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New Technologies and Language Learning 1st Edition Li
Li Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Li Li
ISBN(s): 9781137517678, 1137517670
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 4.70 MB
Year: 2017
Language: english

NEW
TECHNOLOGIES
AND LANGUAGE
LEARNING
LI LI

© Li Li 2017
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2017 by
PALGRAVE
Palgrave in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of 4 Crinan Street,
London, N1 9XW.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978–1–137–51767–8 paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

iii
Contents
List of tables vi
List of figures vii
Abbreviations viii
Introduction x
Part A Overview 1
1 An overview of new technologies in language education 3
What does using technology in language learning mean? 3
Technology in education: the global picture 4
Technology use in language education 6
Learning theories 8
Technology and pedagogy 12
Technology development in language learning 13
Summary 26
Annotated further reading 26
2 The role of technology, motivation and SLA 28
Introduction 28
Key factors contributing to effective second language learning 29
Affordances and roles of technology 37
Focus on motivation 43
Summary 45
Part B Technology, Language Skills and Knowledge, and ESP 47
3 Technology and developing interactional skills 49
Introduction 49
Developing speaking and listening skills 50
Interactional comeptence 69
Summary 78

iv Contents
4 Reading, writing and online literacy 81
Introduction 81
Writing and technology 82
Reading and technology 98
Online literacy 104
Summary 106
5 Technology for lexicogrammatical acquisition 108
Introduction 108
How vocabulary and grammar are learnt 109
Technology use in vocabulary and grammar teaching 115
A lexicogrammatical approach 127
Future directions and considerations 130
Summary 131
6 Technology and ESP 133
Introduction 133
ESP and its characteristics 134
Benefits of technology in ESP contexts 138
Principles for integrating technology in ESP 141
Technological tools for teaching ESP 145
Summary 150
Part C Feedback, Materials andTeachers 153
7 Feedback and alternative assessment 155
Introduction 155
Focus on feedback 156
Focus on assessment (tests) 163
An alternative assessment 170
Summary 171
8 E-learning material evaluation and design 173
Introduction 173
What is materials evaluation? 174
Frameworks for evaluating e-learning materials 175

Contents v
Contextualising and adapting CALL tasks and materials 183
Summary 187
9 Language teachers and new technologies 188
Introduction 188
Language teachers’ attitudes towards using technology in teaching 189
Factors contributing to technology use in teaching 193
The role of teachers in technology-enhanced language teaching 200
The role of technology 203
Technology integration framework 204
Summary 207
References 210
Index 246

vi
List of tables
1.1 Four stages of technology-enhanced language learning 14
2.1 Explanations and examples of some techniques to enhance input 32
6.1 Linking technology to learners’ needs 142
6.2 An example of teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and the use of technology 143
6.3 Teachers’ roles when using technology: an example 144
8.1 A methodological framework in evaluating e-learning materials 180
8.2 An example of questions relating to some of Chapelle’s criteria 182
9.1 EFL teachers’ attitudes towards technology use scale 190
9.2 The role of teachers 201
9.3 Levels of technology integration 206

vii
List of figures
3.1 Creating an avatar usingVoki 56
3.2 A flow map of an integrated approach to focus on fluency and accuracy 58
3.3 Developing vocabulary usingVisuwords 59
3.4 Developing a mind map for a speaking activity 60
3.5 AntConc main window 73
3.6 Mmm-hmm 76
4.1 Writing as a product model 82
4.2 An example of a blog entry 89
4.3 Comments from other students 90
4.4 Comparsion of the input made by two learners on a wiki writing project 92
4.5 Thesaurus for ‘suggest’ 96
4.6 Word sketch for ‘suggest’ 97
4.7 MeeGenius online reading 101
4.8 A self-designed website for reading 101
4.9 The interface of Spreeder 103
5.1 BBC Wordmaster 121
5.2 Example of howVisuwords’ online graphical dictionary works 122
5.3 Ninjawords 123
5.4 Immediate feedback about grammar 125
5.5 UsingVsee to provide immediate corrective feedback 127
5.6 Concordance for ‘suggest’ 129
6.1 An example of a corpus search for ‘argue’ 146
7.1 A screenshot of feedback provided through Microsoft Word 160
7.2 An example of using Markin to mark students’ writing 161
7.3 Create/export webpage 165
7.4 Use the Masher to build unit 166
7.5 Upload files in the Masher 167
7.6 A crossword example 167
7.7 A flow of the independent test on grammar 169
8.1 Key elements for consideration in the process of contextualising materials 183
8.2 Adapting and enhancing existing WebQuests 184
9.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards using ICT in EFL teaching 192
9.2 Interlocking factors contributing to technology integration levels 205

viii
Abbreviations
ACMC: asynchronous CMC
AWE: automated writing evaluation
CAA: computer-aided assessment
CAI: computer-aided instruction
CALL: computer-assisted language learning
CELL: computer-enhanced language learning
CMC: computer-mediated communication
COBUILD: Collins Birmingham University International Language
Database
DMs: discourse markers
DoE: Department of Education
EAP: English for academic purposes
EBP: English for business purposes
EOP: English for occupational purposes
ES/FL: English as a second/foreign language
ESP: English for specific purposes
IC: interactional competence
ICT: information and communications technologies
IELTS: International English Language Testing System
IGCs intelligent grammar checkers
IM: instant messaging
ITSs: intelligent tutoring systems
LAD: Language Acquisition Device
L1: first language
L2: second language
MALL: mobile-assisted language learning
MILT: military language tutor
m-learning: mobile learning
MUVE: multi-user virtual environment
NBLT: network-based language teaching
OCL: online collaborative learning
PC: personal computer
PEG: project essay grade
SCMC: synchronous CMC

Abbreviations ix
SFL: systematic functional linguistics
SL: second life
SLA: second language acquisition
StCMC: synchronous text-based computer-mediated communication
SVCMC: synchronous voice/video-based computer-mediated
communication
TELL: technology-enhanced language learning
TPACK: (teachers’ integrated) technological, pedagogical and content
knowledge
UAE: United Arab Emirates
WELL: web-enhanced language learning
ZPD: zone of proximal development

x
Introduction
This research-led textbook takes new technologies (as opposed to tradi-
tional technologies) in language education as its primary focus. While
there has been a plethora of research articles and paper collections on
language and technologies across a range of contexts, and useful reference
books on the topic, there have been considerably fewer research-led text-
books for in-service and pre-service teachers who would like to develop
expertise in the area of new technologies in language education. Given
the theoretical and conceptual importance of technology development in
language learning, this book intends to map out the research-based appli-
cation of technologies in language education, with a particular focus on
linking theories to practice.
There are three major objectives: (1) to present a clear overview of the
work which has been done in technologies in language education, (2) to
provide examples of how technologies can be used in assisting language
education by exploring how to link theoretical underpinnings of learning to
technology application in classroom teaching, and (3) to address important
but challenging issues faced by teachers around the world in integrating
technology in teaching. The book is divided into three parts, which coincide
with the following aims.
Part A Overview. This covers the existing body of research evidence and
provides readers with a survey of the literature. The aim is to review and
discuss seminal publications and cutting-edge research in the history, theo-
ries and development of technologies in language education. This overview
aims to provide teachers with background knowledge of why technology is
beneficial for language learning and of the role of technology in enhancing
linguistic and affective aspects of learning.
Part B Technology, Language Skills and Knowledge, and ESP. In this
part, the discussion is led more by data, presenting evidence and examples
of particular technologies and their role in enhancing language learning. The
particular topics under investigation consider the following questions:
„
„ Why and how does technology enhance interactional competence?
„
„ Why and how does technology enhance collaborative writing and online
literacy?

Introduction xi
„
„ Why and how does technology enhance lexicogrammatical acquisition?
„
„ Why and how does technology enhance ESP?
Part C Feedback, Materials and Teachers. In the third part of the book, the
discussion looks at the more challenging issues which emerge from teaching
for example, alternative assessment strategies when technologies are involved
in learning, e-learning material evaluation and design. In addition, this part
examines the role of the teacher in the process of integrating technology into
teaching, with a focus on the issues that motivate or hinder teachers’ using
technology and how teachers approach these issues in practice.
In order to illustrate how technology can benefit language learning in
various aspects, examples of technology application are included in the text.
To help the readers bridge the gap between theory and practice, annotated
readings are recommended at the end of each chapter. Some chapters also
include completed student projects to shed some light on possible research
ideas for postgraduate students and teachers who would like to conduct
research in technology-enhanced language learning. There are also case stud-
ies, which report technology use in assisting language learning, and tasks,
which can guide the reader to engage in critical reflection. These features are
designed to engage readers and help them gain a closer understanding of the
field and hands-on experience.
The chapters synthesise previous technology use (including CALL) theory
and research, and they describe practical applications to both second and for-
eign language classrooms, including detailed examples of these applications
and procedures for evaluating them. The implementation of technology in
different learning environments (e.g. secondary classrooms, higher education
institutions and online forums) are addressed, with attention to creating col-
laborative technology-based projects and to applying individual technologies
in traditional classrooms. Although many chapters locate their descriptions
of technology activities and projects within the English as a second/foreign
language (ESL/EFL) setting, the principles and activities described are
equally useful for other language settings. By integrating theoretical issues,
research finding and practical guidelines on different aspects of technol-
ogy use in language education, this book offers teachers multiple levels of
resources for their own professional development, for the needs-based crea-
tion of specific technology-supported activities, for curriculum design and
for implementation of institutional and inter-institutional projects.
The book will be appealing to researchers interested in using technologies
in language education and teacher development, as well as to early research-
ers and students in postgraduate programmes.

3
1
An overview of new
technologies in language
education
Aims: This chapter reviews the development of technologies in language
education by considering the connection between different learning theories
and technology application in language classrooms.This review draws upon the
literature and examples of technology use in classrooms to help the reader
to make sense of theory and practice.The chapter has the three themes, as
follows:
1. Overview of global technology policy in education
2. Learning theories
3. Technology use in language learning.
What does using technology in language learning
mean?
Technology in language learning has been in constant evolution since its
genesis in the 1950s, in part due to attempts to keep up with the ongoing
developments in computer technology. The development of technology in
language education is also the result of the development of learning theories
and pedagogical considerations. Many terms and expressions have emerged,
and different theoretical perspectives require different approaches to under-
stand and define the concept.
Task 1.1: What does technology use in language learning mean?
Have you ever experienced using technology in language teaching or learn-
ing? When you talk about using technology in language learning, what do you
mean? Could you explain your understanding to your colleagues?

4 NEWTECHNOLOGIES AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
The most widely used variant is perhaps CALL (computer-assisted lan-
guage learning). The use of CALL was agreed at the 1983 TESOL (Teachers
of English to speakers of other languages) convention in Toronto, Ontario,
by people who attended the meeting where CALL issues were discussed. This
term has been widely used to refer to the areas of technology and both second
language teaching and learning despite frequent suggestions to revise the term
(Chapelle, 2001, p. 3). Even though the term has been agreed and widely
adopted, different scholars define the term differently. Levy (1997) defines
CALL as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in language
teaching and learning’ (Levy, 1997, p. 1). Beatty (2003) acknowledges the
breadth of what may go on in CALL and proposes that a definition of CALL
that accommodates its changing nature is the following: any process in which
a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language (Beatty,
2003, p. 7). Furthermore, he suggests that ‘CALL has come to encompass
issues of materials design, technologies, pedagogical theories and modes of
instruction. Materials for CALL can include those which are purpose-made
for language learning and those which adapt existing computer-based materi-
als, video and other materials’ (Beatty, 2003, pp. 7–8). So, broadly speaking,
CALL is the study of computer applications or computer technologies in sec-
ond or foreign language teaching and learning (Levy, 1997; Chapelle, 2001;
Fotos and Brown, 2004; Egbert, 2005; Levy and Stockwell, 2006).
There are, of course, many other similar terms associated with technology
use in language learning: for example, TELL (technology-enhanced language
learning), CELL (computer-enhanced language learning), NBLT (network-
based language teaching), WELL (web-enhanced language learning) and CMC
(computer-mediated communication). In the literature, we can also see the
use of ICT (information and communications technologies), e-learning and
blended learning. In recent years, we have seen the popularity of mobile learn-
ing (m-learning), which brings ‘mobility’ into learning (see Pegrum, 2014). But
do they really mean different things? Or are these just different terms referring
to the same concept? In this chapter, I will consider some important aspects in
understanding the meaning and scope of using technology in language learn-
ing. To do so, I will first outline the global growth of technology in education
and then move on to technology use in language education, with a particular
attention to English as a second/foreign language. Next, I will discuss learning
theories, technology and pedagogy. Finally, I will provide a discussion on the
issue of technology development in language learning.
Technology in education: the global picture
Perhaps it is fair to say that technology has changed our lives in every way,
such as shopping, communicating, entertaining, teaching and learning,
and even in the way we think. Most, if not all, teachers, educators and

An overview of newtechnologies in language education 5
policymakers would support the use of technologies in enhancing learning.
Computer technologies have for some time now played a significant role in
improving education and reforming curricula across countries all over the
world (Pelgrum, 2001; Kozma and Anderson, 2002). Governments, educa-
tion authorities and schools have all made major investments into providing
schools with computer equipment (Pelgrum, 2001; Macaro, Handley and
Walter, 2012).
Globally, technology integration into education is an important feature
of the education landscape. The U.S. Department of Education (DoE) has
launched National Education Technology Plan 2010 to transform American
education through ‘learning powered by technology’. The Plan makes a
specific statement to fully integrate technology in teaching, assessment,
infrastructure and productivity. Similarly, the Australian government has
poured money into technology infrastructure in education. It is estimated
that the entire education sector had spent AUS$2.7 billion (£1.59 billion)
on computer equipment in 2013, with nearly half going on actual hard-
ware. Similar initiatives were observed in Europe. For example, in Spain,
‘Escuela 2.0’ (Pérez Sanz, 2011) aimed to equip over 14,000 classrooms in
primary and secondary schools with interactive whiteboards (IWBs), wire-
less networks and PCs (personal computers) for both students and teach-
ers. A similar plan was launched in Italy in 2009. In the Asian context,
the Ministry of Education of Singapore developed the third Masterplan for
ICT in Education (2009–2014) to enrich and transform the learning envi-
ronments of students and equip them with the critical competencies and
dispositions to succeed in a knowledge economy. In contrast, the Chinese
government developed long-term goals to informationalise Chinese educa-
tion by 2010 and made a considerable financial investment to establish a
network for language teaching and language research at both provincial and
institutional levels. In the Middle East, there is strong evidence that mobile
devices play an important role in the development of education quality. For
example, the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) in the UAE (United
Arab Emirates) adopted cutting-edge technology at the earliest opportunity,
such as the laptop initiative from 2003 to 2005 (all students were given
laptops, and all campuses were fitted with Wi-Fi) and the iPad initiative
(2012–2014), a world-first in equipping all new students with iPads
(personal communication). We can see a huge investment has been made
globally to embrace technology in education to create a twenty-first-century
learning environment and style.
Apart from the policy and investment in technology use in education, it
actually makes sense to use technology in teaching and learning, according
to brain research experts (Tileston, 2000). For example, computers can pro-
mote visual, verbal and kinaesthetic learning and address different cognitive
and psychological processes in learning by using multimodal materials.

Technology use in language education
Technology has been integrated into second language teaching and learn-
ing since the 1960s as a mechanical tutor to train repetitive language drills,
the so-called drill-and-practice method. It is only since 2000 that computer
technology has been largely used in reading, writing, literacy and cultural
awareness (Chapelle, 2003). With the development of multimedia com-
puting and the Internet, technology is becoming a vital feature of second
language classrooms and an important issue confronting second/foreign lan-
guage teachers and researchers. For example, Chapelle (2003), as an applied
linguist, asserts that ‘technology-based language teaching and research is not
a departure from applied linguistics. It is a continuation – the 21st century
version of what applied linguists do’ (p. 31).
According to the British Council’s research report published in 2014,
there are approximately 750 million EFL (English as a foreign language)
speakers and 375 million ESL (English as a second language) speakers.
The British Council predicts that the number of people actively learn-
ing English around the world is set to exceed 1.9 billion by 2020. Of
course there is no way to make an accurate estimate of potential English
learners, but two messages to take away from these figures are that there
are millions of English learners and that the development of technol-
ogy is embracing these learners. There are over 3 billion Internet users,
accounting for 40.4 per cent of the world’s population. Approximately
eight new Internet users add themselves to this growing percentage per
second. The advantage of the Internet is that it allows language to come
to the learner, rather than a learner having to go to a special place to learn
the language. In institutional contexts, such as higher education sectors,
secondary schools and primary schools, teachers face a generation which
has grown up in an environment in which they are constantly exposed
to computer-based technology; therefore, their methods of learning are
different from those of previous generations. In a survey of first-year
undergraduate students, Sandars and Morrison (2007) found that a large
majority started university with experience of using online systems such
as blogs and wikis; furthermore, their attitudes to the possible use of such
tools in learning were positive. Clearly, determining how to teach the
generation which has already integrated technology to their daily life is
a challenge to the traditional teaching and learning philosophy. All these
points suggest that language learning/teaching is embarking on a new
trend, and it has become an urgent issue for teachers, applied linguists
and learning theorists to think how new technologies should be integrated
and utilised in language learning.

Task 1.2: What does using technology in language learning/teaching mean?
Now, think about what software, apps or technological tools you or people
around you have used to learn English (or any language). Is it a good example
for you? Why?
As one can imagine, there is a long list of various technological tools or apps
to use in learning or teaching a language. The list might include websites,
videos (e.g. YouTube), PowerPoint, images and sound files (e.g. podcasts),
mobile phones, virtual learning environments and social networking sites. The
list can be very long, but if we look
at the research evidence, we can make
an assumption that teachers are very
creative, and various technological
tools have been used in enhancing
linguistic and communicative skills,
but no doubt some tools are more
popular than others. Various forms
of technology have been reported
in language classrooms, including
both stand-alone computer tools and
Web 2.0 technologies (see Liu, Moore, Graham and Lee 2002 for a pre-2000
review; see Macaro, Handley and Walter 2012 for a post-2000 review). Then
in classrooms, how do teachers use technologies to facilitate teaching?
In the US, Meskill et al. (2006) surveyed 847 K-12 ESOL (English speak-
ers of other languages) teachers regarding their uses of technology and found
that the most frequently used software is word processing – a finding that
resonates with the results of two national surveys, one by Becker (2000)
and another by Doherty and Orlofsky (2001). Cuban (2001) also reported
that word processing is the most frequently used technology for teachers in
American classrooms. In Canada, Wozney et al. (2006) surveyed K-12 teach-
ers’ use of technology and concluded that teachers mainly used computer
technologies for ‘informative’ (e.g. World Wide Web) and ‘expressive’ (e.g.
word processing) purposes. In China, Li’s (2008) survey of English teachers
suggests that PowerPoint is regarded as the most popular and appropriate
form of technology used in Chinese English language classrooms. Macaro
et al. (2012) provide an in-depth review of 47 post-2000 studies investigating
the efficacy of technology in the teaching of L2 (second language) English,
asking what technology has been used and why. They pointed out that the
most frequently studied technologies were multimedia (22 per cent), CMC
technologies (22 per cent) and the Internet (15 per cent). Among CMC,
email is the most popular. It is notable that no research has been done on
The term ‘Web 2.0’ was officially coined in
2004 by Dale Dougherty, a vice-president
of O’Reilly Media Inc.Web 2.0 refers to
a group of technologies – such as blogs,
wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds, etc. – which
facilitate a more socially connected
Internet where everyone is able to add to
and edit the information space.

chat or discussion forums before 2000, nor studies of Web 2.0 technologies
before 2005. Technology has mostly been used to enhance every aspect of
language learning, including (for example) lexical acquisition, speaking skills,
intercultural awareness and so on. Furthermore, these studies revealed that
most research studies focused mainly on vocabulary (24 per cent), writing
(24 per cent) and reading (22 per cent) and, to a lesser extent, speaking (11
per cent), listening (10 per cent), grammar (7 per cent) and pronunciation
(3 per cent). This review focused on only teaching English as a foreign or
second language in primary or secondary levels; technology use in higher
education might be different.
What is technology use in language learning then? In analysing technology
use in language learning, the first thing to understand is its meaning and
scope. The best way is to consider learning theories associated with technol-
ogy use and the development of technology use in language learning, which
are discussed in more depth below.
Learning theories
What are learning theories? A theory of learning aims to help people to
understand how learning happens and informs practice. Major learning
theories, such as behaviourist learning theory, cognitivist learning theory and
constructivist learning theory, were all developed in the late nineteenth and
twentieth centuries, and they have had strong influences on the nature of lan-
guage, language learning pedagogy, technology use and the role of the teacher
and learners. I will briefly discuss these three theories first and then move on
to present online collaborative learning theory, which is frequently referred to
when discussing computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL).
Behaviourist learning theory
The behaviourist learning theory was a major breakthrough in the late
nineteenth century. The nature of learning, what influences and supports
learning and what is believed to be learning was developed mainly through
experiments with animals, such as the well-known experiment by Pavlov on his
dog. Pavlov found that if he rings the ‘bell’ (conditioned stimulus) with food
(unconditional stimulus) to get the attention of his dog, his dog would have a
conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus (bell) after a period of time.
This experiment showed that learning associates an unconditioned stimulus
that already brings about a particular response (i.e. a reflex) with a new (con-
ditioned) stimulus such that the new stimulus brings about the same response.

Behaviourist learning theory views knowledge as something fixed and
finite, and ultimately as truth. So from a behaviourist theoretical perspec-
tive, learning ‘was reduced and simplified to simple conditioning: the
stimulus and the response’ (Harasim, 2012, p. 31). As the name suggests,
the behaviourist learning theory focuses on an observable behaviour and
pays little attention to what happens in the mind. Learning is therefore
observable and measurable. The core of behaviourist learning theory is to
change or elicit certain behaviours. In examining learning, in order to see
whether X has an impact on Y, controlled methods, random assignments
and the manipulation of variables are used to test hypotheses. As Harasim
(2012) explains,
In behaviorist theory, what is in the mind is not accessible for study, and hence
irrelevant and should not be considered in research. The mind is viewed as
a black box that is largely irrelevant, and, therefore, by extension educational
practice based on behaviorist terms would not take the mind into account.The
emphasis is on environmental stimulus and observed response. (p. 32)
Cognitivist learning theory
The cognitivist learning theory emerged as an extension of and a reaction to
behaviourist theory, in particular to the ‘stimulus-and-response’ paradigm of
behaviourism. The main argument behind the cognitivist learning theory is
that it believes the direct link between stimulus and responses is insufficient
to explain learning because the responses are also influenced by factors such
as cognitive ability, motivation, age, aptitude and so on. Cognitivist theory
does not reject the ‘stimulus-and-response’ theory completely, but rather,
it shifts the focus to the cognitive (internal mental) process in learning to
understand and improve the effectiveness of learning. Cognitivist theory
concerns what goes on between stimulus and response. In the context of
language learning, it concerns what happens between input and output in
a learner’s mind. In other words, a cognitive perspective is interested in how
information is processed. So under the view of cognitivist theory, a learner
is a processor of information. Cognitive information-processing theory is
strongly associated with cognitivist learning theory, and its experimental
design is closely linked to this view in understanding the impact of variables
on learning.
Constructivist learning theory
As the name suggests, constructivist learning theory concerns learning as
‘an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge’ (Duffy

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Rouard de Card, La frontière franco-marocaine et le protocole du
20 juillet 1901, in-8o, Paris, 1902. — René Pinon, L’Empire de la
Méditerranée, in-18, Paris, p. 251 et suiv. — Augustin Bernard,
L’évolution de la question marocaine (Revue polit. et parlement., 10
décembre 1903). — Livre Jaune sur les affaires du Maroc, 1901-1905,
in-4o, Paris, 1905. On trouvera le texte des accords au Livre Jaune, p.
16, 34, et 39.
C’était, depuis Djenan-ed-Dar, Fendi (poste récemment installé),
Ksar-el-Azoudj (caravansérail avec quelques goumiers), Hassi-el-Mir
(caravansérail), Hassi-el-Morra (caravansérail), Taghit, Igli, Beni-Abbès
et Ksabi.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1903, p. 313.
Livre Jaune, p. 309.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 75-76 et ibid., Suppl., p. 381-406.
Ann. de Géogr., 1906, p. 185.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1900, p. 274 et suiv.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 309.
Gouvernement Général de l’Algérie, Direction des Douanes,
Documents statistiques sur le commerce de l’Algérie, année 1904.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 117.
Capitaine Flye-Sainte-Marie, Le commerce et l’agriculture au Touat
(Bull. d’Oran, 1904. p. 345).
Les gisements de nitrate au Sahara algérien (Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p.
245).
Capitaine Simon, art. cité, p. 252-253.
A 1/400.000e, non mise dans le commerce. Une réduction à
3.000.000e de cette carte a été jointe au tirage à part des
Reconnaissances du général Servière, publiées par le même auteur au
Bull. Afr. fr., 1902.
Lieutenant Nieger, Carte des oasis sahariennes, 9 feuilles à
1/250.000e, Paris, 1904.

[366]
[367]
[368]
[369]
[370]
[371]
[372]
[373]
[374]
[375]
[376]
[377]
[378]
[379]
[380]
[381]
[382]
4 feuilles, Paris, 1904.
Emile F. Gautier, Sahara oranais (Ann. de Géogr. 1903). — Id., Sur
les terrains paléozoïques de l’Oued Saoura et du Gourara (C. R. Ac.
Sc., 1902).
Ann. de Géogr. 1905, p. 460.
Edmond Doutté, Figuig : notes et impressions (La Géographie,
1903, t. VII, p. 177).
Capitaine Flye-Sainte-Marie, Le commerce et l’agriculture au Touat
(Bull. Soc. Géogr. Oran, 1904, p. 345).
Bull. Afr. fr., 1904, p. 245-250. — Cf. La vie aux oasis, ibid., 1904,
p. 33.
Capitaine Simon, art. cité, p. 250.
R. de Caix, La reconnaissance du lieutenant Cottenest chez les
Hoggar (Bull. Afr. fr., 1902. p. 307 et 317).
Lieutenant Réquin, Trente jours au Mouydir (Bull. Afr. fr., Suppl.,
1902, p. 170). Le lieutenant Réquin accompagnait le commandant
Laperrine dans sa première tournée au Mouydir.
Lieutenant Guillo-Lohan, Un contre-rezzou au Hoggar (Bull. Afr. fr.,
1903, Suppl., p. 205, 239, 257).
Bull. Afr. fr., 1904, p. 83.
Lieutenant Besset, D’In-Salah à Amguid et à Tikhammar, Bull. Afr.
fr., 1904, Suppl. p. 68-78. — Capitaine Pein, Chez les Touareg Azdjer :
d’Ouargla à Tarat, ibid. p. 73. Ces deux documents ont été réunis en
une brochure par le Comité de l’Afrique française. 1904).
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 248-249.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 239.
Ann. de Géogr., 1904, p. 203. — Commandant Laperrine, Une
tournée dans le Sud de l’annexe du Tidikelt du 4 mars au 30 juillet
1904 (Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl. p. 37-63). — Capitaine Besset,
Esquisse géologique des régions de l’Ahnet, du Tanezrouft, de l’Adrar
(nord), du Tassili des Ahaggar, du Ahaggar et du Tifedest (Ibid., 1905,
Suppl., p. 123-138).
Ann. de Géogr., 1905, p. 94, et La Géographie, 15 octobre 1904,
p. 238.
Ann. de Géogr., 1905, p. 383 et 459 ; 1906 p. 184. — Bull. Afr. fr.,
1905, p. 30 ; 1906 p. 58.

[383]
[384]
[385]
[386]
[387]
[388]
[389]
[390]
[391]
[392]
[393]
[394]
[395]
[396]
[397]
[398]
[399]
[400]
[401]
[402]
[403]
[404]
V. ci-dessus p. 82.
C. R. Ac. Sc., 3 avril 1903 et Bull. Afr. fr., mai 1905.
E. F. Gautier, Le Mouydir-Ahnet. (La Géographie, 1904, t. X., p. 1
et 85).
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl., p. 37 et 45.
N. Villatte, Du Tidikelt vers Tombouctou (La Géographie, 1905, t.
XII, p. 209, avec remarques par M. C. Trépied).
Ann. de Géogr. 1905, p. 159.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1902, p. 12.
V. le texte de ce dernier décret dans Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 327.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1906, p. 9 et 11. Pour les critiques qu’on a adressées
à la nouvelle organisation, v. Bull. Réun. Et. algér. 1905, p. 296 et
suiv. M. A. Girault (Principes de législation coloniale, II., p. 410),
regrette que la loi ait déterminé elle-même les limites et, par contre,
laissé à des règlements d’administration publique le soin de statuer
sur plusieurs points essentiels.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl. p. 43.
F. Foureau, Documents scientifiques de la mission Saharienne, p.
1159. — Emile F. Gautier, Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, p. 400.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl., p. 43.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl., p. 43.
Bull. Afr. fr., 1904, p. 185 et suiv.
D’après Laperrine, Bull. Afr. fr., 1905, Suppl., p. 43, 44.
Pour l’énumération de ces brochures, nous renvoyons à Playfair,
Bibliography of Algeria, s. v. Transsaharian railway, et à l’ouvrage de
M. Broussais. V. aussi Maurice Honoré, Le Transsaharien et la
pénétration française en Afrique, in-8o, Paris. 1901 (bibliographie p.
131-143).
H. Schirmer, Ann. de Géogr., 1891, p. 12.
Documents, III, p. 16.
Schirmer, Le Sahara, p. 408.
Schirmer, Le Sahara, p. 410 et suiv.
Id., p. 413.
Documents, III, p. 17 et 37.

[405]
[406]
[407]
[408]
[409]
[410]
[411]
[412]
[413]
Bull. Afr. fr., 1899, p. 334.
Camille Guy, Résultats géographiques et économiques des
explorations du Niger, (Bull. Afr. fr., 1899).
Bull. Afr. fr., 1896, p. 374.
H. Schirmer, La pénétration commerciale au Soudan central
(Revue génér. des Sciences, 15 décembre 1897).
Augustin Bernard, La question du Transsaharien, p. 4.
G. Rolland, La colonisation française au Sahara (Afas, Oran, 1888,
1er partie, p. 47 (carte p. 48).
Duponchel, Les oasis et la culture du dattier dans le Sahara, R. D.
M., 15 mai 1881, p. 388.
Schirmer, art. cité.
F. Foureau, D’Alger au Congo par le Tchad, p. 797.

CONCLUSION
Quelles conclusions tirer de cet historique de la pénétration
saharienne ?
En résumant tous ces voyages et en les étudiant, on peut se
convaincre de la fragilité extrême autant que de la pauvreté des
résultats qu’ils ont produits jusqu’en 1900, pendant près de 70 ans,
si on en excepte la belle et studieuse exploration de Duveyrier et
quelques-uns des itinéraires de Foureau. Pas un seul itinéraire parti
du Soudan n’avait abouti en Algérie, aucune exploration partie
d’Algérie n’avait dépassé l’Ahaggar ou le Tassili des Azdjer ; seule la
mission Foureau-Lamy a rompu le charme, parce qu’elle a employé
des procédés différents. Au point de vue économique, le bilan des
entreprises sahariennes est plus misérable encore : « Une énorme
dépense d’argent, d’héroïsme, de vies humaines, et comme
résultat : néant ».
A quoi faut-il attribuer ces résultats décourageants ? Le problème
saharien est-il donc insoluble, et le coq gaulois est-il destiné à
gratter indéfiniment ces immensités sablonneuses ?
Il faut convenir tout d’abord que la pénétration saharienne
présente d’indéniables difficultés. Mais le peu d’efficacité de nos
efforts tenait surtout à une erreur de méthode. Les affaires
sahariennes ont absolument changé d’aspect à partir de 1900, et
l’expérience de ces six dernières années a mis en lumière ce fait trop
méconnu, qu’au Sahara la pénétration politique devait précéder la
pénétration scientifique et économique.
Il faut, suivant les régions, employer pour la pénétration les
moyens les mieux appropriés. Nous sommes pleins d’admiration
pour un Brazza ou un Binger, soumettant par la douceur et sans tirer
un coup de fusil de grands royaumes nègres. Mais les résistances
que nous rencontrions au Sahara ne pouvaient être brisées que par

la force. Cette force ne doit d’ailleurs pas être hors de proportion
avec les obstacles à détruire et les résultats à espérer, les uns et les
autres nécessairement médiocres et limités.
A coup sûr, le Sahara ne vaut pas qu’on y dépense beaucoup
d’hommes ni beaucoup d’argent. Le traité de Ghadamès, les projets
de Transsaharien avaient faussé les véritables données du problème.
Le Sahara paraît être d’une valeur économique faible et presque
nulle tant en lui-même que comme voie d’accès au Soudan. « Quand
la terre sera si pleine d’habitants, dit Scott Keltie, que tous les autres
pays auront été utilisés par l’homme, il restera le Sahara comme
dernière ressource. » Il faudra donc prendre garde de ne pas
développer outre mesure les quelques organes rudimentaires dont
on l’a pourvu.
L’expérience a montré qu’un très faible effort suffit pour faire la
police au Sahara, ce qui est l’essentiel. Grâce à notre établissement
dans les oasis de l’archipel touatien et dans la région entre Zousfana
et Oued-Guir, des questions qui se posaient depuis plus d’un demi-
siècle sont résolues ou sur le point de l’être : résolue la question du
Sud-Oranais, résolue la question du Touat, résolue la question
touareg, résolue la question des relations entre l’Algérie et le
Soudan. On peut affirmer que, de 1900 à 1906, on a fait plus de
progrès au Sahara que dans les soixante-dix années précédentes.
Ce n’est pas à dire que les attaques doivent cesser au Sahara
comme par enchantement et encore moins du côté de la frontière
marocaine. Nous avons mis trente ans à venir à bout de
l’insurrection des Ouled-Sidi-Cheikh : l’insécurité, reportée plus à
l’Ouest par nos progrès, ne disparaîtra pas immédiatement du « pays
des fusils », comme l’appelait en 1845 Mustapha ben Ismaïl. Au
Sahara même, il reste, au sud de la Tripolitaine et au sud du Maroc,
deux lacunes dans notre organisation, deux trous dans notre filet,
qu’il n’est pas en notre pouvoir de combler immédiatement. Mais si
la pacification n’est pas complète, elle est bien avancée. La question
de la pénétration saharienne ne doit donc plus encombrer notre
politique, et c’est vers les territoires autrement intéressants qui

s’étendent à l’ouest de l’Algérie qu’il nous faut surtout désormais
porter nos regards.
FIN

PROGRÈS DE LA PÉNÉTRATION SAHARIENNE — 1830-1906
Gravé et Imp. par Erhard Fres. Paris.
Agrandissement
(T. moyenne — T. grande : p. supérieure, p. inférieure)

Note du transcripteur :
Page 4, dans ces ces villes a été remplacé par dans ces villes
Page 4, note 15, Explo-ation scientifique a été remplacé par Exploration
Page 22, Ifoghas el de l’ordre a été remplacé par et de l’ordre
Page 26, ainssi que Cusson a été remplacé par ainsi
Page 26, Adb el Kader a été remplacé par Abd
Page 43, les Toureg Azdjer a été remplacé par Touareg
Page 71, ou voit que la période a été remplacé par on voit
Page 84, note 194, Shirmer a été remplacé par Schirmer
Page 130, année surve-venait un a été remplacé par survenait
Page 133, plus grand honnneur a été remplacé par honneur
Page 139, plus économique posssible a été remplacé par possible
Page 150, qu’ancun autre livre a été remplacé par qu’aucun
Page 151, note 339, historique et géogaphique a été remplacé par
géographique
Page 152, publié en collabo-tion a été remplacé par collaboration
Page 160, été asssassinés sur a été remplacé par assassinés
Page 164, belle reconnnaissance dans a été remplacé par reconnaissance
Page 177, 19° 45°′ de latitude a été remplacé par 19° 45′
Page 187, l’ouvrage de de M. a été remplacé par l’ouvrage de M.
De plus, quelques changements mineurs de ponctuation ont été apportés.

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