vodcasting to augmented/virtual learning via smart phones, for instance. A Brief History Technology, in some way or another, has been with us for centuries. To some people, nowadays, technology is reminiscent of language labs, tape recorders, radio, television, computer, and the Internet. However, this is not a rich picture of technology in education.
- 16. 4 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Technology in education started with writing. Historically speaking, the origin of technology use for education dates back to thousands of years. Books are common place objects we see everywhere today; in the past it was not! In a particular point of time, books were considered as the height of technology, with the Gutenberg printing press. In fact, the heyday of books in education continued until the advent of computers in the modern time. It might be amazing to hear that technology utilization might have preceded the emergence of books as well! As mentioned earlier, the beginning of technology in learning was with writing. Cuneiform is the wedge-shaped characters used in the ancient writing systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit, surviving mainly on clay tablets. They used a stylus for their purpose. In fact, a stylus was a writing utensil used by ancient people for marking or shaping on clay and wax. As recorded in the history, the ancient Mesopotamians firstly used styluses in order to write in cuneiform. The styluses were commonly made of reeds and had a slightly-curved section. Egyptians made styluses in different materials: reeds that grew on the sides of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In addition, they used bone and metal styluses in their writings. Cuneiform was entirely based on the "wedge-shaped" mark that the end of a cut reed made when pushed into a clay tablet. The writings were made on clay tablets and were left to dry in the sun until they became hard before being incised by the stylus. Later styluses were utilized in the Western Europe until the late Middle Ages. To meet the requirements of learning and education, the stylus was then replaced by a writing slate (see https://cuneiform.neocities.org/CWT/CWT.html for further information on Cuneiform and stylus forms).
- 17. Technology: A Retrospect 5 Clay tablet Cuneiform Wax tablet with stylus Writing slate, Berlin 1894 Figure 1.1. Cuneiform and stylus forms As it can be understood from the previous historical records, the utilization of clay tablets and styluses was the technology of the ancient times for writing. It was before “books” as we know them today were produced. From the mid-14th century, paper mills working with water power produced large and cheap quantities of paper and the wax tablet. As a result, the stylus disappeared completely from daily life. The next technology that appeared was the Gutenberg printing press. As mentioned before, books are commonplace today; however, in the past, the appearance of paper and then book production were the heyday of technology. If we accept that the advent of computers is a radical shift from books, the printing press and appearance of paper was a technology shift from the clay and wax slates and stylus technology in writing. This new technology paved the way for the noble classes of different societies to learn Latin that was the language of politics, philosophy, religion, and other scholarly fields until the end of the 16th century.
- 18. 6 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Gutenberg’s Printing Press It would not be exaggerating to claim that the invention of the Gutenberg’s printing press was as paramount as the emergence of the Internet. Gutenberg was not actually the first to recognize the benefits of printing press. Chinese had probably constructed woodblock printing by around 600 AD. The appearance of the Gutenberg’s machine accelerated developments in many aspects in the world in general and western life in particular. It facilitated the fast spread of knowledge, especially literature, and increased the literacy rate among citizens. Not only did the new invention influence education and literacy but also it greatly impacted religious ideas. For instance, prior to the invention of the Gutenberg’s printing press, Buddhist monks had access to hand-carved blocks in Latin which uneducated people could not understand. In fact, they would depend on what they heard and saw in their small villages. People were preached to by the Catholic Church that was regarded as the only source of education. With Gutenberg’s printing technology, literacy spread and developed and all these changed. Figure 1.2. Gutenberg’s first printing press
- 19. Technology: A Retrospect 7 Gutenberg was working on some prototypes of the printing machine in 1440. In fact, he did not instantly make a new printing press but he utilized some older technologies in order to build his own press: He constructed the screw press all by himself and moulded typesetting. Gutenberg improved his printing press and in 1455 printed copies of his infamous Gutenberg Bible: Three volumes of text that was in Latin and included 42 lines of characters per page with colourful illustrations. The printing of the Bible by Gutenberg was a step forward for mankind and a quick and sudden move for technology in the modern world. The Gutenberg technology is very influential for the type of technology that was accessible at that time in history. Now owing to the new technology, new ideas and knowledge could be shared among more people rapidly and education continued to bloom in the world afterwards. The utilization of the printing press in science was not as fast as it was in religion since religion was prominent in everyday life of people. In fact, the effect of printing on science was not observed until the seventeenth century. Figure 1.3. Illustrated page from the Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-Line Bible produced around 1453-1456
- 20. 8 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Magic Lantern and Sandbox Actually introduced in the 1600s, the Magic Lantern (a predecessor to today’s projectors) continued the idea of the importance of images in learning, but now with the ability to have images move, it provides a way to allow the teacher to easily change the images. Now, instead of the teacher relying on each student being able to find the correct image in their textbook, they can instruct their students all at once by projecting an image onto the screen. This also provides the teachers with the opportunity to do more with storytelling, especially an adept teacher who could turn the Magic Lantern into a moving image box. Language Labs Technology evolves and language learning and teaching takes advantage of it to achieve better results. In the 1950s, language teaching witnessed a pendulum change from pure grammar-based instruction (like the GTM) to communication-based methods where listening and speaking were emphasized. Now the older technology could not be used to achieve the above mentioned objectives. To get mastery over speaking, students were required to be exposed to authentic language they had never heard in their classes. The introduction of the language lab began this fundamental shift that continues even today. In the 1950s, the price of personal audio technology made the language lab a practical chance for language learners primarily in the United States. Prior to language labs, vinyl records were played for the whole students in the class and there was only one record player and the sound was not always accessible to large classes. Later, with the appearance of personal headphones and also the accessibility and cost-effectiveness of technology, many universities and high schools took advantage of language labs for language learners. Now, students could practice their own material at their own pace, instead of the entire class doing the same activity at the same time. Students also finally had access to native voices, giving them a more authentic
- 21. Technology: A Retrospect 9 experience. This shows a great leap towards the personalized learning that is now prominent in classrooms. Figure 1.4. Language lab Early 20th Century Technologies for learning In the beginning of the 20th century, some then dominant technologies including audio and visual materials were used together with written texts; consequently, the application of current technology was driven by language teaching methods of the time. Although in the Grammar‐ Translation Method, originally used to teach Latin and Greek, technology had no contribution to language learning and teaching, alternative methods such as the Berlitz Method, the Natural Method, the Direct Method emphasized the ability to speak. These methods advocated extensive oral practice and frequent phonetics/pronunciation exercises while deemphasizing the teaching of grammar. They embraced audiovisual technologies that brought the language as spoken by native speakers to the classroom and provided oral and aural practice. Audio formats used in classrooms evolved from cylinder recordings to phonograph records (Clarke, 1999; Stocker, 1921), to practice pronunciation and intonation, as well as listening comprehension. Later, radio was a conduit for distance language learning for students in school and for the general public. Photographs and slides, which were commonly used for language instruction, were joined by films as media to bring culture and language to life in the classroom (Bernard 1937, cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017).
- 22. 10 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice The influence of B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist learning theory and of the Audiolingual Method (ALM), started in the 1950s, (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). It emphasized repetition, and naturally a surge took place in the use of language laboratories. In the 1950s to the 1970s majority of schools and universities had a reel‐to‐reel audiotape language laboratory classroom to provide the learners with access to native‐speaker voices and drills to internalize sentence patterns and to promote automaticity. With the decline of the ALM, the use of language labs in the foreign language curriculum decreased noticeably. In the late 1950s, mainframe computers with high computing power that was accessed via paper punch cards started to appear widely in/at universities and research institutes. Nevertheless, it was not until the late 1960s and early 1970s that computers had evolved enough to support multiple terminals that allowed interaction with the computer via keyboard. This opened the pathway to CALL which emphasizes the application of computers to practice various forms of language, particularly grammar and vocabulary: exercises could be self-paced and self-selected; immediate performance feedback could be provided; assessment of mastery could be done based on cumulative performance. Accordingly, the teacher could be liberated from correcting endless workbook assignments; and class time could be freed up so that the teacher could focus on communicative activities (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Mainframes are powerful computers that are used for large information processing occupations. They are basically used by government institutions and big companies for tasks such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.
- 23. Technology: A Retrospect 11 Figure 1.5. Mainframe computers The first mainframe computer was the Harvard Mark I which started in the 1930s. The machine was not ready for use until 1943. It weighed five tons, filled an entire room and cost about $200,000 to build which is something like twenty-eight million in 2017 money. PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations) was the first computer-assisted instruction project that started in 1960 running on the University of Illinois' computer. By the late 1970s, it supported several thousand graphics terminals distributed worldwide, running on nearly a dozen different networked mainframe computers. Many modern concepts in multi-user computing were originally developed on PLATO, including forums, message boards, online testing, e-mail, chat rooms, picture languages, instant messaging, remote screen sharing, and multiplayer video games. PLATO functioned for four decades and offered coursework from elementary to tertiary levels to students, schools, and other universities. A range of subjects, including Latin and education, were introduced in the courses, and the system contained a number of characteristics that were helpful for pedagogy, including text graphics, contextual assessment of free-text answers, and feedback designed to respond to alternative answers.
- 24. 12 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. The beginning of technology in learning has been claimed to be with ….. a) Listening b)Speaking c) Reading d) Writing 2. The ancient ……………… firstly used styluses in order to write in cuneiform. a) Persian b) Egyptians c) Mesopotamians d) Ugarit 3. ………………………………. was the new technology that paved the way for the noble classes of different societies to learn Latin. a) Stylus b) Printing press c) Clay tablets d) Magic lantern 4. It was the ……………………… that continued the idea of the importance of images in learning, and today provides a way to allow the teacher to easily change the images. a) Magic lantern b) Sandbox c) Projectors d) Motion pictures 5. The utilization of the printing press in ……………… was not as fast as in ………. in everyday life of people. a) Science---religion b) Science---politics c) Religion---science d) Politics---science
- 25. Chapter Two Technology and Language Learning “What’s wrong with education cannot be fixed with technology.” Steve Jobs Introduction No teacher, language learner, pedagogue, or applied linguist might deny the role of technology in language learning context. Technology- enhanced practices have revolutionised the ways in which we learn and teach languages. Then, incorporating technology in the foreign language curriculum is a necessity today. The bulk of empirical studies in recent decades has pointed to the significant effect of new technologies on improving language learning and teaching. However, emphasizing the role of technologies does not mean to ignore how significant chalk and board or pencil and paper are in a learning environment. In fact, it is believed that technology cannot be a replacement for such tools, but it might be regarded as complementary to them. ‘”Computers will not replace teachers. However, teachers who use computers will replace teachers who don’t’ (quoted in Healey et al. 2008, p. 2). Remember technology is not a panacea. As Wills and Alexander (2000) correctly pointed out, technology in itself does not change or improve teaching and learning. Paying attention to management processes, strategy, structure, and most importantly roles and skills, are the key to successfully introducing and manipulating technology in academic teaching and learning.
- 26. 14 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice What I would like to stress in this book is that, contrary to many views by laymen, computer technology is not a fashion in the classroom today; technology is a necessity in our curriculum. Many reasons might be mentioned as to why technology is a necessity. For Iranian EFL learners, one of the major reasons to use computer technology (call it a techno-pal!) is the fact that studying abroad is not feasible for majority of learners. They are unable or unwilling to take advantage of study-abroad opportunities. In this situation, technology, if used professionally, could play a significant role to improve language through easy contact with the target/foreign language. You might imagine how the Internet, social networks, podcasts, vodcasts, videoconferences, augmented and virtual reality technologies would enhance learners’ language ability. All this is achievable through new technologies. As there have been many changes in ways that learning takes place, the technology in the delivery of information has shifted the responsibility for learning away from the instructor to the learner. Before going through the different characteristics of this modernized life in which technology plays a significant role, it would be better to define the term technology. Technology that is the heart of the CALL comes in many forms and has a rich history. It is often perceived, somewhat narrowly, as an approach to language teaching and learning in which the computer is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of materials to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. The computer itself is a device that processes information with high speed and accuracy. Technology Definition But what is technology? It seems necessary to define technology as explicitly as possible to avoid misinterpretations. As other complex phenomena, technology is hard to define. According to Mehlenbacher (2010), in most definitions for technology, the tendency is not to make any references to prior knowledge and expectations of technology users, contexts for use, and user perceptions of newness, complexity,
- 27. Technology and Language Learning 15 and danger. He maintains that technology must be defined within the context of its use. Mehlenbacher (2010, p. 122) states “the more complex a tool gets or the more historically contextualized, the more likely we are to describe that tool as an instrument, device, application, technology, or system (from least to most complex)”. Asaolu (2006) summarizes three levels of technology in terms of their historical development: before 3200 BC (low-level technology), 3500 BC to date (intermediate-level technology), and 1950 AD to date (high-level technology). Low-level technologies include primitive tools and machines, are natural, adapted, or manufactured, and include such artifacts as spears, hammers, levers, and wheels. Intermediate-level technologies are manufactured for generalized use and employ natural forces such as wind, water, and combustion. High-level technologies are standardized and automated and can serve the mind (via information and communication) as much as the body (ICT) (Asaolu 2006, cited in Mehlenbacher, 2010, p. 122). According to Collins (1992), technology provides us with powerful tools to try out different designs, so that instead of theories of education, we may begin to develop a science of education. But it cannot be an analytic science like physics or psychology; rather it must be a design science more like aeronautics or artificial intelligence. For example, in aeronautics, the goal is to elucidate how different designs contribute to lift, drag manoeuvrability, etc. Similarly, a design science of education must determine how different designs of learning environments contribute to learning, cooperation, and motivation. Due to this comfortability, it has entered many different fields to provide those who are to deal with technology with the opportunity to reach the peak of their professions. One of the areas into which technology has entered is the field of education. In this case, according to Erben, Ban, and Castadena (2009), technology refers to any electronic device used in the classroom; therefore, it can be used as an aid to education.
- 28. 16 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Technology and Learning As is always true in second language acquisition (SLA), selection of a comprehensive label to refer to a key notion is not an easy task. The same is true when it comes to the role computer plays in language learning and teaching. Since the 1980s, the expression Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has been accepted and frequently used in SLA pedagogy. However, some authors found the term CALL problematic and have proposed other terms. For example, Chapelle (2000) asked whether network-based learning is CALL. Others have proposed the Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) as a new area in SLA pedagogy. The point I am emphasizing here is that the terms CALL and TELL are arbitrary and we use them to refer to digital technology to enhance language learning and teaching. In this book, the expression CALL has been preferred as it has been appreciated by the discipline and used in textbooks, articles, and seminars. Furthermore, computer does not refer to the hardware but the software and related technologies. Chapter Three explains CALL and related approaches and issues. Today technology is an integrative part of life. Laurillard (2010) holds that since technology can be traced in the lives of many individuals, the learning environment is no exception. Pedagogy "deals with the manner in which teaching and learning are managed in order to facilitate desired learning outcomes” (Pears et al., 2007, p. 206) and technology can contribute to this process to be done successfully. However, to make these two concepts of pedagogy and technology fulfil the ultimate learning goal, some suggestions are proposed. From one perspective, technology can be an add-on facilitator which can turn the wheel of pedagogy more easily. From another vantage point, technology can change pedagogy if it behaves as a cultural or social phenomenon. Nevertheless, to better put pedagogy and technology in unity, two types of learning have been proposed: Electronic learning (e-learning) and m-learning (mobile learning). Hoppe, Joiner, Milrad, and Sharples (2003) know “learning
- 29. Technology and Language Learning 17 supported by digital electronic tools and media” as e-learning and m- learning as “e-learning using mobile devices and wireless transmission” (p. 255). Electronic learning or online learning modes (Moore, Dickson- Deane, & Galyen, 2011) date back to 1920 when the initial teaching machine was developed. However, the machine was to let the learners test their previous learning and not use them in the initial stages of learning. Based on Pressey’s (1927) model, Skinner (1961), on the other hand, focused his attention on the learning process and developed a teaching machine which could reinforce learners gradually. With respect to computer-assisted instruction system, in the early 1970s, the Urbana campus of the University of Illinois developed Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO) in order to support the students' learning through forum, online testing, and e-mail. Afterwards, electronic learning progressed towards Web 2.0 applications which could encircle learners in a social environment. This social network enabled the learners to exchange their gained knowledge optimally. On the whole, e-learning can be categorized into two learning modalities: Asynchronous and synchronous. As both of these modalities have their own strong and weak points, the pedagogical parties need to take their own conditions into account. For instance, in asynchronous modality, no participant needs to work simultaneously and this modality is more suitable for flexible systems where there are no time and place constraints. However, the major limitations of this type can be ascribed to its absence of face-to-face communication and self-motivation (Ishtaiwa & Abulibdeh, 2012). Synchronous e-learning attempts to boost the versatility of real- time technologies available for the learners in order to bring face-to- face interaction into life. These technologies can be chat rooms or desktop video and web conferences. It needs to be noted that although the synchronous mode of e-learning might be a preference for the learners, problems of time constraints with fewer opportunities for discussion and rehearsal will be posed (Hrastinski, 2008).
- 30. 18 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Cheon, Lee, Crooks, and Song (2012) define m-learning as the learning by which no time and place limitation is observed. This type of continuous learning can also be characterized as a “just enough, just in time, just for me” e-learning (Peters, 2007, p. 1). In general, Lefoe et al. (2009) know m-learning as “Personal access to mobile technologies providing learners with opportunities to be flexible in the way they collect, store and share information to support their problem solving” (p. 18). It can be claimed that technology and education have undergone three major developments in response to the available technologies: Programmed instruction which arose from the ordinary technologies of movies, radio, and television; computer-assisted instruction which came into existence after computers; e-learning which was available after the emersion of World Wide Web. However, e-learning gradually yielded m-learning to education. Peng, Su, Chou, and Tsai (2009) hold that m-learning can be distinguished from e-learning through three features of functionality, mobility, and ubiquity. For mobility, the convenience, expediency, and immediacy are important and for ubiquity, the learners' need is important which should be fulfilled at anytime and anywhere. Technology can influence learning regardless of the education model (Laurillard, 2010). In Laurillard's (2010) view, “the effective use of technology in any context, however, is primarily dependent on the reflective practice of the academy, and its willingness and ability to innovate” (p. 421). However, she explains four views of learning in order to better elaborate on the role of technology in learning. The first view is learning through instruction in which the available educational data (i.e., libraries, books, slides, laboratories, and web- based resources) are integrated in the single source of computer; the second view is learning through construction in which technology attempts to make learners engaged in the learning process and construct their learning (i.e., this might be available through the simulation of the real world with the help of technology); the third
- 31. Technology and Language Learning 19 view is learning through discussion in which the technology intends to make the traditional discussion groups available using online discussion forums or online lectures and tutorials; the fourth view is learning through collaboration in which the technology attempts to make a learning community through which the learners can collaborate with each other synchronously or asynchronously, regardless of their geographical location. Technology in the delivery of information has shifted the responsibility for learning away from the instructor to the learner. It is the essential ingredient of a constructivist approach to learning where learners construct their knowledge and frames of reference through individual and social activity (Biggs, 1996). The constructivist theory has several characteristics that has adapted and adjusted itself to web- based activities easily. Some of these features include: Learner construction of meaning, social interaction and student problem- solving in real settings. Ward and Renandya (1999) maintained that technological aids in education can be categorized in many different ways, and these ways include audience, purpose, size, cost, and utility. Some aids are considered indispensable in helping the instructor to clarify his or her lessons. Others may be regarded as non-essential, but nice to have. They further said that perhaps the most widely-used technological aids in individual classrooms are the Over Head Projector and the portable tape recorder. The former is an immediate aid in presenting written or visual material while the latter is a vital aid in presenting the related material. The logic behind the use of technology in other fields and especially in the classroom environment is the fact that it is simple to use, it requires little space, and is relatively inexpensive. The technology utilized in the classroom setting includes programs that have much to offer via enhancing the visual presentation of the subject matter.
- 32. 20 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) CALL perhaps remains the most commonly-recognized term to refer to any language learning activity assigning a significant role and status to computer that involves both the tutor and tool application. However, Bush (1997) utilized the expression Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) which suggests a more inclusive sense of technology and its impact on teaching and learning the language. Therefore, what is significant is not merely the computer itself but rather the interaction of the learners with the. Levy (1997) places CALL within an interdisciplinary context including psychology, applied and computational linguistics, instructional technology and design, human-computer interaction, and artificial intelligence that reinforces and calls for the need for a more descriptive term such as technology-enhanced language learning. In this book, CALL and the way in which computer-based grammar and vocabulary practice affect composition are focal. Administrators, educators, and other education stakeholders are concerned with utilizing the best methods and technology tools available to improve and enhance student performance. A survey of previous research on computer-assisted language learning (Hubbard, 2003) affirms that a substantial number of experts in the field are primarily concerned with the degree of effectiveness of technology to enhance language learning. Many ponder whether technology should attempt to emulate the characteristics of an open classroom, engaging students in real and meaningful communication, or provide the types of tutorials and drills that tend to be de-emphasized in the current teaching practices. However, he believes that there must be flexibility and a variable role for technology applications as well as instructional methods to appeal to diverse learners. Although with TELL/CALL students are often able to select exercises, tasks or information appropriate to their levels and needs, it acts as some assessment tool or apparatus that raises student accountability and consciousness about the use of technology. This may be due to the unavailability of all resources to maximize technology use (Burston, 1991).
- 33. Technology and Language Learning 21 Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) is an emerging area within the CALL domain that have many instructions and outcomes in common (Warschauer, 1996). CMC and teleconferencing technologies have been used to create authentic communication opportunities for language learners since the 1980s. The uses of CMC technologies, such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms have been found to have many benefits for language learners. CMC occurs when people especially learners use the computer to communicate with each other. It is often used in collaborative and group learning projects where learners share chat groups and tandem learning projects. Not only does it promote equal and better participation, leading to more output in the target language, but also it fosters negotiation and form-focused learning. They usually involve two learners and can be considered a sub- domain of CMC. There are various possible combinations. CMC can occur between second language (L2) learners of the same target language (for example, between English and French students of German). It can also occur between the first language (L1) and L2 learners where the L1 learner’s target language is the first language of the L2 learners and vice versa. An example of this scenario would be where Persian students studying English can communicate with English speakers studying Persian. CMC was also found to enhance the writing process and improve student writing (Schultz, 2000). Although CMC communication is conducted in writing, it has been found to improve oral proficiency as well. For instance, Beauvois (1997) found that second-year French learners who held their discussions online achieved better oral proficiency than those who discussed the texts orally in the traditional classroom settings. One of the philosophies behind CMC, in general, is that learners can learn a lot by working with native language speakers. Technology Metaphors Metaphors occupy a good deal of our thoughts, our talk, our work, and
- 34. 22 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice our world, and this is especially true of the computer technology. Generally speaking, metaphor is used as a conceptual tool to make concrete, and make sense of, complex phenomena. Metaphors help shape our thought and understanding and their use in technology is no exception. In the literature of technology and learning, scholars have used different metaphors to conceptualize complicated phenomena. British researcher and theoretician Higgins (1983, cited in Farr & Murray, 2016) provided a dichotomy between a ‘magister’ and a ‘pedagogue’ role for computer technology. As he put it: For years, people have been trying to turn the computer into a magister. They do this by making it carry the learning system known as Programmed Learning (PL). PL in fact does not need a computer or any other machinery; it can be used just as effectively in paper form, and computers which are used exclusively for PL are sometimes known disparagingly as page-turners. The real magister is the person who wrote the materials and imagined the kind of conversation he might have with an imaginary student. Suppose, instead, that we try to make the machine into a pedagogue. Now we cannot write out the lessons in advance, because we do not know exactly how they will go, what the young master will demand. All we can do is to supply the machine with a template to create certain kinds of activities, so that, when these are asked for, they are available. The computer becomes a task-setter, an opponent in a game, an environment, a conversational partner, a stooge or a tool. (as cited in Farr & Murray, 2016) The conduit and berry-bush metaphors describe whether computer-assisted instruction is preprogrammed (conduit) or open access (berry bush). The conduit metaphor illustrates the situation in which a body of knowledge passes into the waiting brains of learners. This analogy reminds us of the frequently-used terminology including instructional “delivery,” “exposure” of the student to instruction, and “transmission” of knowledge to the learner. When this body of knowledge has been “transferred” into the learner’s brain, we can
- 35. Technology and Language Learning 23 assess how well it has been learnt by testing its presence there. On the contrary, the berry-bush metaphor would depict learners’ sociocognitive development as revealed through the successful performance of authentic tasks, as opposed to discrete bits of information in the conduit scenario (Egbert & Petrie, 2005). Myths on Technology and SLA As I mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, technology is not a panacea; hence, we need to be realistic in our expectations and avoid some misconceptions regarding technology and its application and effectiveness in second language contexts. Blake (2008) mentions four myths about technology. First, some language experts refer to technology as if it were a monolithic concept. This myth implies that technology is either all good or all bad. Second, some teachers who are enthusiastic about technology think mistakenly that technology itself embodies some new and superior methods of language teaching. Although, in fact, what the new computer and digital technologies offer is a new set of tools that can function at the language teaching curriculum's service with the correct application. Mere application of technology by itself does not improve language teaching, it is how the technology is used that makes a difference in teaching. Third, we tend to believe that the current technology suffices the future challenges. The fact that technology evolves seems to be a threat for teachers since they fear that they cannot keep pace with new advances. Finally, the language teaching profession suffers from the fear that technology will replace language teachers. Teachers’ Resistance against New Technologies Contrary to the significance mentioned above for the use of technology, there is resistance against its application among some teachers, and even students. Change is often painful, and most people avoid it if they can, this is the nature of human beings. People feel more comfortable with traditions they have formed, and trust their
- 36. 24 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice own methods. However, CALL has the potential to revolutionize language learning and teaching. At the pedagogical level, where we are concerned with how learning takes place, CALL and other technology-based approaches might be used to change the quality of learning. CALL provides a flexibility of pace and space that was unattainable when no technology was used in the traditional methods. Furthermore, CALL enables students to more directly participate in their own learning processes and make it possible for them to take control and responsibility of their own learning. Repetto and Trentin (2011) mention several reasons why some of the academicians and teachers fail to adopt technology in the classroom. A large proportion of the them may experience some feelings of technophobia at some time. Some lecturers are anxious about using new technologies because they may have had bad experiences with technology in the past or because they fear that the equipment may be damaged or go wrong in some way, or important data may be lost. Second, many lack the confidence to use technology because of their unfamiliarity with the features and functions of the new technologies, or due to a lack of time available to learn how to maximize their use of a tool, or how to integrate it into their curriculum. In addition, hard-pressed teachers tend to spend most of their time on preparing teaching sessions, creating resources, and instructing and assessing students and there is very little time available for learning new methods or tools. If a new technology or tool is irrelevant or useless in their work, teachers will reject it. In fact, many university staff will claim that their time is fully taken up with day-to-day running of their programmes, and that little or no time is left for them to experiment with new technologies. Fourth, some teachers and practitioners fail to see a need for new technologies, particularly Web 2.0 tools that have strange names. Some of the more seasoned professionals in a department may prefer to continue using the tried and tested methods they have always used. Concerns over electronic safety is another reason for the avoidance of teachers to use technology. Finally, one criticism levelled at CALL-based approaches such as
- 37. Technology and Language Learning 25 technology mediated distance education is that they are impersonal, and reduce tutor roles to those of supporter or facilitator. Some academics are concerned about the peripheralization of the tutor role they perceive is brought about by the implementation of new technologies. In Chapter 10, Teacher Education in CALL, suggestions will be given for mitigating the problem. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. In the …………. approach to learning, learners build their knowledge and frames of reference through individual and social activity. a) Constructivist b) Technological c) Scaffolding d) Formal/traditional 2. CMC and teleconferencing technologies have been used to create ……………….. opportunities for language learners a) Authentic communication b) Feedback c) Language accuracy d) Drilling 3. The conduit metaphor of technology implies that computer-assisted instruction is ……………. a) Preprogrammed b) Open access c) Socio-cognitive nature of learning d) Creativity in learning 4. Higgins (1983) metaphor of a ‘pedagogue’ role for computer technology is the same as ………… metaphor. a) Berry-bush b) Tool c) Conduit d) Transmission 5. Technology and education have undergone all the following major steps in response to the available technologies EXCEPT ………… a) E-learning b) Programmed instruction c) Mobile learning d) Computer-assisted learning
- 38. Chapter Three Computer Assisted Language Learning Introduction It is very hard to answer what CALL is indeed! Is CALL a method of language teaching? Is CALL an approach? Or is CALL a theory of language learning? It seems that part of the answer depends upon the historical emergence of CALL in language teaching pedagogy. Historically speaking, CALL, as we know it today, has emerged as a post-method phenomenon (from the 1980s up to now) when prescriptive, teacher-centred, instruction-focused “methods” of language teaching (from the 1920s to the 1970s) proved to be not highly influential in language teaching and learning. The term CALL was first introduced as computer assisted instruction (CAI). Interestingly, the method era (1930s to 1980s) is associated to CAI and post-method era (1980s to present) refers to CALL. Some of the characteristics of method and post-method era are as following. In the method era, 1) a particular technique/method is prescribed (prescriptive in nature), 2) one-method-for-all tradition in language teaching, and 3) focus on teaching and the teacher with passivity of students. On the other hands, in the post-method era, 1) there is no prescription, 2) the focus is on learner and learning, 3) the teacher is seen as a facilitator, and 4) increase in autonomy is evident. We might refer to Garrett (1991) who states that "the use of the computer does not constitute a method". Rather, it is a "medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented" (p. 75).
- 39. Computer Assisted Language Learning 27 In the present chapter, we present the definitions of CALL by authorities in the field, the applications of the computer technology in learning, and the approaches to CALL. Plethora of Terms By the advent of desktop microcomputers, language teachers were to take advantage of its benefits. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the outcome of this trend was simple: computer programs which reinforced language learning. Afterwards, language teachers and professional organizations came to invent the new field of CALL. With the rapid development of technology and multimedia, using computers changed into a major trend in language teaching and learning. CALL which integrates the four concepts of computer- assisted instruction (CAI), computer-assisted language teaching (CALT), computer-assisted language testing (CALT), and electronic learning encompasses three historical periods of structural /Behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL (Warschauer, 2000). Lamy and Hampel (2007, p. 8) stated several acronyms concerning computer-assisted language learning such as CALI (Computer-Assisted Language Instruction), CALL (Computer- Assisted Language Learning), CELL (Computer-Enhanced Language Learning), CBLT (Computer-Based Language Teaching), NBLT (Network-Based Language Learning) and TELL (Technology- Enhanced Language Learning). Within this proliferation of acronyms, CALL stands as the most prevalent acronym, though it is worth mentioning that “computer-assisted language learning” is not merely concerned with computers, but also it encompasses the networks connections, peripheral devices as well as other technological innovations (Hubbard, 2009). Davies and Higgins (1982), among others, suggested the term CALL: Computer-assisted or computer- aided language learning, and it became the preferred acronym.
- 40. 28 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice CALL, on the other hand, can be classified into three models of computer supported classroom teaching, hybrid teaching, and completely online teaching (Xie, 2007). This drastic change in the role of CALL has made a very rich environment for the pedagogical parties in order to better provide language learning opportunities for the learners. Warschauer and Healey (1998) hold that networked communication, multimedia, and artificial intelligence can bring authentic use of second language into ground. This highlights the critical role computer technology can play in language learning and teaching. This is the reason why some authors prefer Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) instead of CALL. Generally, technology and pedagogical approaches are the basic elements in each period. Warschauer (2000) believes that technology could proceed from mainframes and PCs to multimedia and Internet which were used to prepare drills and practice, communicative exercises, and authentic discourse, respectively. However, each of them concentrated on the different issues of accuracy, accuracy and fluency, and accuracy, fluency and agency, in sequence (Warschauer, 2000). They will be explained in details in the following section on approaches to CALL. CALL Definitions As it was mentioned in the introduction of the chapter, there is not a consensus regarding the nature of CALL. Consequently, different scholars have defined CALL differently through the lens they approached the computer technology in language learning and teaching. Each of the definitions put forward here look into the phenomenon from a particular perspective. To Levy (1997), CALL is defined as “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning”. Levy's definition is in line with the view held by the majority of modern CALL practitioners. The computer itself is a device that processes information with high speed and accuracy. Computers process information by helping to create the
- 41. Computer Assisted Language Learning 29 report itself, by displaying, storing, recognizing, and communicating information to other computers. In general, they treat numbers, words, moving pictures, and sounds. The computer has changed the way people work, learn, communicate, and play. Students, teachers, and researchers use it as a learning tool all over the world, as well as by individuals at home to study, work, and entertain. According to Egbert (2005, p. 4), CALL means learners learning language in any context with, through, and around computer technologies. Whereas Levy’s definition prioritizes “applications of the computer” in its information structure, Egbert’s definition not only prioritizes “learners learning language” but also broadens the potential types of relationships between computer technologies and language learning. Chapelle (2001 ) defines CALL as “the area of technology and second language teaching and learning” ( p. 3). To Beatty (2003), a definition of CALL that accommodates its changing nature is “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” (p. 7). Gamper and Knapp (2002) define CALL as “a research field which explores the use of computational methods and techniques as well as new media for language learning and teaching” (p. 329). Warschauer (1999), however, has discussed that the term CALL has outgrown its usefulness as a construct for teaching and research. The problem is that a CALL framework considers the computer as an “outside instrument rather than as part of the ecology of language use”. While this may have been fine in the early days of CALL when computers were used to perform structural drills, it is no longer appropriate when online communication has become a normal part of daily life. For Warschauer, the use of computers should not be framed as a special case but rather as an integral aspect of language learning and language use. To some critics of the term CALL, the opinions by Warschauer have been motivating to argue to replace the term TELL with CALL.
- 42. 30 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice Examining each of the above-mentioned definitions, we find that a particular aspect of CALL has been emphasized by each of the scholars: Computer, research, learning, teaching, process, and context. To say which definition is the best, or the most comprehensive one, is not our purpose here. My definition of CALL is: The application of computer and its related technologies to facilitate language learning and teaching. By “computer and its related technologies” we mean both the hardware and software and all technologies, including digital technology, working on the basis of computer technology. In this sense, mobile learning (MALL) is a subcategory of CALL since mobile operates based on computer technology. Therefore, what I mean here is that CALL is an umbrella term which covers all other terms focusing on language learning/teaching via computer and related technologies: TELL. MALL, CAI, CALT, NBLT (Network- based Language Teaching). Roles of Computer The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. In fact, different metaphors have been used by authors to refer to the use of computer in language teaching and learning. To some, it can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials. Computer technology is presently applied in foreign language courses and by individuals to help learners develop their second language skills, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and their understanding of foreign cultural attitudes and values, as well as evaluating them according to these aspects. With the availability of multimedia computing and the Internet, the role of computers in language instruction has now become an important issue confronting large numbers of language teachers throughout the world. The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centered
- 43. Computer Assisted Language Learning 31 materials that allow learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive learning and individualized learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what has already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require additional support. A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum, 2009, p. 27). Some of the major applications of computers in EFL contexts might be summarized as follows: CALL can provide a more autonomous, self-paced and individualized learning CALL provides a kind of authentic communication that enhances students’ motivation and attitude CALL offers students immediate feedback and responsiveness CALL assigns the teacher the role of a facilitator rather than a controller. CALL encourages cooperative learning. CALL provides authentic communication by creating information gap etc. CALL allows the learners to access the culture more easily. Approaches to CALL Historically speaking, approaches to CALL have changed in the course of time because three major foundations of approaches have evolved: Theory of language, theory of learning, and the type of technology. Within the CALL history, different scholars have proposed different classifications among which the most important ones are those by Warschauer and Bax. Warschauer (1996) divides CALL history into three phases of behavioristic, communicative, and
- 44. 32 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice integrative. Bax (2003) has criticized Warschauer’s classification on the grounds that its basis was established inconsistently making use of vague criteria. Furthermore, he demanded this classification be re- evaluated specifically in terms of its phases in order to present a more propitious classification. Indeed, he proposed three general approaches rather than historical phases involving restricted CALL, open CALL, and integrated CALL with great emphasis on the integrated CALL that is to say technology would be embedded within our routine life, normalization of CALL. The theoretical mutation in language teaching was so widespread that embraced many of the related fields including the way computer technology can be used in language teaching (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). In essence, three fundamental theoretical frameworks to CALL can be declared which can be framed in three structural, cognitive, and socio-cognitive approaches. The structural approach was more to do with the artificial role of teaching and learning in which technology could only be used to provide drills and practice, explanation, and corrective feedback. The cognitive approach took an analytical approach towards learning in which technology was responsible to expose learners to enough language input and prepare them for analytical and inferential tasks. The socio-cognitive approach, on the other hand, dealt with the social aspects of learning and attempted to provide learners with diverse social contexts and discourse communities in order to make learners more socially adept. In a research-based perspective, these three approaches correspond with different orientations and methodologies. The structural CALL approach was product-based with a quantitative methodology which concentrated on experimental-control comparisons research design. This approach with its quantitative strategy underscored the quantity or the frequency of the data such as words, errors, and structures. The cognitive CALL approach took the cognitive processes into account. However, more than the quantitative methodologies, it is also used in qualitative approaches as well. Besides, to collect data, think-aloud
- 45. Computer Assisted Language Learning 33 protocols, questionnaires, and computers were resorted to. Finally, the socio-cognitive CALL approach had a social and cognitive orientation with a more qualitative methodology. Discourse analysis and analysis of sociocultural context were also resorted to in order to make a better research design. To obtain the desired goal, this approach used the transcriptions of social interactions, ethnographic observations, and interviews. Behavioristic Approach to CALL To examine the major characteristics of every approach to CALL, we need to know the theoretical foundations in psychology and linguistics. The structural/Behavioristic approach to CALL is based on structural linguistics and Behavioristic psychology: language rules plus repetition/imitation. In the late 1970s, the advent of the personal computer (PC) took computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a rise in the growth of CALL programs and a flood of publications. In this decade, the production of many other smaller software development projects on mainframes and microcomputers was seen. These projects included the growth of teaching tools to pave the way for exercises as well as packaged exercises and tutorials. Warschauer (1996) describes this phase of CALL as ‘behaviouristic CALL’ because it contained repetitive language drills based on the notion of computer as tutor: In other words, the computer serves as a vehicle to deliver instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows: Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and it can provide immediate non-judgemental feedback.
- 46. 34 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice A computer can present such material on an individual basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. (p. 4) Olsen (1980) lists 62 language departments from 52 institutions in 24 of the 50 states as using computers for language instruction. In this decade, programs almost exclusively targeted first and second- year language courses. The top three languages for which CAI programs existed were French, Spanish, and German with Latin a literal truth. In this decade an authorizing package known as simply as Exercise, which was the latest one in its place, had a capability of producing large quantities of drill and practice activities for students of German. The term exercise was also used to create materials for students of Dutch. One of the drawbacks of the exercises was that they could not be employed in the real atmosphere of the classroom setting. Up to now, most of the programs from the 1970s have disappeared, but few survived in one form or another into the early twenty-first century due to success in commercial distribution, but each generation of CALL has resulted in a valuable lesson learning. Each major advance in computing technology has triggered a short step backward in the production and delivery of CALL materials. When microcomputers first appeared, they did not seem to pose a real threat to large mainframes that offered powerful data processing and centralized storage of lessons and record keeping data (O' Reilly, 2005 as cited in Thomas, Reinders, & Warschauer, 2013, p. 25). In the 1970s, the structural approach to curriculum design considered its strengths and weaknesses. While the identification and sequencing of language structures provide the foundation of the structural approach, course designers working in this approach and other language practitioners in the era of structural CALL placed a strong emphasis on grammar, and they employed the use of mainframe computers to help students gain accuracy in their language use. Grammar Translation Method and Audiolingual method, grouped in behaviorism, went hand in hand with programmed instruction.
- 47. Computer Assisted Language Learning 35 Students were able to repeat drills with seemingly tireless and patient computer-as-tutor and instruction appeared to be an utmost efficiency. The main objective of the 1970s from the structural point of view is to develop the accuracy ability to produce grammatically correct sentences but may not include the capacity to speak or write fluently. In this respect, the role of structural CALL is to provide full drill, practice, tutorial explanation, and corrective feedback seen as a system and that investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, and sentences have within this system. Approaches to the teaching of reading and writing also reflected the emphasis on structure. On the whole, in this decade, the emphasis in speaking, reading, and writing was on the achieved linguistic product, not on the cognitive or social processes (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). To sum up, the Behavioristic CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 70s, was based on the then-dominant Behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice" (or, more critically, as "drill and kill"). Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985). Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor (Taylor, 1980). In other words, the computer serves as a vehicle to deliver instructional materials to the students. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally false, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows: Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning, a computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting
- 48. 36 Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback, a computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Behaviouristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, Behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both theoretical and pedagogical levels. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL, communicative approach to CALL. Communicative Approach to CALL Unlike the Behavioristic CALL that was based on American Structuralism principles in linguistics and Behaviorism in psychology, the communicative approach to CALL is founded upon Transformational Generative grammar and Functional grammar (Halliday) in linguistics and cognitivism in psychology. The communicative approach to CALL then emphasizes communicative competence, fluency, and variability in use. What seems more significant here in the shift from the Behavioristic to communicative CALL is the outstanding change in technology, the emergence of PCs. The impact of CALL and technology enhancement applications for language learning changed dramatically with the advent of the first affordable microcomputers. In the early 1980s, a key set of drill and practice exercises for beginners in German who ran on the Apple 2 computer was developed. In this decade, compatibility between different microcomputers was a major problem. Early microcomputers had limited graphic options and monochrome displays, but they offered great possibilities for text-based practice. Regarding language teaching pedagogy, the clock turned back in the early 1980s, resulting in the production of an abundance of grammar and vocabulary practice programs (drill-practice) although the communicative approach is by now well established. In this decade, the developers of CALL software began to find their feet
- 49. Computer Assisted Language Learning 37 using new medium and discovered new pedagogical approaches that led to the production of text-only simulation. Communicative CALL (here dated to the 1980s and 1990s) was previously said to have ‘‘emerged in the late 1970s and beginning of the 1980s’’ (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). This slippage occurs with ‘Integrative CALL’ which is dated to the 21st century, while it was said to be already in existence in 1998. Though these inconsistencies are not particularly important in themselves, they are peculiar and avoidable. A more thorough historical analysis should surely attempt greater consistency regarding chronology. Warschauer reports that during the communicative CALL phase there were three main uses or ‘models’ of computer application. First, there were a variety of programs to provide skill practice, but in a non- drill format. In these programs, like the drill and practice programs mentioned above, the computer remains the “knower-of-the-right- answer”; thus, this represents an extension of the computer as tutor model. However, in contrast to the drill and practice programs, the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. It is certainly less restricted than previous software, but how is it “communicative” exactly? If we take as a benchmark some criteria to CLT, then the examples given by Warschauer may have had useful roles in language learning, but are not noticeably communicative except in very limited computer- student communication. Furthermore, the actual interaction involved was extremely limited at the time. The second aspect of computer use in the communicative CALL is described as follows: In addition to computer as tutor, another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus. In this case, the purpose of the CALL activity is not so much to make students discover the right answer, but to stimulate students’ discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Here there certainly may be realistic and valuable communication, but this is not an inherent feature of CALL itself, nor is it particular to this phase. It
- 50. Another Random Scribd Document with Unrelated Content
- 51. men engaged in peace duties, freeing them for service in ships afloat. On the anniversary of Trafalgar in 1904, after a short period in command at Portsmouth in order to supervise personally the reforms in training and manning policy already introduced, Sir John Fisher—Lord Fisher as he is now known—returned to the Admiralty as First Sea Lord. Instantly, with the support of Lord Selborne and Mr. Balfour, then Prime Minister, to whom all honour is due, the new Board proceeded to carry into effect vast correlated schemes for the redistribution of the fleets at sea and the more rapid mobilisation of ships in reserve, the reorganisation of the Admiralty, and the re- adjustment of our world naval policy to the new conditions in accordance with a plan of action which the new First Sea Lord had prepared months in advance. Our principal sea frontier has been the Mediterranean. It was necessary to change it, and the operation had to be carried out without causing undue alarm to our neighbours—at that time we had no particular friends, though the foundations of the Entente were already being laid. Without asking your leave from Parliament, the great administrative engine, to which Lord Fisher supplied fuel, proceeded to carry out the most gigantic task to which any Governmental Department ever put its hand. Overseas squadrons which had no strategic purpose were disestablished; unimportant dockyards were reduced to cadres; ships too weak to fight and too slow to run away were recalled; a whole fleet of old ships, which were eating up money and adding nothing to our strength, were scrapped; the vessels in reserve were provided with nucleus crews. With a single eye to the end in view—victory in the main strategical theatres—conservative influences which strove to impede reform were beaten down. With the officers and men taken out of the weak ships, and others who were wrenched from comfortable employment ashore, a great fleet on our new frontier was organised. In the preamble to the German Navy Act of 1900 it had been stated: “It is not absolutely necessary that the German Battle Fleet should be as strong as that of the greatest naval Power, for a
- 52. great naval Power will not, as a rule, be in a position to concentrate all its striking force against us. But even if it should succeed in meeting us with considerable superiority of strength, the defeat of a strong German Fleet would so substantially weaken the enemy that, in spite of the victory he might have obtained, his own position in the world would no longer be secured by an adequate fleet.” Lord Fisher had not studied the progress of the German naval movement without realising that in this passage was to be found the secret of the strategic plan which the German naval authorities had formed. With the instinct of a great strategist, he reorganised the whole world-wide machinery of the British Navy, in order to suit the new circumstances then developing. The war in the Far East had shown that changes were necessary in the design of British ships of all classes. The First Sea Lord insisted that the matter should have immediate attention, and a powerful committee of naval officers, shipbuilders, and scientists began its sittings at the Admiralty. The moment its report was available, Parliament was asked for authority to lay down groups of ships of new types, of which the “Dreadnought” was the most famous. In the preceding six years, sixteen battleships had been laid down for Great Britain, while Germany had begun thirteen; our sea power, as computed in modern ships of the line, had already begun to shrink. Secretly and rapidly, four units of the new type—the “Dreadnought,” with her swift sisters, the “Indomitable,” “Inflexible,” and “Invincible”—were rushed to completion. No battleship building abroad carried more than four big guns; the “Dreadnought” had ten big guns, and her swift consorts eight.[3] Thus was the work of rebuilding the British Fleet initiated. Destroyers of a new type were placed in hand, and redoubled progress was made in the construction of submarines, which Lord Fisher was the first to realise were essential to this country, and were capable of immense development as offensive engines of warfare. We gained a lead of eighteen months over other Powers by the determined policy adopted.
- 53. [3] It is officially admitted by the United States Navy Department that it had prepared plans for a ship similar in armament to the Dreadnought in 1904, and was awaiting the approval of Congress before beginning construction. American officers had come to the same conclusions as to the inevitable tendency of battleship design as the British Admiralty. Owing to the delay imposed by the necessity of obtaining the consent of Congress, the United States lost the advantage; in the exercise of its powers, the British Admiralty acted directly the designs of the new ships were ready. Just as the task of rebuilding the Fleet had been initiated, a change of Government occurred, and there was reason to fear that the stupendous task of reorganising and re-creating the bases of our naval power would be delayed, if not abandoned. In Lord Fisher the nation had, fortunately, a man of iron will. Though Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, above all things desirous of arresting the rivalry in naval armaments, was Prime Minister, and Lord Tweedmouth was First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Fisher, supported by his colleagues on the Board, insisted on essentials. Delays occurred in German shipbuilding, and the Admiralty agreed that British shipbuilding could be delayed. In 1906, 1907, and 1908 only eight Dreadnoughts were begun. Subsequent events tend to show that this policy was a political mistake, though we eventually obtained more powerful ships by the delay. Germany was encouraged to believe that under a Liberal Administration she could overtake us. Between 1906 and 1908 inclusive we laid down eight large ships of the Dreadnought type; and Germany laid down nine, and began to accelerate her programme of 1909. Then occurred a momentous change in British affairs. Lord Tweedmouth, after the famous incident of the German Emperor’s letter, retired from office (1908), and his place was taken by Mr. Reginald McKenna, who was to show that a rigid regard for economy was not incompatible with a high standard of patriotism. In association with the Sea Lords, he surveyed the naval situation. In the following March occurred the naval crisis. Germany had accelerated her construction, and our sea power was in peril. The whole Board of Admiralty determined that there was no room for
- 54. compromise. Mr. McKenna, it is now no secret, found arrayed against him a large section of the Cabinet when he put forward the stupendous programme of 1909, making provision for eight Dreadnoughts, six protected cruisers, twenty destroyers, and a number of submarines. The naval crisis was accompanied by a Cabinet crisis, in spite of the fact that Sir Edward Grey, as Foreign Secretary, gave the naval authorities his full support. Unknown to the nation, the Admiralty resigned, and for a time the Navy had no superior authority. This dramatic act won the day. The Cabinet was converted; the necessity for prompt, energetic action was proved. The most in the way of compromise to which the Board would agree was a postponement in announcing the construction of four of the eight armoured ships. But from the first there was no doubt that, unless there was a sudden change in German policy, the whole octette would be built. When the programme was presented to the House of Commons, the Prime Minister and Sir Edward Grey gave to Mr. McKenna their wholehearted support; either the Government had to be driven from office, or the Liberal Party had to agree to the immense commitment represented in the Navy Estimates. The programme was agreed to. This, however, is only half the story. Neither the Government nor the Admiralty was in a position to tell the country that, though all the ships were not to be laid down at once, they would all be laid down in regular rotation, in order that they might be ready in ample time to meet the situation which was developing. Perhaps it was well in the circumstances that this fact was not revealed. Public opinion became active. The whole patriotic sentiment of the country was roused, and the jingle was heard on a thousand platforms, “We want eight and we won’t wait.” The Admiralty, which had already determined upon its policy, remained silent and refused to hasten the construction of the ships. Quietly, but firmly, the Board resisted pressure, realising that it, and it only, was in possession of all the facts. Secrecy is the basis of peace as well as war strategy. The naval authorities were unable to defend themselves by announcing that they were on the eve of obtaining a powerful weapon which
- 55. could not be ready for the ships if they were laid down at once. By waiting the Navy was to gain the most powerful gun in the world. In order to keep pace with progress in Germany, it was necessary to lay down two of the eight ships in July, and be satisfied with the 12-inch guns (projectile of 850 lbs.) for these units. The construction of the other six vessels was postponed in order that they might receive the new 13·5-inch gun, with a projectile of about 1,400 lbs. Two of the Dreadnoughts were began at Portsmouth and Devonport Dockyards in the following November, and the contracts for the remaining four were not placed until the spring, for the simple reason that the delivery of the new guns and mountings and their equipment could not be secured for the vessels, even if their hulls were started without a moment’s delay. Thus we obtained six battleships which are still unique; in no other Navy is so powerful a gun to be found to-day as the British 13·5-inch weapon. In 1910 and in 1911 Mr. McKenna again fought for national safety, and he won the essential provision for the Fleet. He risked his all in defence of our sea power. He was probably during those years of struggle the most unpopular Minister the Liberal Party ever had. What has been the sequel of his tenacity and courage and patriotism? What has been gained owing to the bold front which Lord Fisher presented, as First Sea Lord, supported by his colleagues? Sixteen of the eighteen battleships and battle-cruisers of the Dreadnought type, the fifteen protected cruisers, and the sixty destroyers, with a group of submarines, which the Board over which Mr. McKenna presided secured, constituted the spearhead of the British Fleet when the crisis came and war had to be declared against Germany in defence of our plighted word. With the addition of one more chapter, this story of the renaissance of British sea power is complete. In the autumn of 1911, over seven years after Lord Fisher had begun to shake the Navy into renewed life, encouraged Sir Percy Scott in his gunnery reforms, and brought to the Board the splendid intellect of Sir John Jellicoe, Mr. Winston Churchill replaced Mr. McKenna as First Lord. Thus the youngest statesman of the English-speaking world realised his ambition. Lord Fisher, under the age clause, had already been
- 56. compelled to vacate his seat on the Board, retiring with a peerage, and his successor, Sir Arthur Wilson, was also on the eve of retirement. Mr. McKenna had to be freed to take over the Welsh Church Bill and to place his legal mind at the service of the country at the Home Office. He had done his work and done it well. Mr. Winston Churchill proved the ideal man to put the finishing touches to the great task which had been initiated during Lord Selborne’s period of office. Perhaps the keynote of his administration is to be found in the attention which he devoted to the organisation of the War Staff, the elements of which had been created by former Boards, and the readjustment of the pay of officers and men. No service is efficient for war in which there exists a rankling feeling of injustice. The rates of pay of officers and men were revised and increased; facilities were opened up for men of the lower deck to reach commissioned rank. About 20,000 officers and men were added to the active service of the Fleet. At the same time with the ships provided by former Boards, the organisation of the ships in Home waters was placed on a higher standard of efficiency, particular attention being devoted to the organisation of the older ships so as to keep them efficient for war. The Naval Air Service was established, and its development pressed forward with all speed. Thus the work of reform and the task of changing the front of the British Navy had been brought to completion, or virtual completion, at the moment when Germany, by a concatenation of circumstances, was forced into a position where she had to fight the greatest of sea Powers, or admit the defeat of all her ambitions. A study of the sequence of events which immediately preceded the outbreak of hostilities is hardly less interesting than the earlier and dramatic incidents which enabled us to face the supreme crisis in our history with a measure of assured confidence. On March 17th, 1914, Mr. Winston Churchill spoke in the House of Commons on the Navy Estimates. It is common knowledge that he had just fought a stern battle in the Cabinet for adequate supplies, and it was assumed at the time, from various incidents, that he had been compelled to submit to some measure of retrenchment. He received, however, Cabinet authority to ask Parliament for the largest sum
- 57. ever devoted to naval defence—£51,500,000. In the course of his speech on these Estimates he made the announcement that there would be no naval manœuvres in 1914. He stated: “We have decided to substitute this year for the grand manœuvres—not, of course, for the numberless exercises the Fleet is always carrying out—a general mobilisation of the Third Fleet.[4] We are calling up the whole of the Royal Fleet Reserve for a period of eleven days, and those who come up for that period will be excused training next year, and will receive £1 bounty in addition to their regular pay. “We have had a most admirable response. 10,170 men, seamen, and others, and 1,409 marines, are required to man the ships of the Third Fleet. We have already, in the few days our circular has been out, received replies from 10,334 men volunteers, and from 3,321 marines. I think that reflects great credit on the spirit of the Reserve generally, and also reflects credit upon the employers, who must have greatly facilitated this operation all over the country. I hereby extend to them the thanks of the Admiralty. “This test is one of the most important that could possibly be made, and it is really surprising to me that it has never been undertaken before. The cost, including the bounty of £1, will be about £50,000. Having no grand manœuvres yields a saving of £230,000, so there is a net saving on the substitution of £180,000.” [4] The Third Fleet consists of the oldest ships of the Navy maintained in peace with skeleton crews. It was hardly surprising in the circumstances that many persons thought the Admiralty was bent merely upon economy. If the naval authorities had had foreknowledge of the course of events they could not, in fact, have adopted a wiser course. From March onwards, week by week down to the middle of July, the elaborate and complicated drafting arrangements were examined and
- 58. Photo: Sport & General. readjusted. Then, after the assassinations at Sarajevo and on the eve of the final developments on the Continent, which were to make war inevitable, the test mobilisation was carried out. The principal ships passed before the King off the Nab Lightship, a column of seaplanes and aeroplanes circling high above the ships, and then disappeared in the Channel to carry out what were believed to be peace exercises, but were, in fact, to prove the manœuvres preliminary to war. Later in the same week, the vessels of the Patrol Flotillas were engaged in testing a new scheme for sealing this narrow exit to the North Sea. H.M.S. Neptune. NEPTUNE CLASS. COLOSSUS, NEPTUNE, HERCULES (slight differences).
- 59. Displacement: 19,200 to 20,000 tons. Speed: 22 knots; Guns: 10 12in., 16 4in.; Torpedo tubes: 3. Astern fire: Broadside: Ahead fire: 8 12in. 10 12in. 6 12in. A week afterwards the thunderbolt fell; the crisis found the First and Second Fleets ready in all respects for war, and, after additional reserves had been called out on Sunday, August 2nd, the Admiralty was able to give the nation a certificate that by 4 a.m. the following morning the British Navy had been raised from a peace footing to a war footing, and was fully mobilised. Immediately the curtain fell, hiding from view the movements of all British men-of-war, not only in the main strategical theatre, but in the outer seas. Two battleships, which had just been completed for Turkey by those whom Mr. G. H. Perris had denounced only a short time before in his pamphlet as the “War Traders,” were taken over by the Admiralty, proving valuable accessions to our naval strength. Two swift destroyer-leaders were also compulsorily purchased from Chile, the appointment of Admiral Sir John Jellicoe as supreme
- 60. British Admiral of the Home Fleets was announced, and all the preliminaries to the great war drama on the sea were completed without delay, confusion, or panic. The nation will remember in gratitude the courage and decision exhibited by Mr. Churchill in the hour of supreme crisis. He proved himself a statesman. This is not the place to relate the story of the renaissance of British military power. The virtue of the measures adopted by Lord Haldane as Secretary for War lay in the fact that he did homage to the essential principle which must underlie all schemes of defence by an island kingdom, which is the nerve centre of a maritime Empire. As in Opposition he had been foremost in advertising our dependence upon the sea, so in office, as Minister responsible for the Army, he based all his schemes on the assumption that the British Army is the projectile of a supreme fleet, to be hurled oversea as soon as the naval authority is able to give guarantee of safe passage. It was in the light of this essential truth that the Expeditionary Force was organised, and the Volunteers converted into the Territorial Army. Mistakes were, no doubt, made; no man who avoids them can ever expect to do anything. But at practically no additional expense, and without, therefore, withdrawing a penny from the necessary provision of the fleet, Lord Haldane initiated and completed military schemes, the value of which became apparent when we were confronted with the necessity of entering upon a contest with two of the great military powers of Europe, which possessed fleets of such a standing that they could offer challenge to our supremacy afloat. The survey of British naval policy in the years immediately preceding the war would be incomplete were no reference made to the fact, of which we were insistently reminded when hostilities opened, that sea power, even more than military power, must stand defeated from the very outset, unless it is supplemented by economic power. In the past the weakness of all democracies when faced by war has been apparent. However great the power on the sea, however formidable the military arm ashore, the real strength of a people lies in itself. It must be ready on the instant to organise every department of life on a war basis. Armed forces which have
- 61. not behind them a resolute community are robbed of more than half their power. A feeling of panic is always apt to infect a democracy, and then under the palsy of fear the tendency is for pressure to be brought to bear on the supreme naval and military authorities, with the result that strategic plans, matured in peace, become confused and ineffective. An illustration of the influence of the fears of the civil population upon war policy was furnished during the Spanish- American War. Under the pressure of nervous public opinion, the Naval Board was compelled to depart from the sound strategy of concentration upon the main objective, and to dissipate no little of the power at its command in order to provide some measure of local protection for various coast towns. Fortunately, British naval policy had been developed on lines which minimised this peril, and our economic resources had been surveyed, and adequate preparations made to afford to our sea power every possible economic support. As to the first, fear of invasion or raids, the coast and port guard ships, with little more than skeleton crews, had been abolished; in their place patrol flotillas of destroyers and submarines had been created to keep an efficient and active watch and ward along the sea frontier which the enemy at our door might threaten. This provision was supplemented by the mobilisation of all our national resources, under the direction of the Committee of Imperial Defence. When Mr. Balfour founded this body he builded better than he knew. When war came not only were the main fleets not tied to our shores, but every department of State had before it a complete plan of the duty which it had to perform in order to give that national support to the fleet, without which it could not hope to achieve victory. During the years which immediately preceded war the Committee of Imperial Defence was quietly at work co-ordinating the naval and military arms, and laying the foundation of a wide-spreading organisation. On July 25th, 1912, Mr. Asquith, in a speech in the House of Commons, gave the nation some conception of the character of one aspect of the work which was then being quietly performed by this small body, unrecognised by our Constitution, and regarded, as it had been since its birth, with no little suspicion and distrust. Mr. Asquith related that the Committee of Imperial Defence
- 62. had appointed what was styled “a sub-committee for the co- ordination of departmental action at the outbreak of war.” Describing this particular work of the Committee of Imperial Defence, Mr. Asquith added: “This sub-committee, which is composed of the principal officials of the various Departments of State, has, after many months of continuous labour, compiled a War-Book. We call it a War-Book—and it is a book which definitely assigns to each Department—not merely the War Office and the Admiralty, but the Home Office, the Board of Trade, and every Department of the State—its responsibility for action under every head of war policy. The Departments themselves, in pursuance of the instructions given by the War-Book, have drafted all the proclamations, Orders in Council, letters, telegrams, notices, and so forth, which can be foreseen. Every possible provision has been made to avoid delay in setting in force the machinery in the unhappy event of war taking place. It has been thought necessary to make this Committee permanent, in order that these war arrangements may be constantly kept up to date.” What happened in the last days of July, 1914? During the period of strained relations, the War-Book was opened, and every official in every State Department concerned—eleven in all—had before him a precise statement of exactly what contribution he had to make in mobilising the State as an economic factor for war. Proclamations, Orders in Council, letters, and telegrams flowed forth throughout the British Isles, and to the uttermost parts of the Empire, in accordance with the pre-arranged plan which had been so assiduously elaborated. Hardly had the Navy been mobilised, the Army Reserves called out to complete the regular Army, and the Territorials embodied, than the nation realised that, without confusion, it had itself been placed upon a war footing. The creation of the British War-Book must be acclaimed as a monument to the perspicacity of Mr. Asquith and the Ministers who assisted him on the Committee of Defence, and to the splendid labours of the Secretary of the
- 63. Committee, Captain Maurice Hankey, C.B., and the small staff associated with him. This organisation, which owed so much to the “staff mind” of its former secretary, Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Ottley, imposed upon the nation a charge of only about £5,000 a year, which was returned increased by a thousandfold when the crisis came, and the United Kingdom, existing under the most artificial conditions owing to its dependence on the sea for food and raw materials, was prepared, for the first time in its history, to offer to its fleets and armies the wholehearted and organised support of the richest nation in the world. When the curtain fell upon the seas, the nation had the assurance that everything which foresight could suggest had been done to make secure our essential supremacy. The newspapers preserved a discreet silence as the Home Fleets took up their stations in the main strategical area. They were convinced, by irrefutable evidence, that adequate power had been concentrated in this theatre to enable the North Sea to be sealed, thus confining the main operations of the naval war to one of the smallest water areas in the world. Those who study the conspectus of British sea power at the moment when the fog of war hid from view all that was occurring in distant waters would miss the real significance of the picture which British sea power presented at this dramatic moment if they failed to recognise the means by which the British Navy was able to impose an iron grip upon the great highways which are the life blood of British commerce. When war occurred the British sea power was predominant in all the outer seas in contrast with every other Power engaged in hostilities. At every point the British fleet was supreme in contrast with every other Power now engaged in hostilities. Austria and Italy were hardly represented outside the Mediterranean; Germany had only one armoured ship and two small cruisers in the Mediterranean and a few small cruisers in the Atlantic; in the Pacific, though she had the largest squadron of any Continental Power, the Admiralty regarded our forces as being at least twice as strong. This balance of strength was maintained in accordance with the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
- 64. From the moment of the ultimatum all the Empire was at war. At a hundred and one points of naval and military importance a state of war existed. Wherever the British flag was flying—and it flies over about one quarter of the habitable globe—officers and men of the sea and land services stood awaiting the development of events. What precise orders were issued by the Admiralty cannot be revealed, but telegrams which were received during the early days of hostilities indicated that at all the great junctions of the Empire sections of the British Navy had been concentrated, and their commanding officers directed to omit no measure necessary to maintain the lifeline of the Empire. Under the scheme of concentration which for ten years previously had been the outstanding feature, not only of British naval policy, but of the naval policy of all the Great Powers of Europe, the number of ships in distant seas had been reduced, but the fighting value of the British units was higher than ever before. The character of the British naval representation outside home waters when war began may be appreciated from the following official statement of the composition of the squadrons which were held on the leash by the Admiralty, awaiting the development of events: MEDITERRANEAN FLEET. Battle Cruiser Squadron.—Inflexible (Flag), Indefatigable, Indomitable. Armoured Cruiser Squadron.—Defence (Flag), Black Prince, Duke of Edinburgh, Warrior. Cruisers.—Chatham, Dublin, Gloucester, Weymouth. Attached Ships.—Hussar, Imogene. Destroyer Flotilla.—Blenheim (Depot Ship), Basilisk, Beagle, Bulldog, Foxhound, Grampus, Grasshopper, Harpy, Mosquito, Pincher, Racoon, Rattlesnake, Renard, Savage, Scorpion, Scourge, Wolverine. Submarines.—B 9, B 10, B 11. Torpedo Boats.—Nos. 044, 045, 046, 063, 064, 070.
- 65. GIBRALTAR. Submarines.—B 6, B 7, B 8. Torpedo Boats.—83, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96. EASTERN FLEET. East Indies Squadron.—Battleship Swiftsure (Flag), cruisers Dartmouth, Fox; sloops Alert, Espiègle, Odin, Sphinx. China Squadron.—Battleship Triumph; armoured cruisers Minotaur (Flag), Hampshire; cruisers Newcastle, Yarmouth; gunboats, etc., Alacrity, Bramble, Britomart, Cadmus, Clio, Thistle. New Zealand Division.—Cruisers Philomel, Psyche, Pyramus, Torch. ATTACHED TO CHINA SQUADRON. Destroyers.—Chelmer, Colne, Fame, Jed, Kennet, Ribble, Usk, Welland. Submarines.—C 36, C 37, C 38. Torpedo Boats.—Nos. 035, 036, 037, 038. River Gunboats.—Kinsha, Moorhen, Nightingale, Robin, Sandpiper, Snipe, Teal, Woodcock, Woodlark, Widgeon. AUSTRALIAN FLEET. Battle Cruisers.—Australia (Flag.) Cruisers.—Encounter, Melbourne, Sydney. Destroyers.—Parramatta, Warrego, Yarra. Submarines.—AE 1, AE 2. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Cruisers.—Hyacinth (Flag), Pegasus, Astræa. WEST COAST OF AFRICA. Gunboat.—Dwarf.
- 66. S.E. COAST OF AMERICA. Cruiser.—Glasgow. WEST COAST OF AMERICA. Sloops.—Algerine, Shearwater. WEST ATLANTIC. Armoured Cruisers.—Suffolk, Berwick, Essex, Lancaster; cruiser Bristol. This narrative of the opening phases of the war between six of the great fleets of the world would be incomplete were no reference made to the conditions of the German Fleet. A month before the final cleavage between the two nations, Kiel had kept high festival in honour of the British Navy. At the invitation of the German Government, Vice-Admiral Sir George Warrender had taken some of the finest battleships of the British Navy into this German port. During the Regatta Week official Germany entertained the officers and men with the utmost hospitality, and, for a time, the Emperor had his flag, the flag of an honorary admiral of the British Navy, flying from the mainmast of one of the latest “Dreadnoughts,” the “King George V.,” and was in technical command of this important section of the Home Fleet. Luncheons, dinners, and receptions filled the days over which the yacht racing extended, and when Sir George Warrender steamed out of Kiel to meet at a rendezvous at sea the British squadron, under Rear-Admiral Sir David Beatty, which had been visiting the Baltic ports of Russia, and the other squadrons which had been entertained by the peoples of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, every indication encouraged the belief that peace was more completely assured than at any time during this century. The Kiel festivities at an end, the High Sea Fleet, reinforced by a number of reserve ships, put to sea for its summer cruise in Norwegian waters. The Emperor, in the Royal Yacht “Hohenzollern,” also left for the coast of Norway. These were the conditions when the bolt fell. Can it be doubted that, when in after years and in full
- 67. knowledge, the history of the war is written, it will be concluded that Germany, in giving her support to Austria-Hungary, had no thought that this would involve her use of her fleet against the greatest sea Power of the world? With much labour, and at great sacrifice, she had created a formidable diplomatic weapon to be brandished in the eyes of a timid and commercially-minded people—and such she believed the British people to be; but it was not a fleet of sufficient standing to face the greatest sea Power with confidence. The war occurred at an unpropitious moment not only for Germany, but for her ally, Austria-Hungary, so far as sea power was concerned. This country had, it is true, almost completed her first programme of four “Dreadnoughts,” but her navy was still deficient in cruisers—possessing six only—as well as in torpedo craft. In combination Austria-Hungary and Italy could have faced the naval forces of France and Great Britain in the Mediterranean, but in isolation the former’s position was from the first well-nigh hopeless, and her ships retired to Pola at the outbreak of the war. The French fleet was in good condition to take the seas. Under the spur furnished by German acts and German words it had been strengthened in ships and men, its administration ashore remodelled, and its fleets at sea reorganised. The Republican Government had confided the supreme command of its battle forces to one of the most conspicuously able sailors of the period, Admiral Boué du Lapeyrère, and could enter on the war in its naval aspects with confidence and courage. Russia was not so fortunate. She had only comparatively recently taken serious steps to replace the fleet she lost in the war with Japan. A ship-building project, known as the “Minor Programme,” was being carried out, but so far none of the vessels it comprised had become available for service. When war occurred, four “Dreadnoughts,” which were begun as far back as 1909, were not yet ready, and seven others were on the stocks, but not yet launched. Eight small cruisers laid down under the “Minor Programme” were building, two of them in a German yard, and the remainder in Russia, and there was besides a large flotilla of torpedo craft under construction. With all these vessels in commission, the
- 68. Russian Navy would have become once more a factor to be reckoned with. As it happened, Russia faced the war practically without any considerable sea power. When hostilities had begun, a dramatic incident reminded the world that Japan, the ally of Great Britain in the Far East, was not viewing the course of events unconcerned. On Monday, August 16th, it was announced that the Japanese Government had delivered an ultimatum to Germany in the following terms: “We consider it highly important and necessary in the present situation to take measures to remove the causes of all disturbance of peace in the Far East, and to safeguard general interests as contemplated in the Agreement of Alliance between Japan and Great Britain. “In order to secure firm and enduring peace in Eastern Asia, the establishment of which is the aim of the said Agreement, the Imperial Japanese Government sincerely believes it to be its duty to give advice to the Imperial German Government to carry out the following two propositions: 1. Withdraw immediately from Japanese and Chinese waters the German men-o’-war and armed vessels of all kinds, and to disarm at once those which cannot be withdrawn. 2. To deliver on a date not later than September 15th to the Imperial Japanese authorities, without condition or compensation, the entire leased territory of Kiau- Chau, with a view to the eventual restoration of the same to China. “The Imperial Japanese Government announces at the same time that in the event of its not receiving by noon on August 23rd an answer from the Imperial German Government signifying unconditional acceptance of the above advices offered by the Imperial Japanese Government, Japan will be
- 69. compelled to take such action as it may deem necessary to meet the situation.” When Germany was confronted with heavy odds, Japan remembered the events following the war of 1894-5, when this Power, having joined in robbing her of the spoil of her victory over China, herself entered into possession of Kiao Chau, as the price for the lives of two murdered missionaries. Thus, at the touch of German arrogance, four great sea Powers of the world arrayed themselves against her—the British, French, and Russian fleets in European waters, and the great navy of Japan in the Pacific. In this wise did the struggle for the command of the sea open. Germany reaped as she had sown. Since 1898 she had boasted how she would challenge the greatest sea Power. When the day and hour came it was not the British fleet only, but the navies of France, Russia, and Japan which confronted her. By her words and acts she had alienated the sympathies of every nation except her ally, Austria-Hungary. The war began with her fleets and squadrons sheltering behind the forts of her naval bases, and with a few cruisers in the Atlantic being hunted by an overpowering force of British and French ships. Such was the fruit of her diplomacy and her forward naval policy; her shipping suffered instant strangulation; her colonies were divorced from the Motherland, and she was confronted with the approaching ruin of that world-politic which had been her pride and inspiration.
- 70. Photo: Sport & General. H.M.S. Vanguard. VANGUARD CLASS. ST. VINCENT, VANGUARD, COLLINGWOOD. Displacement: 19,250 tons. Speed: 22 knots; Guns: 10 12in., 18 4in.; Torpedo tubes: 3.
- 71. Astern fire: Broadside: Ahead fire: 6 12in. 8 12in. 6 12in.
- 72. CHAPTER I The Relative Standing of the British and German Fleets The relative strength of the British and German navies at the moment when war was declared is of historical interest. The appended particulars have been prepared from “Fighting Ships, 1914,” and brought up-to-date by the inclusion of the two Turkish battleships and the two Chilian destroyer leaders, which were purchased on the outbreak of hostilities by the British Government. British Navy. Super-Dreadnought battleships 11 Super-Dreadnought battle-cruisers 3 14 Dreadnought battleships 13 Dreadnought battle-cruisers 5 18 Total of ships of Dreadnought era: (Three more super-Dreadnoughts near completion, and due to commission late in 1914.) 32 Pre-Dreadnoughts: Powerful ships all completed between 1905 and 1908 8 Older and less powerful ships completed between 1895 and 1904 30 38
- 73. Total battleships 70 Armoured Cruisers: Big, heavily-armed ships completed between 1905 and 1908 9 “County” class, slower and less powerful, completed between 1903 and 1905 15 “Drake” and “Cressy” class, bigger and better, but slightly older ships, completed between 1901 and 1903 10 Total armoured cruisers 34 Cruisers: Big protected cruisers, “Diadem” class, 21 knots, 6in. guns (1889-1902) 6 Older and smaller (1890-1892) 9 15 Fast Light Cruisers: “Arethusa” class, 3,500 tons, 30 knots, burning oil, completed 1914 8 “Town” class, 5,400 to 4,800 tons, 25 knots (1910-1914) 15 25-knot ships, round about 300 tons (1903-1907) 15 30 20-knot ships, 2,100 to 5,400 tons (1896-1900) 16 19-knot ships, 5,600 tons (1895-1896) 9 Older ships, 2,500 to 4,300 tons, 16·5 to 19·5 knots (1890-1893) 9 Total protected cruisers 87 Destroyers, 36 to 251⁄2 knots (1893-1914) 227 Torpedo-boats, 26 to 20 knots (1885-1908) 109
- 74. Submarines, from 1,000 to 200 tons, speed from 20 to 11·5 knots surface, 12 to 7 knots submerged (1904-1913) 75 Minelayers 7 Repair Ships 3 It need hardly be added that a number of these vessels—including the two Pre-Dreadnought battleships “Swiftsure” and “Triumph” and groups of cruisers, destroyers, and submarines—were on duty in the outer seas when war opened. German Fleet. Super-Dreadnoughts (3 building) None Dreadnought battleships 13 Dreadnought battle-cruisers 5 18 (Three other battleships are due to commission in 1914.) Pre-Dreadnought battleships (1891-1908) 22 Old coast defence battleships (1889-1893) 8 Armoured cruisers (1897-1909) 8,900 to 15,500 tons, 24·5 to 19 knots 9 Big protected cruisers (1892-1910), 6,000 tons, 19 knots 6 24-knot cruisers (1904-1913), 3,000 to 5,000 tons 25 31 (Most of these ships have belt armour as thick as that of the British “County” class of armoured cruisers.) Small cruisers, 21 knots (1893-1910) 12
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