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ECO-DRIVING
from STRATEGIES to INTERFACES

Transportation Human Factors:
Aerospace, Aviation, Maritime,
Rail, and Road Series
Series Editor
Professor Neville A Stanton
University of Southampton, UK
Automobile Automation: Distributed Cognition on the Road
Victoria A. Banks, Neville A. Stanton
Eco-Driving: From Strategies to Interfaces
Rich C. McIlroy, Neville A. Stanton

ECO-DRIVING
from STRATEGIES to INTERFACES
Rich C. McIlroy and Neville A. Stanton

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-03201-9 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: McIlroy, Rich C., author. | Stanton, Neville A. (Neville Anthony),
1960- author.
Title: Eco-driving : from strategies to interfaces / Rich C. McIlroy, Neville
A. Stanton.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Series:
Transportation human factors : aerospace, aviation, maritime, rail, and
road series | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017019281 | ISBN 9781138032019 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Automobile driving--Energy conservation. | Automobile
driving--Environmental aspects. | Automobile driving--Human factors.
Classification: LCC TL151.5 .M35 2017 | DDC 629.28/30286--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017019281
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com

Dedication
For Ire – Rich
For Maggie, Josh, and Jem – Neville

vii
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Acknowledgements...................................................................................................xv
Authors....................................................................................................................xvii
Abbreviations...........................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 Background.................................................................................1
1.2 Aims and Objectives..................................................................4
1.3 Book Outline..............................................................................5
1.4 Contribution to Knowledge........................................................7
Chapter 2 Design, Behaviour and Energy Use......................................................9
2.1 Introduction................................................................................9
2.2 Sustainability and Transport......................................................9
2.3 Sustainability and Ergonomics................................................. 11
2.4 The Changing Nature of the Driving Task...............................12
2.5 Design and Persuasion..............................................................13
2.6 Energy Use Behaviours in Vehicles......................................... 14
2.7 Safety and Usability................................................................. 17
2.8 Ergonomics and the Design of Low-carbon Vehicle HMIs.....19
2.8.1 Ecological Interface Design........................................20
2.8.2 Overcoming Range Anxiety.......................................20
2.8.3 Supporting Accurate Mental Models..........................21
2.8.4 Workload and Distraction...........................................22
2.8.5 Dealing with Complexity and Taking
Advantage of Novelty..................................................24
2.9 Conclusions...............................................................................26
Chapter 3 Driving and the Environment: An Exploratory Survey Study............29
3.1 Introduction..............................................................................29
3.2 Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward Eco-driving...................30
3.2.1 Perceptions and Self-reported Ability.........................32
3.2.2 Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour..........................33
3.2.3 Gender, Age and Education.........................................34
3.2.4 Eco-driving Support....................................................34
3.2.5 Summary of Purpose..................................................34
3.3 Survey.......................................................................................35
3.3.1 Eco-driving Section....................................................35
3.3.1.1 Perceptions...................................................35
3.3.1.2 Knowledge...................................................35

viii Contents
3.3.2 Environmental Attitudes.............................................36
3.3.3 Participants and Ethics................................................36
3.4 Results......................................................................................36
3.4.1 Data Reduction............................................................37
3.4.1.1 Eco-driving Knowledge...............................37
3.4.1.2 Environmental Attitudes.............................. 41
3.4.2 Addressing Research Questions..................................43
3.4.2.1 Q1: What Perceptions Do People
Have of Eco-driving and Its Effects?...........43
3.4.2.2 Q2: What Do People Know of Eco-
driving (i.e. of the Specific Behaviours)?.....45
3.4.2.3 Q3: Are More Pro-environmental
Individuals More Knowledgeable of
the Means for Eco-driving?.........................47
3.4.2.4 Q4: Do More Pro-environmental
Individuals Report Performing
Eco-driving Behaviours to a Greater
Extent than Less Pro-environmental
Individuals?...............................................48
3.4.2.5 Q5: Do People with Greater
Knowledge of Eco-driving Also Report
Performing it to a Greater Extent? ..............48
3.4.2.6 Q6: How Does Knowledge of and
Propensity to Perform Eco-driving
Behaviours Vary with Age and Gender?.....48
3.4.2.7 Q7: Do Those with Higher Levels of
General Education Also Have More
Knowledge of Eco-driving Behaviours?......49
3.4.2.8 Q8: How Much Are People Willing
to Pay for Eco-driver Training and
In-vehicle, Eco-driving Support Devices?...... 50
3.5 Discussion.................................................................................50
3.5.1 Q1: What Perceptions Do People Have of
Eco-driving and Its Effects?........................................ 51
3.5.2 Q2: What Do People Know of Eco-driving
(i.e. of the Specific Behaviours)?................................. 51
3.5.3 Q3: Are More Pro-environmental Individuals
More Knowledgeable of the Means for
Eco-driving?...............................................................52
3.5.4 Q4: Do More Pro-environmental Individuals
Report Performing Eco-driving Behaviours to
a Greater Extent Than Less Pro-environmental
Individuals?.................................................................53
3.5.5 Q5: Do People with Greater Knowledge of
Eco-driving Also Report Performing It to a
Greater Extent? ...........................................................53

ix
Contents
3.5.6 Q6: How Do Knowledge of and Propensity to
Perform Eco-driving Behaviours Vary with Age
and Gender?.................................................................54
3.5.7 Q7: Do Those with Higher Levels of General
Education Also Have More Knowledge of
Eco-driving Behaviours?.............................................54
3.5.8 Q8: How Much Are People Willing to Pay for
Eco-driver Training and In-vehicle, Eco-driving
Support Devices?.........................................................54
3.5.9 Study Limitations........................................................55
3.5.10 General Discussion......................................................56
3.6 Conclusions...............................................................................57
Chapter 4 Verbal Reports: An Exploratory On-road Study.................................59
4.1 Introduction..............................................................................59
4.2 Verbal Protocol Analysis..........................................................59
4.3 Method......................................................................................62
4.3.1 Participants..................................................................62
4.3.2 Apparatus....................................................................63
4.3.3 Procedure....................................................................63
4.3.4 Data Reduction............................................................63
4.3.4.1 Vehicle Data.................................................63
4.3.4.2 Verbal Data..................................................64
4.4 Results......................................................................................69
4.4.1 Verbal Protocols .........................................................69
4.4.2 Vehicle Data................................................................70
4.4.3 Group Differences.......................................................70
4.5 Discussion.................................................................................75
4.6 Conclusions...............................................................................79
Chapter 5 Two Decades of Ecological Interface Design, and the
Importance of the SRK Taxonomy..................................................... 81
5.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 81
5.2 Ecological Interface Design.....................................................82
5.3 Cognitive Work Analysis..........................................................84
5.4 The Past 22 Years of EID Research.........................................88
5.5 EID Applications....................................................................104
5.5.1 Work Domain Analysis ............................................106
5.5.2 Skills, Rules and Knowledge ...................................108
5.5.3 Reported Use of the Remaining CWA Phases..........109
5.5.3.1 Control Task Analysis ............................... 110
5.5.3.2 Strategies Analysis .................................... 111

x Contents
5.5.3.3 Social, Organisational and Cooperation
Analysis .................................................... 112
5.5.3.4 Worker Competencies Analysis ................ 113
5.6 Why the SRK Is Important..................................................... 113
5.7 Can EID Alone Result in Design?.......................................... 118
5.8 General Discussion.................................................................120
5.9 Conclusions.............................................................................122
Chapter 6 A Decision Ladder Analysis of Eco-driving: The First Step
Toward Fuel-efficient Driving Behaviour.........................................125
6.1 Introduction............................................................................125
6.2 Decision Ladders....................................................................126
6.3 Identification of Activities......................................................128
6.4 Method....................................................................................129
6.4.1 Focus Group..............................................................129
6.4.1.1 Participants................................................129
6.4.1.2 Apparatus and Setting...............................130
6.4.1.3 Procedure...................................................130
6.4.2 Expert Interviews......................................................130
6.4.2.1 Participants................................................130
6.4.2.2 Apparatus and Setting............................... 131
6.4.2.3 Procedure................................................... 131
6.5 Results.................................................................................... 133
6.6 Analysis..................................................................................134
6.6.1 Deceleration to Lower Speed....................................134
6.6.2 Deceleration for Road Curvature.............................. 137
6.6.3 Deceleration for Full Stop More Likely.................... 139
6.6.4 Acceleration............................................................... 141
6.6.5 Headway Maintenance.............................................. 143
6.7 Implications for Design.......................................................... 145
6.7.1 Supporting Skill-based Behaviour with Haptic
Feedback.................................................................... 147
6.7.2 Haptic Information in Vehicles................................. 148
6.8 Conclusions............................................................................. 151
Chapter 7 In-vehicle Information System Design.............................................. 153
7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 153
7.2 The System ............................................................................ 153
7.3 Initial Pilot Studies................................................................. 158
7.3.1 Stimulus Levels ........................................................ 158
7.3.2 Route Development and Testing ............................... 159
7.3.3 Software Integration.................................................. 162
7.3.4 Setting the Thresholds and Testing the System........164
7.4 Conclusions............................................................................. 167

xi
Contents
Chapter 8 Ecological Driving with Multisensory Information.......................... 169
8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 169
8.2 Background: A Recap............................................................. 169
8.3 Experimental Aims................................................................ 172
8.4 Method.................................................................................... 174
8.4.1 Participants................................................................ 174
8.4.2 Apparatus.................................................................. 174
8.4.2.1 Driving Simulator...................................... 174
8.4.2.2 Driving Scenarios...................................... 175
8.4.2.3 Information System Functioning and
Data Capture.............................................. 175
8.4.2.4 Questionnaires........................................... 176
8.4.3 Procedure.................................................................. 177
8.5 Results.................................................................................... 179
8.5.1 Objective Measures................................................... 180
8.5.2 Subjective Measures.................................................. 189
8.6 Discussion............................................................................... 191
8.7 Conclusions.............................................................................197
Chapter 9 When to Give Those Good Vibrations..............................................199
9.1 Introduction............................................................................199
9.2 Method....................................................................................201
9.2.1 Participants................................................................201
9.2.2 Apparatus..................................................................201
9.2.2.1 Driving Simulator and In-vehicle
Information................................................201
9.2.2.2 Questionnaires...........................................202
9.2.2.3 Driving Scenarios......................................203
9.2.3 Procedure..................................................................204
9.3 Results....................................................................................205
9.3.1 Part One: Lead Time Manipulation..........................205
9.3.2 Part Two: With and without Vibrations..................... 212
9.4 Discussion............................................................................... 213
9.5 Conclusions............................................................................. 216
Chapter 10 Conclusions and Future Work........................................................... 219
10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 219
10.2 Theoretical Developments......................................................220
10.3 Methodological Implications..................................................224
10.4 Practical Implications.............................................................226
10.4.1 Introduction...............................................................226
10.4.2 Which Behaviours to Support?.................................226
10.4.3 Linking Results.........................................................228
10.4.4 Focusing on Priorities...............................................228

xii Contents
10.4.5 Testing Timings.........................................................229
10.4.6 In-vehicle Implementation.........................................230
10.5 Future Work............................................................................230
10.6 Conclusions.............................................................................234
References..............................................................................................................235
Appendix A: NASA Task Load Index – Raw TLX............................................259
Appendix B: Van Der Laan Acceptance Scale................................................... 261
Appendix C: Eco-driving Survey – Driving and the Environment.................263
Appendix D: Environmental Attitudes Inventory – Short................................273
Author Index.........................................................................................................281
Subject Index.........................................................................................................285

xiii
Preface
The work presented in this book, representing the output of five years of research,
was initially motivated by two broad factors: a belief in the society-wide need to
reduce global resource consumption, and an interest in ecological interface design,
and the skills, rules and knowledge taxonomy, to both describe human behaviour and
to inform design. At the beginning of the research journey, the low-carbon vehicle
domain (e.g. hybrid and electric vehicles) was chosen as an appropriate field within
which to address these two factors. As the reader will discover, this soon developed
into a broader eco-driving focus (i.e. the driving behaviours associated with low
energy consumption), across not only low-carbon vehicles but also road vehicles of
any type. One aim of this book, therefore, is to shed further light on this increasingly
studied topic. This is done so via the use of a variety of human factors methods; as
will be seen, some of these methods were more enlightening than others.
With regard to the theoretical motivation to the research, rather than attempt to
apply the full ecological interface design method to in-vehicle interface design, the
focus was narrowed to include only a small subset of its core principles. This led to
the exploration of the theoretical justifications for the use of in-vehicle haptic stimuli
for the support of certain in-vehicle behaviours. This book therefore provides the
interested reader with a relatively in-depth discussion of the ability of multisensory
information to support behaviour at different levels of cognitive control, a key con-
cern of the ecological interface design methodology.
Finally, this book has an additional, purely practical aim, to provide those working
in the automotive vehicle industry with advice on how to help drivers make the most
out of their vehicle’s energy reserves, in whatever form that energy may be stored.
To this end, we provide an argument for the support of anticipatory behaviours in the
vehicle, the uptake of which would not only be beneficial for fuel economy (the focus
of this book), but also for safety. The technologies required to make such a system
as that described in the latter chapters of this book are not far away, and it is now, in
the earliest stages of product development, that the application of human factors can
provide most benefit.

xv
Acknowledgements
We would first like to acknowledge the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council (EPSRC) and Jaguar Land Rover. Without their financial support this
research would not have been possible.
We must also thank Antony Wood and Louise Godwin who, at the time, were
based at the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research’s electronics workshop.
Without their help and expertise we would have had no in-vehicle system to test.
Paul Salmon and Miles Thomas at the University of the Sunshine Coast,
Queensland, also deserve considerable thanks for providing us with a significant
amount of data. Although we did not enjoy the arduous task of transcribing it, with-
out said data this book would be one chapter shorter.
And finally, to all the people who participated in the simulator studies, responded
to the survey and allowed us to interview them. We did not pay any of you for your
time, yet you still provided it – for this, we thank you. Without such people none of
this research (or, indeed, the vast majority of human-based research) would have
been possible at all. And for those in whom we induced unbearable sickness in the
simulator and had to leave early, we are sorry, and thank you for not soiling the car.

xvii
Authors
Dr Rich C. McIlroy received a BSc (Hons) degree in psychology and an MSc degree
in research methods in psychology from the University of Southampton, UK, in 2008
and 2009, respectively. He was recently awarded his engineering doctorate by the
same university, having been based in the Transportation Research Group, Faculty of
Engineering and the Environment. He has published over 16 articles across a variety
of topics including eco-driving and the effect of in-vehicle information on driving
behaviour and fuel use, the effect of multisensory information on responding, the
general utility of ecological interface design, the link between expertise develop-
ment and verbal reporting, the use of non-intrusive verbal reporting for information
acquisition, and the ability of cognitive work analysis and its various components to
support decision-making and system design in a variety of domains, from rail trans-
port to system requirements specification.
Professor Neville A. Stanton, PhD, DSc, is a chartered psychologist, chartered
ergonomist and chartered engineer. He holds the Chair in Human Factors Engineering
in the Faculty of Engineering and the Environment at the University of Southampton
in the United Kingdom. He has degrees in occupational psychology, applied psychol-
ogy and human factors engineering and has worked at the Universities of Aston,
Brunel, Cornell and MIT. His research interests include modelling, predicting,
analysing and evaluating human performance in systems as well as designing the
interfaces and interaction between humans and technology. Professor Stanton has
worked on the design of automobiles, aircraft, ships and control rooms over the past
30 years, on a variety of automation projects. He has published 35 books and over
280 journal papers on ergonomics and human factors. In 1998, he was presented
with the Institution of Electrical Engineers Divisional Premium Award for research
in system safety. The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors in the United
Kingdom awarded him the Otto Edholm Medal in 2001, the President’s Medal in
2008 and the Sir Frederic Bartlett Medal in 2012, which were awarded for his con-
tributions to basic and applied ergonomics research. The Royal Aeronautical Society
awarded him and his colleagues the Hodgson Prize in 2006 for research on design-
induced, flight-deck error published in The Aeronautical Journal. The University of
Southampton awarded him a Doctor of Science in 2014 for his sustained contribution
to the development and validation of human factors methods.

xix
Abbreviations
AA Automobile Association
ACC Automatic Cruise Control
ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance System
ADS Abstraction Decomposition Space
AH Abstraction Hierarchy
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
BA Bachelor of Arts
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BSc Bachelor of Science
BWR Boiling Water Reactor
CAN Controller Area Network
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
ConTA Control Task Analysis
CWA Cognitive Work Analysis
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change
DfT Department for Transport
DL Decision Ladder
DMI Direct Manipulation Interfaces
DURESS Dual Reservoir System Simulation
EID Ecological Interface Design
EU European Union
FIT Feedback Intervention Theory
GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education
GPS Global Positioning System
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HMI Human Machine Interface
HTA Hierarchical Task Analysis
Hz Hertz
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
ICU Intensive Care Unit
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
KBB Knowledge-Based Behaviour
KM Kilometres
KMH Kilometres per Hour
MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of Variance
MPG Miles per Gallon
MPH Miles per Hour
ORCa On Road Capability
PCM Perceptual Cycle Model
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
RBB Rule-Based Behaviour

xx Abbreviations
REEV Range-Extended Electric Vehicle
RPM Revolutions per Minute
SBB Skill-Based Behaviour
SOCA Social Organisation and Cooperation Analysis
SRK Skills, Rules and Knowledge
StrA Strategies Analysis
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UK United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
US United States (of America)
USAF United States Air Force
VPA Verbal Protocol Analysis
WCA Worker Competencies Analysis
WDA Work Domain Analysis

1
1 Introduction
1.1 BACKGROUND
The research presented in this book was motivated, in the main part, by two princi-
pal factors: (1) a belief in the necessity to protect the environment we inhabit through
the minimisation of our usage of the planet’s natural resources and (2) an interest in
the ability of a particular theoretical taxonomy to both describe human behaviour
and cognition, and to inform system design. The combination of these two motiva-
tional forces (alongside a number of other less significant, yet nonetheless important
influences) guided the overarching focus of the research presented in the coming
pages: the encouragement and support of eco-driving in the private road vehicle.
The first point above stems from the growing concern surrounding anthropomet-
rically caused climatic change (IPCC 2014), and the issue of sustainability (World
Commission on Environment and Development 1987). As shall be discussed in more
detail in subsequent chapters of this book, it is the transport domain in particular that
is lagging behind, with other sectors (e.g. domestic, industry) showing far greater
improvements in energy use and emissions reductions (Department of Energy and
Climate Change 2012a). Indeed, despite a 24% decrease in total emissions between
1990 and 2009 across the EU, transport’s emissions rose by 29% (Hill et al. 2012).
Moreover, when looking at transport’s share of resource consumption and emis-
sion volumes more closely, we find that it is private road transport that features
most highly. Across the EU in 2012, road transport accounted for 17.5% of all
greenhouse gas emissions, emissions that include those from all forms of trans-
port, industry, domestic use, agriculture, and electricity production (European
Commission 2015). Although we have seen a decrease in emission volumes over
the past 7 years, levels are still 20.5% above those seen in 1990 (ibid.).
Private road transport, that is, the cars in which we travel to and from work,
to visit relatives, or to take the kids to school (e.g.), plays an especially significant
role, accounting for more than half of all the emissions from transport in the UK
(Commission for Integrated Transport 2007). There has, in the past 5 years or so,
been a significant increase in the number of hybrid and electric vehicles registered in
the UK (Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders 2016) (Figure 1.1). In Europe
at least (The Shift Project 2015), these types of vehicles certainly contribute to
reductions in energy usage and emission volumes across their lifespan (Hawkins
et al. 2013); however, alongside opportunities, these vehicles, by nature of both their
novelty and their complexity (particularly for hybrids, in which two different fuel
systems and/or drivetrain technologies are present), give rise to a number of chal-
lenges (see Chapter 2).
There is no doubt that technological advancement, in both vehicles and infrastruc-
ture, has a huge part to play in our journey towards a fully sustainable transport system.

2 Eco-driving
This is not, however, the only way in which sustainability can be achieved, and it is
not the focus of this book. Rather, the work presented herein approaches the problem
from a behavioural perspective. The question is: how can we help people make the
behavioural changes necessary to take full advantage of these new lower-emission
technologies?
The reader will see in Chapter 2 that the initial focus of the research project
described in this book was on low-carbon technologies, namely hybrid and electric
vehicles. However, as will be discussed, simply buying a hybrid or electric car does
not automatically make for a sustainable transport system; the way in which it is
driven is also important. Of course, not driving at all is arguably the most sustain-
able way to reduce emissions; however, it is a flight of fancy to expect all drivers
to suddenly abandon their cars in favour of walking or cycling for all of their jour-
neys. A more realistic goal would be to aim for the widespread adoption of sustain-
able behaviours in the vehicle. When we consider that the average driver could save
around 10% of the fuel they use simply by modifying the way in which they drive
(Barkenbus 2010), the significance of the total potential energy and emission savings
that would result if every driver were to adopt a fuel-efficient driving style becomes
abundantly clear.
Although one could argue that the adoption of an economical driving style is
especially important in electric vehicles (given, e.g. the need to deal with the range
limitations not inherent to vehicles equipped with an internal combustion engine
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Number
of
vehicles
Year
Pure electric
Plug-in hybrid
Other hybrid
FIGURE 1.1
Total number of pure electric, plug-in hybrid, and other hybrid vehicles
(i.e. non-plug-in) registered in the UK annually. (Data from http://www.smmt.
co.uk/category/news-registration-evs-afvs)

3
Introduction
(ICE) (see Chapter 2)), such a practice can result in fuel savings in any road vehicle.
From Chapter 3 onwards, this book therefore focuses not on hybrid and electric
vehicles, but on the behaviours that characterise fuel-efficient driving in any private
road vehicle. These behaviours are collectively known as ‘eco-driving’, and are cen-
tral to this body of work. The primary question addressed in this book is how to best
encourage the uptake of such behaviours. In other words, how do we help drivers
behave in a more fuel-efficient manner when in control of the vehicle? As will be
discussed, there are a variety of ways in which this can be done, from pre-trip eco-
driving training to post-trip presentation of energy consumption figures (Barkenbus
2010). This book is focused on just one; the provision of in-vehicle information,
presented concurrently with the driving task.
In the following chapter more time is devoted to discussing the importance of
in-vehicle information design. As aforementioned, the chapter pays particular atten-
tion to low-emission vehicles, and the potential for the encouragement of new,
fuel-efficient driving habits. This is not simply a question of efficiency, but also
safety. When adding information to the in-vehicle environment, care must be taken
to ensure that it does not negatively affect performance of the primary driving task
e.g. through increasing workload or causing distraction (e.g. Harvey et al. 2011a).
The design of the information, therefore, is critical.
In the latter part of Chapter 2, ecological interface design (Rasmussen and Vicente
1989; Vicente and Rasmussen 1992) is introduced, and argued to be a potentially
promising method for the design of an in-vehicle information system. We will not
go into great detail here in describing the method; significant time is devoted to the
topic in later chapters. For the purposes of this introductory chapter, however, it is
useful to outline its core principles, and how these have shaped this research project.
Ecological interface design is partly based on the skills, rules and knowledge
taxonomy of human behaviour (Rasmussen 1983), the theoretical taxonomy alluded
to in this chapter’s opening paragraph. The three terms describe the levels of cogni-
tive control with which an actor interacts with the environment; skill-based behav-
iour involves automatic, direct interaction; rule-based behaviour involves associating
familiar perceptual cues in the environment with stored rules for action and intent;
knowledge-based behaviour involves analytical problem-solving based on symbolic
reasoning and stored mental models. The ecological interface design method aims to
produce an interface that supports behaviour at all three levels of cognitive control,
by supporting interaction via time-space signals (for skill-based behaviour), by pro-
viding consistent mapping between constraints in the environment and cues at the
interface (for rule-based behaviour), and by representing the system’s structure via
an externalised mental model (for knowledge-based behaviour).
In the early stages of this project, ecological interface design was considered as an
appropriate methodology for the design of in-vehicle systems for alternative drivetrain
vehicles due to its ability to help in the design of systems that support the development
of accurate mental models of complex systems, allowing for behaviour at all three
levels of cognitive control. As the research progressed, however, the focus shifted away
from low-carbon vehicles specifically, and also began to concentrate on the first of
the design method’s three principles; to support interaction via time-space signals in
order to encourage behaviour at the skill-based level. This shift was inspired, in part,

4 Eco-driving
by research reported by Birrell, Young and colleagues (Birrell, Fowkes, et al. 2014;
Birrell and Young 2011; Young et al. 2011). These articles reported on an in-vehicle
interface, designed using the principles of ecological interface design, which not only
attempted to display domain constraints, but also to provide information on the specific
ways in which drivers could alter their behaviour to improve safety and fuel economy.
This concept, of guiding the fuel-efficient behaviours themselves (as opposed to
attempting to provide an externalised model of the system), gave direction to the infor-
mation gathering activities and experimental work presented in Chapters 6 to 9 of
this book. As shall be discussed in the coming chapters, the expert eco-driver per-
forms the task in a way that approaches automaticity, that is, they are performing at
the skill-based level of cognitive control. One of the questions that guided the design
of the information system described in Chapter 7, and the design of the experiment
described in Chapter 8, was whether or not vibrotactile information, presented at the
site of control (see Chapters 5 and 6), can support this type of responding in the novice
eco-driver, that is, can it support eco-driving behaviours at the skill-based level of cog-
nitive control? Not only did this present some interesting practical questions (regarding
the actual fuel saved with use of such a system, and the acceptance of that system by
participants), but also presented a number of theoretical issues regarding the ways in
which multisensory individuals interact with their multi-modal environment.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this research project was to investigate the potential for in-vehicle
information to support eco-driving in the road vehicle (be that a fully electric vehicle,
a hybrid, or one equipped only with an ICE) in a way that neither increases workload
nor distracts the driver from the primary driving task and, additionally, in a way
that drivers are willing to accept and use. It is important to state that this research is
not an investigation of the psychophysiological effects of stimuli of differing inten-
sities and frequencies, nor is it a technically focused description of the algorithms
and computations required to integrate information from radar, GPS or a vehicle’s
CAN bus in order to provide stimuli for the encouragement of eco-driving. For more
information regarding the first of these research areas the reader is directed to work
by, for example, Michael Griffin and colleagues of the University of Southampton’s
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research (Forta et al. 2011; Gu and Griffin 2012). For
the integration of topographical and digital map data with sensor and engine data, the
reader is referred to work surrounding Continental’s eHorizon project (Continental
2015). This project involves the optimisation of engine control, transmission control
and, importantly, driver assistance systems, via the use of information regarding the
stretch of road ahead of the vehicle (Varnhagen and Korthaus 2010).
The research presented in this book is an investigation of the effects on human
behaviour, and on system acceptance, of the kinds of in-vehicle information that
are either currently available, or that are likely to be possible in the near future and,
additionally, of how best to present that information. Furthermore, there was an aim
to investigate the potential for in-vehicle information provided at the site of control
(i.e. through the accelerator pedal, as will be revealed in the latter half of this book)
to support skill-based behaviour in the novice eco-driver. This first aspect, simply to

5
Introduction
encourage fuel-efficient use of the vehicle, provides the more practically focused side
of this book; the second aspect, related to the skills, rules and knowledge taxonomy,
presents the theoretical aspect.
1.3 BOOK OUTLINE
This book is organised into 10 chapters, this introductory chapter being the first.
Below, each of the remaining nine chapters is introduced in turn.
Chapter 2: Design, Behaviour and Energy Use
This provides the backdrop to the book by bringing together various strands of
research, including the effect of the design of a technological object on behaviour,
the inter-related nature of goals and feedback in guiding performance, the effect
on fuel economy of different driving styles, and the various challenges brought
about by hybrid and electric vehicles including range anxiety, workload and dis-
traction, complexity and novelty. This chapter also introduces ecological interface
design, arguing it to be well suited to deal with the novelty of the low-carbon vehicle,
particularly through its ability to support the development of accurate mental models
of the system. The discussion is couched in terms of the support of energy-efficient
use of the vehicle.
Chapter 3: Driving and the Environment: An Exploratory Survey Study
This chapter is concerned with the general public’s knowledge and perceptions
of eco-driving as a practice, their awareness of and propensity to perform specific
eco-driving behaviours, and the relationships these variables have with demograph-
ics (both general and driving-specific) and environmental attitudes. A survey of 321
respondents revealed that the majority are aware of eco-driving and have a posi-
tive attitude towards it; however, knowledge of the specific behavioural strategies
for fuel-efficient driving was not high. Although relationships were found between
energy use attitudes and both knowledge of and propensity to perform eco-driving
behaviours, these relationships were weak.
Chapter 4: Verbal Reports: An Exploratory On-road Study
In order to begin to understand the actual behaviours exhibited, and cognitive
structures held by individual drivers, Ericsson and Simon’s verbal protocol analy-
sis technique (Ericsson and Simon 1980, 1993) was applied in an on-road setting.
Twenty participants each drove a 15 to 20 minute route, during which they were
required to ‘think aloud’. The transcripts of 19 of these participants were tran-
scribed verbatim and a coding scheme iteratively developed, partly based on theory
(i.e. top-down), partly on the content of the transcripts themselves (i.e. bottom-up).
The coding scheme was then applied to all the transcripts, thereby categorising each
identifiable unit of speech into the various codes. Objective vehicle data were also
recorded, at 10 Hz, and included measures such as vehicle speed and accelerator
pedal position. Although every effort was made to link objectively measured driving
behaviours with the content of the transcripts, no relationships could be found.
Chapter 5: Two Decades of Ecological Interface Design, and the Importance of
the SRK Taxonomy
In a momentary departure from the driving focus of the book, this chapter deals
only with ecological interface design, providing a review of the past two decades

6 Eco-driving
of the method’s applications published in the academic literature. The method is
described in more detail, and the importance of the skills, rules and knowledge
(SRK) taxonomy to the framework is specifically discussed following the finding
that 40% of reviewed applications do not cite this component, despite its centrality
to the method.
Chapter 6: A Decision Ladder Analysis of Eco-driving: The First Step Towards
Fuel-efficient Driving Behaviour
This chapter draws heavily on the SRK taxonomy in a decision ladder analysis
of eco-driving, discussing results in terms of how this can inform the design of an
in-vehicle, eco-driving support system. A review was conducted of the academic lit-
erature, and of more publicly available resources (i.e. free to access, those not requir-
ing subscription), identifying four largely distinct driving activities that each play a
central role in the use of fuel in the private road vehicle. A focus group involving
four researchers in the transport ergonomics field, followed by a series of five inter-
views with eco-driving experts, served to validate, supplement and further specify
the models.
Chapter 7: In-vehicle Information System Design
Based on the arguments arising from the decision ladder analysis of eco-driving
presented in Chapter 6, a system was developed that aimed to encourage fuel-
efficient driving in the novice eco-driver; this chapter describes the design process of
that system, and the resulting components and functions. The chapter also provides
information regarding the Southampton University driving simulator, and presents
results of the pilot testing of the system and of the driving scenarios that were to be
used in the experiment described in Chapter 8.
Chapter 8: Ecological Driving with Multisensory Information
This chapter presents the first experimental evaluation of the in-vehicle eco-
driving support system described in Chapter 7. Behaviour when driving ‘normally’
was compared to that exhibited when participants were asked to drive economi-
cally, and to that exhibited when provided with feedback in three sensory modes
(audition, vision, touch), individually and in all combinations thereof. Results sug-
gested that participants were already largely aware that harsh acceleration is to be
avoided when eco-driving; however, significantly greater coasting distances (when
approaching slowing events) were seen only under conditions of feedback. Few dif-
ferences were seen between the different sensory modes and combinations; how-
ever, for some measures visual-only information was shown to be less effective than
combinations involving auditory and vibrotactile stimuli. Although it encouraged
compliance, the auditory stimulus was not well received by participants. Results are
discussed in terms of the ability of feedback in different sensory modes to support
eco-driving in different drivers, and in relation to the SRK taxonomy.
Chapter 9: When to Give Those Good Vibrations
In the second experimental analysis of the eco-driving support system, only hap-
tic (vibrotactile) information was investigated. The research presented in this chapter
had a more practical focus (rather than theoretical), and investigated only the encour-
agement of coasting when approaching slowing or stopping events. The simulator
study assessed the effects of three different time-to-event stimulus timings on objec-
tive driving performance, and on subjective measures of acceptance, ease of use

7
Introduction
and intention to use. The shortest time-to-event had a marginally damaging effect
on performance, and was not well received by participants. Both medium and long
time-to-event stimuli performed well on subjective measures, and both facilitated
increased eco-driving performance. The longest lead-time stimulus was the most
effective, resulting in 11% fuel savings compared to baseline. Findings are discussed
in terms of the importance of the timing of information, and regarding the need for
longer-term research on the potential effects of system failure on performance and
safety.
Chapter 10: Conclusions
The final chapter of this book summarises the work undertaken and described in
the preceding eight chapters. Methodological, practical and theoretical contributions
are outlined, implications of the research are discussed, and avenues for future work
are suggested.
1.4 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
The work presented in the coming chapters contributes, to varying degrees, to our
understanding of eco-driving as a means for reducing the impact of road transport on
the environment, to the literature concerning haptic information in the vehicle, and
to the theory underlying the first of ecological interface design’s three principles; to
support skill-based behaviour with time-space signals. Regarding the first point, it
was already clear from the existing literature that eco-driving can have a significant,
beneficial effect on energy use in the vehicle. The research described in this book
adds to extant knowledge by demonstrating the effectiveness of a method by which
these benefits might be realised; namely, to provide information that directly sup-
ports smoother acceleration profiles and increased coasting behaviours (two behav-
iours identified in this book to be of particular significance in eco-driving). This is
in contrast to the majority of previous research that provides feedback regarding
current energy usage levels, or information detailing the vehicle’s remaining energy
reserves. Results of the experimental work (Chapters 8 and 9) led to the further sug-
gestion that focusing solely on the support of coasting may be more suitable (in terms
of acceptance and effectiveness) than attempting to support both enhanced coasting
behaviours and smooth acceleration.
With regard to the second point above, this book adds to the body of knowledge
surrounding the effects of accelerator-based haptic feedback in the vehicle by com-
paring the effects of information presented across different sensory modes. Though
such comparisons have, in the past, been made between haptic and visual infor-
mation, this book goes further by also looking at auditory information, suggesting
that vibrotactile information is as effective as auditory (in encouraging compliance;
visual being less effective), but with far higher user acceptance. This book also
investigates a vibrotactile haptic stimulus rather than force- or stiffness-feedback,
methods far more commonly reported in the literature. Additionally, the timing of
the coasting advice, that is, the distance ahead of a slowing event at which informa-
tion suggesting removal of the foot from the accelerator pedal is presented, is shown
to be important for both system effectiveness (in reducing fuel consumption) and for
user acceptance.

8 Eco-driving
Finally, in terms of the contributions to the ecological interface design and SRK
theory, this book provides a thorough review of the past two decades of the design
method’s applications, argues for the importance of the SRK framework as a funda-
mental part of the method, and significantly furthers the discussion of the ability of
haptic information, provided at the site of control, to support behaviour at different
levels of cognitive control. This final point is of particular significance when we con-
sider that the vast majority of research surrounding ecological interface design, and
indeed the SRK taxonomy, be it theoretical or applied, focuses almost exclusively on
visual interfaces (with a small number of notable exceptions, as will be discussed).
Although results from the experiments described in the latter part of this book can-
not definitively answer all of the questions arising from the discussions presented
herein, headway has been made.

9
2 Design, Behaviour
and Energy Use
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Despite a small number of sceptics (Reser et al. 2011), it is now largely accepted that
anthropometric sources, that is, humans past and present, are the primary cause of
the earth’s rising temperature (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007).
We, as a 7 billion-strong collection of energy-using individuals, are constantly con-
suming more and more energy and resources to satisfy our daily needs, and the
planet cannot indefinitely support our current level of resource usage let alone pro-
jected future consumption rates should prevailing trends continue (International
Energy Authority 2012).
With this in mind, the aim of this chapter is to bring to attention an important
avenue for the mitigation of climate change and the reduction in both the usage of
resources and the emission of environmentally damaging by-products; namely, the
design of technological objects, specifically battery-only, and hybrid–electric private
road vehicles. The review is intended to highlight the importance of the manner in
which these technological objects are used, and how ergonomics can be applied not
only to support safety and enhance usability, but also to encourage reductions in
energy consumption (and, in turn, waste production).
Transport’s role in the global warming issue will be examined, followed by a
discussion on the influence of design on behaviour, both generally and, more specifi-
cally, in terms of vehicle usage. The usability and safety of in-vehicle systems will be
discussed, followed by a brief examination of a particular analysis and design frame-
work that can offer the basis from which to design a driver–vehicle interface that will
ensure usability and encourage energy conservation behaviours while not detracting
from the goal of ensuring safety. First, it is important to provide some background
information regarding our overuse of the planet’s resources.
2.2 SUSTAINABILITY AND TRANSPORT
The issue of sustainability does not only concern our environment’s ability to
provide resources, but also its ability to absorb waste (World Commission on
Environment and Development 1987). It is primarily the emission of the waste
product carbon dioxide (CO2 – the by-product of using fossil fuels as a primary
energy source), emitted in volumes that our environmental system does not have
the capacity to absorb, that is causing the observed increases in our environment’s
temperature (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007). As of 2011,

10 Eco-driving
petroleum accounted for 48% of total final energy consumption in the UK
(Figure 2.1; Department of Energy and Climate Change 2012a). Though progress
has been made in other sectors (e.g. industry, domestic, commercial), transport is
lagging behind in sustainability terms.
For example, though CO2 emissions from non-transport sources fell by almost
23% between 1990 and 2010, emissions from the UK transport sector increased
marginally (Department of Energy and Climate Change 2012b). The issue is espe-
cially relevant for private transport given that, in the UK, 54% of all transport’s
carbon emissions (including those from air, rail, shipping and all private and
commercial road transport) were produced by cars (Figure 2.2; Commission for
Integrated Transport 2007).
The importance of road transport cannot be underestimated; it ‘underpins our
way of life’ (King 2007, 3), supporting the high level of personal mobility to which
the vast majority of us have become accustomed. Not only do we rely on the road
transport system to get us around, we specifically design our built environment
based on the constraints of road vehicles. Furthermore, private road transport still
offers the only form of motorised travel that transports us from door to door, is
entirely flexible regarding departure time and destination, and is often the fastest
mode for distances up to 500 km (Damiani et al. 2009).
Transport
sector 37½%
Natural gas
29½%
Other 4½%
By fuel
By user
Other final
users 11½%
Other
industries
17½%
Domestic sector
26½%
Electricity
18½%
Petroleum
48%
Non-energy use
6%
Iron and steel
industry 1%
FIGURE 2.1 Breakdown of final energy consumption in the UK in 2011. Note that ‘fuel’
refers to the final way in which energy is consumed by the user, hence the inclusion of

electricity. (Adapted from Department of Energy and Climate Change, Digest of United
Kingdom energy statistics, The Stationary Office, London, 2012a.)

11
Design, Behaviour and Energy Use
Though we may be able to encourage people to make fewer journeys (e.g. by
encouraging working from home), and to improve public transport services through
investment, our reliance on private road transport, and indeed the fundamental
requirement for travel as a whole, makes it unrealistic to assume that this will be
sufficient. Indeed, as Stanton et al. (2012) describe, the removal of the barriers to
modal shift (i.e. getting drivers and passengers out of the private motor vehicle and
on to public transport) is a highly complex, multifaceted issue that will not be easily
remedied. It is therefore apparent that if we are to achieve the 80% reduction in CO2
emissions posited by the UK Government (in their 2008 Climate Change Act) as
necessary to avoid the most serious consequences of increasing the earth’s tempera-
ture [both environmentally (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007) and
economically (Garnaut 2011; Stern 2006)] we will have to enact a wide variety of
mitigation strategies. Hence the burgeoning interest in the electrification of private
road transport.
2.3 SUSTAINABILITY AND ERGONOMICS
Technological advancement is of course a crucial part of reducing fossil fuel

reliance; however, it is not the only challenge. We must also have behavioural
change (Stern 2006). One avenue for the encouragement of this change is through
the design of products. Consider this: consumers’ behaviour is shaped by the
product they are using, and the product they are using has been designed with a
UK Air
2%
UK
Shipping
3%
Other 1%
Railways
2%
Buses
3%
Vans
13%
Lorries
22% Cars
54%
FIGURE 2.2 Transport emissions by mode in the UK. (Adapted from Commission for
Integrated Transport, Transport and Climate Change, The Stationary Office, London, 2007.)

12 Eco-driving
particular activity in mind (Stanton and Baber 1998). Design, therefore, shapes
behaviour. In technical objects, the use phase of an item is often where the most
significant environmental impact occurs (Lockton et al. 2008b); hence interaction
design provides an avenue for energy or waste reduction (Lockton et al. 2008b).
This is particularly significant in the transport domain, given that the vast major-
ity of emissions and energy usage occurs at the point of use; life cycle analyses
(i.e. those considering production, use and disposal) suggest that, for road vehicles,
76% of CO2 emissions and 80%–90% of energy use can be attributed to the burn-
ing of fuel in an internal combustion engine (ICE) (Organisation of Economic
Cooperation and Development 1993; see also Hawkins et al. 2013 for life cycle
considerations of both traditional and low-carbon vehicles).
The connection between ergonomics and sustainability has been discussed by a
number of academics within the domain, for example: Flemming et al. (2008) with
their call for the application of ergonomics to sustainability; Martin et al. (2012) with
their discussion on designing for sustainability; and Thatcher (2012) with his essay
on ‘green ergonomics’ and the alignment of the goals of ergonomics with those of
environmental sustainability. Although these discussions may not have been specifi-
cally targeted at transport, it has been recognised that the electric and hybrid vehicle
domain offers a promising avenue for research and innovation:
HMI [human–machine interaction] and driver information in EVs is the new frontier
that automobile designers should have their hands on’ J.Mays, Ford Vice President of
Global Design. (Automotive Design 2010)
2.4 THE CHANGING NATURE OF THE DRIVING TASK
In the (distant) past, to operate a car a user had only to interact with the steering
wheel and the pedals (once the engine was running); now the situation is quite dif-
ferent. Car driving is not only about mobility but comfort, enjoyment, and status
(Walker et al. 2001a). Technology is rapidly changing in vehicles; hence information
exchange between the driver, the vehicle, and the environment is of critical impor-
tance now more than ever before, especially when considering ever-increasing safety
standards and user expectations (Harvey and Stanton 2013).
Of course, the growing complexity of in-car technology means interface design
requires careful consideration, especially with the inclusion of in-car entertainment,
satellite navigation, and various driver assistance systems (Harvey and Stanton
2013; Kujala and Saariluoma 2011); however, the complexity does not stop there.
Nonconventional drivetrain vehicles, that is, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), range extended electric vehicles (REEVs), and
battery electric vehicles (BEVs), bring with them further layers of complexity; most
involve more than one fuel system, and some are equipped with more than one drive-
train. Importantly, these new layers of complexity, and the human–machine interac-
tion (HMI) issues they raise, have as yet received relatively little attention in the
extant literature. Thus the challenge is to develop HMI design guidance that not only
deals with the novelty and complexity inherent in modern, nonconventional drivetrain
vehicles, but influences drivers to choose more energy-efficient driving behaviours.

13
2.5 DESIGN AND PERSUASION
Before discussing vehicle-specific HMI design a broad exploration of some general
design philosophies is merited, in particular those design methods explicitly intend-
ing to influence behaviour.
The design of a technological product or system will influence users’ perceptions
of that system, and, as aforementioned, products are designed with specific activities
in mind (Stanton and Baber 1998). To begin with, the designer of a technology must
consider not only his or her own needs, but the needs of all potential users (Harvey
et al. 2011a). Though this may sound relatively obvious it is important to bear in
mind that people have a tendency to believe that their own needs and perceptions of
a system are equally applicable to everyone else (Landauer 1997). It is also necessary
to understand that technology design not only needs to be, but inherently is persua-
sive; this inherent persuasion, however, may not always be something which design-
ers explicitly consider (Redström 2006), thus we need to acknowledge, explore, and
understand it.
The acknowledgement that any technology design is necessarily persuasive, in
that it guides (or persuades) a user to behave in a particular way with said technol-
ogy, leads to the notion of intention. Fogg (2003) stated that intention is a character-
istic feature of persuasion and that technology will always change what users think
and do. Lockton et al. (2008a, 2008b, 2010) describe a similar philosophy in their
discussion of the ‘design with intent’ method, an approach to design that explicitly
recognises the intention to influence behaviour inherent in design. For example, a
product’s interaction means or sequence can be designed in such a way as to make
users aware of their choices and the consequences of those choices; it is argued that
this will have an effect on user behaviour. A simple example offered in Lockton
et al. (2008a) is the two-button toilet flush used to bring water usage to the conscious
attention of the user.
It is also possible to affect behaviour through goal setting and information provi-
sion. The aim here is to affect people’s knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and intentions;
the determinants of behaviour (Ajzen 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). According to
Abrahamse et al. (2005) energy use intervention strategies are more effective if they
target these behavioural determinants. Abrahamse et al. (2005) argued that there are
two primary types of behaviour intervention strategy relating to energy use; anteced-
ent strategies and consequence strategies. Antecedent strategies encompass methods
that involve providing an individual with information before the behaviour in ques-
tion is performed. Consequence strategies involve punishing or rewarding certain
behaviours after they have occurred. Feedback provision falls in the latter category.
Individuals have perceived self-efficacy as a change in behaviour results in a change
in subsequent feedback.
The effect of feedback (i.e. an indication of the consequences of a person’s
actions) on performance has long been recognised in the field of psychology
(Ammons 1956; Bilodeau and Bilodeau 1961). It has been suggested, however, that
knowledge of the consequences of behaviour is not a sufficient condition for effec-
tive performance; feedback and an individual’s goals interact to steer performance
(Erez 1977). In early work, Locke and colleagues found that the effect of feedback

14 Eco-driving
on performance is mediated by an individual’s goals and intentions (Locke 1967,
1968; Locke and Bryan 1968, 1969a, 1969b). An interesting point to note here
is that the goals driving behaviour do not necessarily have to be self-set; people
provided with a goal that they had no part in developing still demonstrate energy
conservation behaviours when supplied with feedback (Erez 1977; McCalley and
Midden 2002).
Regardless of the reasoning behind, or source of an individual’s energy sav-
ing goal, it is possible that the feedback itself prompts goal activation, without the
need for explicitly drawing attention to the requirement for energy conservation.
According to the feedback intervention theory (Kluger and DeNisi 1996) feedback
directs an individual’s attention to a goal, and a specific goal level. Goals can be
described in terms of the different levels of behaviour to which they apply. For
example, a person may have a high-level, over-arching goal of wanting to be eco-
friendly. The goal of wanting to use less energy on a particular car journey is a
low-level goal – it is specific to the task at hand. McCalley (2006) furthered the dis-
cussion arguing that goals must be specific and task related (rather than high level)
in order to affect task-specific behaviour. For example, to reduce energy use while
driving, activating the goal of ‘I want to be eco-friendly’ is not sufficient; a specific
driving-related goal must be activated (McCalley 2006).
It is critical to understand the interconnectedness of goals and feedback if we are
to take advantage of them in encouraging sustainable driving behaviour through
design. According to the goal-setting theory (Locke and Latham 2002) a goal
can only be effectively reached if appropriate feedback is provided such that the
individual can know where they stand in relation to that specific goal (Locke and
Latham 2002).
2.6 ENERGY USE BEHAVIOURS IN VEHICLES
Considering the aforementioned importance of user behaviour on energy usage
(Lockton et al. 2008b; Zachrisson and Boks 2010), and given that this is particularly
significant in the vehicle domain (Hawkins et al. 2013; Organisation of Economic
Cooperation and Development 1993), it is important to look at how energy use in
a driving situation can be affected by information provision and the activation of
energy-related goals.
That a person’s driving style can have a large effect on the energy use and emissions
levels of the vehicle (Barkenbus 2010; Holmén and Niemeier 1998) is not a recently
discovered effect; in 1979 Leonard Evans found that reducing acceleration levels and
driving ‘gently’ in a real world setting resulted in a 14% fuel saving. This fuel sav-
ing was achieved without increasing trip time (Evans 1979). Similarly, Waters and
Laker (1980) asked participants to drive ‘economically’ around a track on a second
session of driving. After accounting for speed reductions (it seemed that some people
assumed ‘economical’ equated to ‘slow’) a 15% fuel saving was demonstrated. Both
of these studies demonstrated fuel savings using only the activation of a goal, that
is, to use less energy, without the inclusion of feedback tools additional to the estab-
lished driving environment (e.g. engine sounds, tachometer readings, perceptions of
acceleration and deceleration).

15
In an early study by Hinton et al. (cited in Van der Voort et al. 2001) a driver sup-
port tool providing fuel use feedback was specifically examined; however, unlike
the Evans, and Waters and Laker studies, only very small, insignificant fuel savings
were brought about. The reason for this lack of effect was put down to inaccurate
information that was often untimely, contradictory, and unclear (Van der Voort et al.
2001). Furthermore, the tools were considered to be distracting and were largely
ignored. This highlights the fact that the presence of a driver support tool is not a
sufficient condition for fuel conservation; the design of the tool must be carefully
considered.
Designing a fuel-efficiency support tool requires attention to be paid not only to
usability and aesthetics, but also to information content. Hooker (1988) found that
gear shifting, speed choice, and acceleration and deceleration were the elements of
driving behaviour that had the largest effect on fuel economy. Thus Van der Voort
et al. (2001) investigated the efficacy of a prototype fuel-efficiency support tool that
provided online feedback and advice to drivers based on these driving elements.
Following on from the shortcomings of the Hinton et al. (cited in Van der Voort
et al. 2001) study, Van der Voort and colleagues argued that a support tool must take
into account the spatial and temporal context of the vehicle and must not be distract-
ing. The support tool developed in the study was tested in a simulated environment
with promising results. Participants provided with the tool and asked to drive as
efficiently as possible achieved a 7% additional fuel saving over those participants
without a feedback device (i.e. goal activation only). In a purely urban simulated
environment this additional fuel saving rose to 14% (Van der Voort et al. 2001).
The studies presented thus far have all investigated fuel economy in ICE vehicles.
While results from such research are highly informative it is necessary to look also
at work in the hybrid and electric vehicle domain. For example, Bingham et al. (2012)
highlighted the importance of driving style in electric vehicles. In this study the
authors found that there can be as much as a ~30% difference in energy consumption
between moderate and aggressive driving styles (Bingham et al. 2012). Moreover, as
Kim et al. (2011) pointed out, range anxiety, and the lack of infrastructure and fast-
charge options associated with electric vehicles mean drivers have a higher motiva-
tion to drive efficiently and to conserve as much energy as possible. In their study
Kim et al. (2011) found that drivers presented with a visual representation of their
acceleration behaviours (Figure 2.3) presented milder, more stable accelerator pedal
usage and lower energy consumption than those without the feedback. This is of par-
ticular significance considering Cocron et al.’s finding that different driving styles
have a much larger impact on fuel efficiency in vehicles with electric powertrains
that in ICE vehicles (Cocron et al. 2011).
While Kim and colleagues were looking at power flows, Burgess et al. (2011)
were investigating the option of displaying the number of miles left in the battery.
In their simulator-based study, people were found to drive more economically with
the display than without it (Burgess et al. 2011). This type of display also presents
to the driver the added benefit in electric and hybrid vehicles of regenerative brak-
ing, the uptake of energy otherwise lost when applying the brakes. An issue here,
however, is unfamiliarity; participants needed to adapt to the unfamiliar displays
and to adopt a new style of braking. Furthermore the driving style is not the only

16 Eco-driving
influence on the range of the battery; weather (particularly temperature) and road
conditions also have large effects on battery performance (Burgess et al. 2011).
A further issue to consider is that of driver preferences: what type of guidance
would people want to have, and how do they think it would affect their driving? For
an individual to continually use a driver support system they must have a favourable
opinion of it, otherwise they are liable to ignore it, or (if possible) switch it off. In a
questionnaire-based study, Fricke and Sheißl (2010) found that respondents preferred
the option of assistive visual information to that of direct intervention. An example
of a direct intervention is the inclusion of resistance in the accelerator pedal to indi-
cate overly rapid levels of acceleration; this was investigated in Larsson and Ericsson
(2009), and although less rapid acceleration was encouraged, no
significant reduction
in fuel use was found. Accelerator-based haptic feedback was also investigated by
Mulder et al. (2008); however, while improvements in car-following performance
were found (in terms of safety), energy efficiency was not investigated (Adell and
Várhelyi 2008). Whether one form of information is more effective at supporting
economical driving than another, however, remains to be seen.
Although it has been suggested that drivers would welcome the introduction
of pretrip, in-car, and posttrip eco-driving advice (Trommer and Höltl 2012),
Stillwater and Kurani (2011) found that people with experience of the different
tools prefer online, in-car feedback over offline, historical fuel use data (though
this study did not investigate pretrip planning tools). Participants stated that in-car
advice had more of an effect on their fuel use behaviours than offline information
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 2.3. Power flow gauge investigated by Kim et al. 2011 (original in colour);
(a) low acceleration, displayed to participants in green, (b) medium acceleration displayed to
participants in amber, (c) high acceleration displayed to participants in red. (Adapted from
Kim, S., et al., Human-Computer Interaction, Part III, HCII 2011, LNCS 6763, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2011.)

17
(Stillwater and Kurani 2011); this finding can be explained using research show-
ing that the closer, and the more often a reinforcement follows a behaviour, the
stronger the stimulus–response relation becomes (Jager 2003). Lockton et al.
(2008b), in their discussion of design with intent (their aforementioned design
approach), also make this point; for behavioural adaption to be successful, feed-
back should be immediate.
Keeping drivers engaged in a system such that they will continue to use it and
therefore show continued reductions in energy use can be partly achieved by con-
sidering subjective preferences like those outlined above; however, these may not
be sufficient on their own. An adaptive system may provide a further means for
maintaining eco-driving (see www.ecodrive.org) motivations. Wada et al. (2011)
examined such a system. The feedback tool displayed to participants in the study
responded to participants’ behaviour inasmuch as the stringency with which
economical driving was judged increased as drivers’ eco-driving performance
increased. Across 5 days of testing, participants with the adaptive tool achieved
the highest energy savings compared to those with a nonadaptive tool, and to those
without a tool (Wada et al. 2011). The authors argued that through adapting to
drivers’ skill the motivation for economical driving was maintained, resulting in
continuous improvement in fuel economy. Participants were engaged as they could
see themselves improving, an issue related to self-efficacy; they could maintain the
challenge (Wada et al. 2011).
2.7 SAFETY AND USABILITY
An informative, aesthetically pleasing tool with which individuals are engaged and
enjoy using may help to encourage efficient, environmentally-friendly driving styles,
but that does not necessarily mean it will be appropriate for use in vehicles on the
road. The practice of hypermiling (see www.hypermiler.co.uk) provides an interest-
ing example of where a range of behaviours that have a significantly positive effect
on energy conservation are not necessarily advisable due to safety reasons. Although
overinflating tyres, turning off the engine and freewheeling downhill, and drafting
as close as possible to the vehicle in front in order to make use of the slipstream may
be beneficial activities for reducing fuel consumption, they present a trade-off in
terms of road safety (Barkenbus 2010; Edmunds.com 2009).
The driving task is highly complex, comprising over 1600 separate tasks (Walker
et al. 2001b). Being the safety-critical domain it is, the addition of more information
to an already complex array of in-car systems should be very carefully considered
if we are to avoid increasing workload and distraction, both of which are causal
factors for accidents (Birrell and Young 2011; Pradhan et al. 2011). Take the Wada
et al. (2011) study described above; although subjective workload ratings decreased
with time in the control and nonadaptive display groups, those with the adaptive tool
demonstrated higher workload scores. Importantly, these scores did not decrease
with time. This may be problematic; people have limited cognitive resources, and
as such, if the nondriving task demands increase (such as can happen when required
to attend to an additional ‘eco’ display), attentional resources for other tasks may
decrease (Wickens and Carswell 1997). This could result in the possibility that the

18 Eco-driving
concurrent feedback will interfere with ongoing task performance, a principle that
has been demonstrated both within and outside the driving domain (Arroyo et al.
2006; Corbett and Anderson 2001; Stanton et al. 2011). Furthermore, Groeger (2000)
describes driving as a goal-directed task, with multiple goals (e.g. speed, safety,
economy) active simultaneously that at any point in time may be in conflict with
each other. Highlighting the importance of economy goals may, therefore, have a
detrimental effect on performance in other aspects of driving, for example safety.
Despite the possibility of conflict arising in the driving task, safe driving and
economical driving do have significant overlaps (Young et al. 2011). Aggressive driv-
ing is seen as both dangerous (Young et al. 2011) and uneconomical (Ericsson 2001)
due to characteristically high acceleration and deceleration rates, high engine speed,
and power demands. It is possible then to encourage both safe and economical driv-
ing through supporting eco-driving; for example, Hedges and Moss (1996) showed
that after supplying eco-training to Parcelforce van drivers accident rates dropped
by 40% and fuel efficiency increased by 50%. Moreover, Haworth and Symmons
(2001) demonstrated a 35% reduction in accident rates alongside reductions in fuel
consumption (11%) and emission volumes (up to 50%) following similar training.
Although these studies demonstrate some of the joint benefits of certain driving
styles, they are both examples of antecedent strategies, that is they both employed
pretask driver training, not concurrent feedback, thus they do not address the issue
of distraction, a point noted by Haworth and Symmons (2001).
The distractive qualities of an in-car information system have been investigated
by a number of researchers (Donmez et al. 2007; Harms and Patten 2003; Horberry
et al. 2006, 2008; Lansdown et al. 2004; Reyes and Lee 2008), yet research pri-
marily considering eco-feedback distraction effects is less abundant. As aforemen-
tioned, Wada et al. (2011) considered workload in their investigation of an adaptive
cofeedback interface; however, this was relatively limited in its appraisal of distrac-
tion in that subjective workload scores were obtained only through questionnaires,
not direct measurements of distraction. A study by Birrell and Young (2011; see
also Young and Birrell 2012) did directly assess the impact on both fuel use and
safety in an investigation of two versions of a smart driving tool, that is, a device
that offers advice both on eco-driving matters (e.g. acceleration and deceleration
rapidity) and on safety (e.g. lane departure, headway information). They found that
participants with access to in-vehicle feedback displayed fewer speeding behaviours
and fewer instances of aggressive acceleration and braking, beneficial for both safety
and economy. Furthermore, drivers with the in-vehicle feedback also exhibited safer
headway maintenance behaviours. These results were all obtained without signifi-
cant increases in driver distraction. When investigating the efficacy with which
participants performed a peripheral detection task while driving, Birrell and Young
(2011) found that those with one of the two in-vehicle feedback systems investigated
performed significantly better in an urban driving scenario, with no significant dif-
ferences in other scenarios or with the other interface design. That the researchers
examined two different interfaces again highlights the importance of the way in
which information is presented; not only was one design superior in terms of the
peripheral detection task results, that same design received significantly lower sub-
jective workload ratings (Birrell and Young 2011).

19
It is clear that the way in which an interface is designed can have huge implica-
tions on its ability to elicit target behaviours, its acceptance by users, and its propen-
sity to cause distraction and confusion. Results from Van der Voort et al.’s (2001)
study, described above, led the authors to describe a set of user requirements for a
fuel-efficiency support tool:
• Clear, accurate, non-contradictory information
• Account for the context in which the car is situated
• Not interfere with the driving task
• Work in urban and nonurban environments
Similar sentiments were put forward by Harvey et al. (2011a) for the design of

in-vehicle information systems (IVIS). For such systems one of the main priorities
must be to minimise conflicts with the primary driving task, thus reducing the likeli-
hood of distraction. When designing such a system complexity is a major issue; that
the driving context is highly complex necessarily means designing for usability in
the driving context will be complex (Fastrez and Haué 2008). As such, the usability
of an in-vehicle system must be defined specifically for the context of use (Harvey
and Stanton 2012; Harvey et al. 2011a), and to test such a system requires repeated
usability evaluations at different stages of the development process (Mitsopoulos-
Rubens et al. 2011), with a variety of evaluation methods for example focus groups,
user tests, and expert evaluations, including both subjective and objective usability
measures (Harvey et al. 2011a; Tango and Montanari 2006).
2.8
ERGONOMICS AND THE DESIGN OF
LOW-CARBON VEHICLE HMIs
The discussion up to this point has covered a variety of related topics, including CO2
emissions induced by the use of fossil fuels, energy consumption and conservation,
persuasive design, behavioural change, user preferences, distraction, and usability.
Knowledge of these related elements provides the basis for the ongoing aims of this
review chapter, and allows for the suggestion of where researchers might focus their
efforts to have most beneficial impact on the issue of sustainability in private trans-
port. Bringing these topics together, it is possible to see more specifically where lie
some potential future challenges in low-carbon vehicle interface design, or indeed
any in-vehicle information design (as shall be discussed), and how the ergonomics
and design communities could meet these challenges.
Four primary areas have been identified as offering potential for the beneficial
application of ergonomics to the design of the in-vehicle environment; the necessity
to overcome the significant and oft-cited issue of range anxiety (Cocron et al. 2011);
the need to support the development of accurate mental models of the novel, often
poorly understood technology; the issue of rising in-car complexity, and the effect
this will have on workload, distraction, and the resulting safety implications; and
the opportunity to take advantage of this novelty in fostering the development of
new, economical, yet safe driving habits. Although these four concerns have been
stated separately, it should be noted that they are interrelated, inasmuch as any single

20 Eco-driving
design intervention strategy will likely need to be considered in terms of its impact
on all four issues. It is for this reason that ecological interface design (Burns and
Hajdukiewicz 2004; Vicente and Rasmussen 1992), a design method that considers
the system in its entirety taking into account the interrelatedness of system compo-
nents and functions, was initially chosen as a method to address such an issue.
2.8.1 Ecological Interface Design
Ecological interface design (EID) is based on the tenets of cognitive work analysis
(CWA), a formative analysis technique that describes how a system could perform
given the constraints of the domain and the functional links between low-level
system components and high-level system functions and purposes (e.g. Jenkins et al.
2009; Rasmussen et al. 1994; Vicente 1999). The technique is posited as applicable
to first-of-a-kind systems for which there are no precedents (Vicente 1999) and as
such was considered to be aptly poised as a basis for developing a driving feedback
tool for use in electric and hybrid vehicles. EID is essentially about representing the
environmental constraints, or boundaries (graphically or otherwise), of the domain
such that direct perception is possible, thus removing the requirement for indirect
mental representations of external reality. Creating and maintaining an indirect rep-
resentation of the world is problematic in that not only does it require more cogni-
tive resources to construct (particularly significant considering the safety-critical,
cognitively demanding nature of the driving task), but also is more susceptible to
inaccuracies (Gibson 1979), with such inaccuracies leading to an incomplete and
incorrect understanding of the system or environment in question. Though CWA
and EID are more often applied to larger, more complex sociotechnical systems
than the interface of a single vehicle, for example in nuclear power (Olsson and
Lee 1994), the military (McIlroy and Stanton 2011) and aviation (Burns and
Hajdukiewicz 2004), there are a number of examples where the design methodol-
ogy has been used in vehicle design; these will be introduced as the
discussion of
the four challenges progresses.
2.8.2 Overcoming Range Anxiety
Range anxiety, arguably the most influential of barriers to electric vehicle uptake
(Pearre et al. 2011), has been shown to decrease with experience in an electric car
(Burgess et al. 2011; Cocron et al. 2011; Franke et al. 2011; Krems et al. 2010).
Through design it may be possible to further reduce, even eliminate range anxiety,
as well as speed up the time with which the anxiety wanes. Turrentine et al. (2011)
and Pearre et al. (2011) argued that a safety margin of around 20 miles is required
to alleviate range anxiety (a ‘range buffer’); however, Franke et al. (2011) argued
that it could be possible to overcome range anxiety with information and interface
design (see also Cocron et al. 2011). Despite finding suboptimal range utilisation
in their field study of electric vehicle drivers (i.e. range buffers were indeed used)
they put forward the argument that increasing the range of an electric vehicle may
be less important than merely providing the driver with reliable, accurate infor-
mation about the usable range of the vehicle. Importantly, it is about reducing the

21
perceived barriers associated with range anxiety (Franke et al. 2011). This allows
for the suggestion that range anxiety could be reduced (eliminating the require-
ment for range buffers) if the car–driver–environment interface is sufficiently
well designed, in both information content and presentation. Though discussions
explicitly linking EID and range anxiety are not, to our knowledge, available in the
extant literature, it is in a driver’s (mis)understanding of the system in its entirety
(including the vehicle, the driver, and the environment in which they find them-
selves) that range anxiety partly finds it basis; this is intimately linked with how a
system is represented, and the resulting mental models developed and maintained
by the user.
This line of thought can also be applied to the act of driving itself. Research
on driving behaviour and efficiency suggests that the average driver could save
around 10% of the fuel they use for a given journey simply by changing their driv-
ing style (Barkenbus 2010). Additionally, and as aforementioned, Bingham et al.
(2012) suggested that the difference in energy consumption between moderate
and aggressive use of an electric vehicle could be as high as 30%. This relates,
in part, to the vehicle’s regenerative braking capabilities; these will only work
optimally with smooth deceleration profiles (i.e. avoiding harsh braking, in which
the mechanical brakes are employed thereby bypassing the regenerative braking
mechanism). To help the driver increase their range (and alleviate range anxiety)
this then becomes a question of helping the driver to use their vehicle in the
most efficient way possible, that is, to drive economically. Importantly, though
Bingham et al. (2012) used the electric vehicle as a platform for their research,
their results were argued to also be applicable to plug-in hybrids. Given the wide
variety of research, spanning almost 40 years, into fuel efficiency in the con-
ventional ICE vehicle (Evans 1979; Staubach et al. 2014b), we would argue that
this is applicable to all private road vehicles. Although increasing range may be
particularly important in vehicles with reduced range capabilities, decreasing fuel
consumption is important regardless of vehicle type. How to present such infor-
mation to the driver is something with which EID, and its underlying theoretical
foundations, may be able to help us.
2.8.3 Supporting Accurate Mental Models
The assertion made by Franke et al. (2011) on the importance of overcoming

perceived barriers implies that the barriers are not necessarily present in the physical
world but are based in people’s beliefs, right or wrong, about electric vehicles and the
range they are likely to require. The question of how to design to overcome barriers
then becomes a question of how to represent the car environment system to the driver
such that they are fully aware of all the parameters, that is, it is about supporting an
accurate mental model of the system (Gentner and Stevens 1983). This is also true
for driving behaviour itself; in a more recent survey of hybrid electric vehicle drivers,
Franke et al. (2016) found that respondents had many different conceptualisations of
energy efficiency in the vehicle, including a number of false beliefs that served to
impair drivers’ efforts to use their vehicle efficiently. An in-vehicle system designed
in such a way that the actual energy use characteristics of the vehicle are presented,

22 Eco-driving
or in a way that displays to the driver the most efficient way in which to use that
vehicle, may allow the driver to develop an accurate mental model. Subsequent false
beliefs would then be less likely to arise.
This arises from the idea that when a user does not have an accurate or suffi-
ciently detailed understanding of a system (i.e. they lack an accurate mental model)
undesirable behaviour is more likely (though see Revell and Stanton (2012) for an
in-depth discussion of mental models). Using Lewis and Norman’s (1986; see also
Reason 1990) terminology, this is about mistakes as opposed to slips; a slip is where
a user intends to perform the desirable action, but performs it incorrectly, whereas
a mistake is where a user intends to perform an undesirable action. The defining
difference is intention; slips are unintentional, but with mistakes the action is inten-
tional; the user simply does not know the action is incorrect or undesirable.
For example, Franke et al.’s (2011) participants may have displayed suboptimal
range utilisation due to their incomplete or incorrect mental models of the system. It
can also be argued that respondents to their more recent study (Franke et al. 2016)
reported false beliefs about efficient use of their vehicle due to incorrect mental
models. Although the respondents reported beliefs and behaviours that they thought
to be good for fuel efficiency, some were, in fact, detrimental to fuel efficiency. For
example, one such behaviour reported was the maximisation of the use of the electric
motor over the combustion engine, based on the belief that the electric motor is more
efficient. This is not necessarily the most efficient strategy (see Franke et al. 2016);
to perform such a behaviour, thinking that it represents the most efficient strategy,
could therefore be described as a mistake in Norman and Lewis’s terminology.
2.8.4 Workload and Distraction
Of course, any in-vehicle information system or interface must be considered in
terms of its impact on workload and distraction. For example, although adaptive
cruise control (ACC) is aimed at reducing the workload of the driver, if the way in
which it functions is not wholly apparent (i.e. the interface is not sufficiently well
designed) then the issue of mode error can result, that is to say, the user does not
understand in which mode the automation is functioning, or how or why the automa-
tion is functioning in the way it is (Liu et al. 2006). The resulting confusion could
wholly undermine the intended benefits of the system.
Seppelt and Lee (2007) investigated the use of EID in the development of a
visual representation ACC, finding that an EID-informed display supports safer
driving behaviours when the ACC was activated and when driving manually, lead-
ing the authors to argue that providing drivers with information regarding the state
of the automation was more useful than simply providing collision warning alerts
(Seppelt and Lee 2007). Similarly, Mendoza et al. (2011; see also Lindgren et al.
2009) applied EID to the design of an advanced driver assistance system that pro-
vided staged warnings relating to a number of safety systems, with results from the
simulator study suggesting that EID can offer safety benefits, particularly in terms
of lateral position and distance to the lead vehicle. Such staged warnings represent
the display of system boundaries (i.e. the boundaries between safe and unsafe opera-
tion), a key principle of EID. In this last study it was pointed out that a potential

23
source of distraction is the presentation of information not relevant to the situation.
As Kaufmann et al. (2008) argued, there may be a risk of driver distraction from
unimportant information presentation during safety-critical events.
That EID can specify what an interface has to display in a given situation or for
a given function (Lee et al. 2004), through the preceding analysis (using CWA) of
the functional links between lower-level system components and higher-level system
functions, has led to the suggestion that EID can help design interfaces that avoid the
problem of displaying irrelevant information (see Chapter 5 for a more detailed dis-
cussion on EID’s contributions to design). Young and Birrell’s studies outlined above
(Birrell and Young 2011; Young and Birrell 2012) highlight this; the smart driving
tool judged to be superior in terms of workload and distraction was designed using
the principles of EID, with the design process following a work domain analysis (an
analysis step integral to both EID and CWA) of the driving domain (Birrell et al.
2012). Other such studies include that of Jenkins et al. (2007), who developed a lateral
collision warning system using this analysis step (i.e. work domain analysis), finding
that it compared favourably with existing lane departure warning systems. Also, Lee
et al. (2006; see also Stoner et al. 2003) tested an interface developed using CWA and
EID for the support of manoeuvres requiring a lane change, with results showing that
EID-inspired displays performed at least as well, if not better than traditional dis-
plays, particularly in situations where the participants could only view the scenario
for a short period of time (Lee et al. 2006). The ability of an interface to be under-
stood quickly is an important feature if it is to avoid being distractive. Making the
boundaries clear to the user, for example the boundary between safe and unsafe oper-
ation (as aforementioned), or indeed the boundary between efficient and inefficient
driving, therefore becomes of particular interest. Using the theory behind EID may
help to achieve this aim without also incurring additional workload or distraction.
Research into the effects of EID interfaces on workload is not, however, clear cut.
Stanton et al. (2011) investigated an interface displaying the functioning of stop and
go adaptive cruise control (SG-ACC; an extension of ACC that includes operation
at slow speeds and over short distances). Though in this research EID was not spe-
cifically mentioned, the design of one of the three interfaces under examination was
in line with the principles of EID insofar as it directly represented the radar capabil-
ity of the technology. The study paid particular attention to workload, citing earlier
research that suggested there is an increase in workload associated with monitoring
the activities of an automated system (Stanton and Young 2000, 2005). It was dem-
onstrated that providing a direct representation of system state, rather than simply
providing warnings regarding new vehicles entering the following path, allowed for
a fuller understanding of the operation of the automation, thereby supporting safer
driving behaviours (Stanton et al. 2011). The results also showed, however, that the
more detailed radar-type display (in line with EID tenets) incurred higher workloads.
In terms of encouraging efficient use of the vehicle, rather than simply safe use,
it is useful to return to the issue of displaying the correct type of information, and
displaying system boundaries. As evidenced in Franke et al.’s (2016) study of hybrid
electric vehicle drivers, even experienced users hold false beliefs. The authors make
the point that the hybrid vehicle is particularly complex, involving two fuel systems
and two drivetrains that interact with one another in different ways, depending on

24 Eco-driving
the characteristics of the driver’s behaviour, on the route driven, and on the current
energy reserves in the fuel tank and batteries. To display such information to the
driver would likely require a relatively complex, visual display. Although EID may
be well suited to designing such a display, it may not necessarily do so in a way that
reduces workload (Stanton et al. 2011). Furthermore, the in-vehicle environment is
already replete with visual information; the addition of further visual systems should
be carefully considered. Hence rather than attempting to apply a full EID process to
the design of in-vehicle information, it may be equally useful (in terms of encourag-
ing efficient driving behaviours, and therefore efficient use of the vehicle), yet incur
lower workload, to focus simply on displaying to the driver the boundary between
efficient and inefficient driving styles, that is, supporting efficient use.
Though this is a departure from the full EID process (as will be discussed in
more detail in Chapters 5 and 6), it is based on one of the method’s key foundational
principles, that is, to display system boundaries, or constraints. Indeed, it is this very
point that has guided the research presented in the latter stages of this book (see
Chapter 6, e.g.), and is a point to which Franke et al.’s participants alluded (Franke
et al. 2016). When asked about the kind of support systems drivers would like in the
vehicle, respondents provided a number of suggestions relating to the location of
particular system state:
… drivers suggested that certain critical system states should be more clearly displayed
(e.g. the point of maximum efficiency of the combustion engine, the neutral point at
which there is zero energy flow in the system, the point at which regenerative braking
is optimal, or a point just before that at which the combustion engine turns on), and that
targeting these points should be facilitated. (Franke et al. 2016, 39)
Such descriptions of the point of maximum efficiency, the point of zero energy
flow, the point at which regenerative braking is optimal, and the point at which the
combustion engine turns on, can be conceptualised as boundaries between certain
system states, or boundaries between efficient and inefficient use of the vehicle.
Supporting perception of these boundaries may not only help increase driving effi-
ciency, but may circumvent some of the potential workload and distraction issues
that could be brought about by attempting to add further, complex visual display
systems to the vehicle.
2.8.5 Dealing with Complexity and Taking Advantage of Novelty
The studies outlined above suggest that EID, and its underlying theoretical principles
(see Chapters 5 and 6 for more detail), could bring significant benefits to the driving
domain. As part of an ongoing, multiple partner research project, Young and Birrell
have successfully brought together safety and economy advice in one EID-guided
information tool (Birrell and Young 2011; Birrell et al. 2012; Young and Birrell
2012); interestingly, the tool that was developed not only attempted to display system
functioning, but actually informed the driver of particular behaviours that could be
executed, at particular times, in order to maximise safety and efficiency. Although
the tool was designed with a traditional ICE-powered vehicle in mind, many of the

25
behaviours that characterise efficient driving (e.g. smooth accelerations, anticipation,
avoidance of harsh braking events) are applicable to vehicles of any fuel system.
There are, however, additional considerations that should be made when designing
for vehicles with unconventional drivetrains. For example, products that people per-
ceive to be ‘eco-friendly’ can incur excessive use; the ‘rebound effect’ describes how
a product is used more often if a user thinks each use is less environmentally dam-
aging (Berkhout et al. 2000). The extra usage incurred negates any improvements
in the energy savings made through the design of the product. This is particularly
important for electric cars; just because tailpipe emissions are zero doesn’t mean
the electricity required is clean and abundant. Is it possible, therefore, to develop an
interface that discourages this kind of behaviour? Again, this harks back to a central
aim of the research presented in this book, that is, how can we develop an in-vehicle
interface that supports efficient use of the vehicle?
As aforementioned, in most road vehicles the vast majority of in-vehicle devices
that aim to help drivers increase their efficiency simply display to the driver the
current energy or fuel consumption rates (Wellings et al. 2011). Regarding this
question, the metric used for displaying driving efficiency is an issue that must be
addressed. Traditionally, miles-per-gallon has been used throughout the industry (in
the UK and US); however, this will clearly not suffice for vehicles incorporating
batteries into the power system. Such issues were considered by Stillwater (2011); he
argued that miles-per-gallon can, in many situations, be misleading, insofar as it only
provides a ‘tank’ metric, not a real-time energy balance. Simply offering the number
of miles left in the battery (or battery/fuel tank combination) may not be advisable
either; such a display, if it were to be accurate and consistent (Van der Voort et al.
2001), would have to consider not only the effect of the weather (most importantly
temperature) on the battery, but the topography of the route and the effects of regen-
erative braking (Stillwater 2011). Perhaps, therefore, it may be more suitable not to
display to the driver their current energy use statistics, or power flow information,
but to provide information that actually guides the fuel-efficient behaviours them-
selves. Once again, can we display the boundary between efficient and inefficient use
of the vehicle using in-vehicle information?
Tackling the HMI challenges posed by the widespread uptake of electric and
hybrid vehicles, in safety, economic, and enjoyment terms, will require careful
consideration; however, it is important not to lose sight of the opportunities pro-
vided by such a technological advancement. As has been described, there is a large
potential for environmental benefit arising from encouraging behavioural change
through design. With a novel product (such as a low-carbon vehicle), taking the
opportunity to foster behavioural change can have long-lasting results. Zachrisson
and Boks (2010) argued that a product’s ability to break old habits is related to the
novelty of the interaction with that product, with more innovation or novelty having
a stronger ability to break previous habits. This may be because prior schemata are
evoked to a far lesser extent when interacting with a novel product than when inter-
acting with a more familiar product. Schemata can be conceptualised as organised
knowledge structures, based upon past experiences, that interact with information
in the external environment to guide behaviour in a given situation (Bartlett 1932;

26 Eco-driving
Plant and Stanton 2012; Stanton and Stammers 2008). According to Neisser (1976)
existing schemata affect the way we perceive the world, influence the decisions we
make, and direct our actions. If the situation or environment is one of novelty then
it is unlikely that a fully developed schema will exist to guide behaviour.
When considering this in a driving context, the more familiar the human–vehicle
interaction or interface design, the more similar to prior driving habits the observ-
able behaviour will be, including any previously learned bad habits. A novel inter-
action will more readily support the modification (Piaget 1952) of previously held
schemata. Importantly, schemata are active (Neisser 1976) and as such, if the user
has a positive behaviour that would be beneficial to turn into a habit, the product
should maintain the context around the behaviour as stable as possible, thus help-
ing to develop a more economically-framed driving schema. Hence it is argued that
interface design in electric and hybrid cars, aided by the novelty of the technology
and its ability to encourage schema adaption and development, can be used to foster
new economical driving styles, replacing fuel-intensive habits.
2.9 CONCLUSIONS
Considering the backdrop of the overuse of energy resources and the excessive pro-
duction of waste and emissions, alongside the introduction of new vehicle technolo-
gies, it is clear to see that ergonomists are faced with potentially challenging, yet
promising opportunities with regard to the design of the HMI in the private road
vehicle. The need to present additional information, that is, fuel use and economy
information, and the need to represent the more complex nature of the low-carbon
vehicle (particularly for hybrid vehicles, which have more than one fuel type),
both have implications for workload and distraction, and hence safety. However, it
is important not to lose sight of the prospects for encouraging behaviour change
through in-vehicle information design. With careful interface design it may be pos-
sible not only to help an individual reduce their energy consumption, but also to alle-
viate the problem of range anxiety through supporting them in their maximisation of
their vehicle’s energy reserves.
Although the preceding discussions have focused predominantly on low-carbon
vehicles (in terms of the necessity to make the most of the limited range inherent
to electric vehicles), the benefits of supporting efficient driving behaviours are not
limited to such technologies. Efficient use of the vehicle is still recognised as of par-
ticular importance when discussing cars with limited range (i.e. electric vehicles);
however, the remainder of this book takes a broader approach, focusing on how to
help drivers make the most out of their energy reserves in any vehicle. This book as
a whole therefore focuses on eco-driving more generally.
Eco-driving is the term that encompasses the behaviours that characterise effi-
cient use of the vehicle, and it is this practice that provides the sole focus of the
following chapter, in particular the general public’s perceptions of it. As will be
seen, the majority of this book is concerned with the provision of information
to the driver, via an in-vehicle information system, to support and encourage
efficient driving behaviours. However, it is important to recognise that this is not
the only method by which efficient driving can be encouraged, nor is it the only

27
potentially interesting avenue for research. The following chapter therefore takes
a step back from looking specifically at encouraging specific fuel-efficient driv-
ing behaviours to look more generally at the practice itself, the perceptions that
general public have of it, and at the levels of knowledge people already have of the
specific strategies available for fuel conservation in the vehicle.

29
3 Driving and the
Environment
An Exploratory Survey Study
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter a broad review of the literature pertaining to the effect of
design on behaviour was offered, as well as an introduction to some of the challenges
faced when considering the burgeoning interest in electric vehicles. Ecological inter-
face design (EID) was also introduced, and the framework discussed in terms of its
potential to guide the design of an in-vehicle information system that could help
overcome some of these challenges.
As has been discussed, the original focus of this research project was the encour-
agement of the uptake and efficient use of the low-carbon vehicle. The previous
chapter went some way to discuss the benefit of simply supporting efficient use of the
vehicle, and how this is likely to be of particular importance in vehicles with limited
range (i.e. electric vehicles). To encourage uptake is something that will require a
wide variety of measures, from pricing to policy, to education, to training design.
These aspects do not provide the focus of the remaining chapters of this book; rather
attention is targeted towards the use phase of the vehicle. Although this directs focus,
somewhat simplifying the research effort (compared to an attempt to address all
the broad challenges outlined in the previous chapter), the challenge is still signifi-
cant. As with encouraging low-carbon vehicle uptake, encouraging the adoption of
eco-driving techniques is something that will also require a variety of measures.
However, the benefits of doing so will be felt not only by those few early adopters
of hybrid and electric vehicles, but will be seen by all drivers, regardless of the fuel
system used by their vehicle.
In the previous chapter the concept of eco-driving itself was introduced, but not
discussed at length. This chapter therefore specifically addresses the topic. As afore-
mentioned, the focus is not on in-vehicle information specifically; rather it is on the
practice of eco-driving from a broader perspective. Before embarking on an attempt
to support such behaviours in the vehicle, it is important to recognise that there are
a number of interesting and potentially fruitful avenues for research when consid-
ering the encouragement of any sustainable behaviour. As with home energy use
(see Chapter 1), information provision at the point of use is only one such method
for the encouragement of energy conservation behaviours (Abrahamse et al. 2005).
Moreover, people’s previously held knowledge and attitudes are important when
attempting to encourage such practices. This chapter therefore investigates these
concepts from an eco-driving perspective.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

If Georgie G. S., of Dubuque, Iowa, will put a handful of clean white pebbles and five or six clean
sea-shells in her globe, the gold-fish are more likely to keep healthy. The water should be changed
every day.
Vanderbil
t O.
Champion, New York.
I like Young People very much, especially the stories of The Moral Pirates, and Who was Paul
Grayson? I have no pets except a little dog I call Watch. We have had a snow-storm here (October
24). I am thirteen years old.
Warren
B.
I am eleven years old, and I have fourteen dolls. I have a little kitten for a pet. I call it Bob Short
because it is a rabbit kitten, and hasn't any tail.
My cousin sent Young People to my brother Warren and myself as a present for two years, and we
think she is very kind.
Eva E. B.
Platte City, Missouri.
I wish to notify my little friends that I can not send them any more samples of crochet trimming. I
have no time now to make it, as I am going to school and taking music lessons. I have received a
great many requests, and I can not possibly get time to crochet enough to answer them all.
Gracie
Meads.
I like Young People very much. I think it is a very useful paper. I live on Big Sandy Creek near the
railroad, six miles from any neighbor. There are antelopes, buffaloes, wolves, wild-cats, rabbits,
owls, and eagles here. There are also some splendid specimens. I have some bullion out of a mine
at Leadville, also some petrified wood, topaz, moss-agate, and other things. I sent Wee Tot some
specimens of wild flowers and grasses, and if she will send me some ocean curiosities I will be
much pleased, and will send her some of my specimens. I will also exchange some of them with
any little girl or boy for ocean curiosities.
Clara
F. R. Swift,
Aroya
Station, Colorado, K. P. R. R.

I can never thank my grandfather too much for subscribing for this delightful little paper for me.
Here is a recipe for keeping barberries and mountain ash for Christmas decorations. Fill a large jar
with a strong solution of salt and water—cooking salt is best. Put the berries in the brine, and cork
it. It need not be air-tight.
I have three hundred and sixty-four postage stamps, and have exchanged successfully with many
of the boys and a few of the girls. I have now some white moss which came from Muskosh Mills, a
little village on an island in the Muskoka River, which I would gladly exchange for curiosities from
the ocean or the far South.
W. C. V.
Chadwick,
44 St.
George Street, Toronto, Canada.
The correspondents you inquire about have probably sent you sufficient address, and you would better
try the experiment of answering them. If they do not receive the letters, it will not be from any fault of
yours.
I would like to exchange foreign and United States postage stamps and postmarks with any of the
readers of Young People.
Alfred
C. P. Opdyke, Hotel Bristol,
Corner
Forty-second Street and Fifth Avenue,
New
York City.
I would like to exchange minerals for stamps, postmarks, seeds, shells, stones, or any other thing
worth putting in a museum. I wish to get a collection of flints from every State and from Canada,
and I will send a stone from Virginia in exchange. I will also exchange postmarks for others. I have
some from England, Canada, and nearly every State.
H. H.
Tucker, Box 75, Richmond, Virginia.
I have a small collection of stamps, and would like to exchange. I will also exchange a stone from
Pennsylvania or from Caen, France, for others from different States.
Alfred W.
Stockett,
P. O. Box
119, Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania.

I am collecting curiosities, and would be happy to exchange with any correspondent. I have about
one hundred and fifty varieties of birds' eggs. I would be glad to supply any one with a list of the
eggs of Canada.
J. F.
Wells,
Ingersoll,
Ontario, Canada.
I would like to exchange postmarks, minerals, fossils, birds' eggs, or coins with any of the readers
of Young People for minerals, fossils, coins, birds' eggs, or shells. I very much desire to obtain
specimens from foreign countries.
Frank H.
Lattin,
Gaines,
Orleans County, New York.
I have a large number of stamps and rare postmarks, and would like very much to exchange with
readers of this paper.
A. W.
Morse, Cheltenham Academy,
P. O.
Shoemakertown, Pennsylvania.
I want to tell you about my collection. It consists of an Indian mortar, an Indian axe and hatchet, a
large number of arrow-heads, a nail from Old Fort Massac, a French bullet weighing an ounce,
and a piece of a French sword. I have also a fine collection of minerals, and I would like to
exchange some specimens of purple spar for copper ore, crystallized quartz, or shells.
Willie B.
Morris,
Elizabeth
town, Hardin County, Illinois.
I would like to exchange postage stamps for birds' eggs. Correspondents will please state the kind
of eggs they have to exchange, and the varieties of stamps they wish in return. I have over one
thousand stamps in my collection.
Frank
Madison, 206 Stockton Street,
San
Francisco, California.

We are making a collection of postmarks and stamps, wood, minerals, pressed leaves and ferns,
and the soil of different States and countries, and will exchange any of these things with other boys
or girls. We will also exchange flower seeds or slips for ocean curiosities or Indian relics.
Mary,
Lewis, Minnie,
Care of
E. M. Frazier, Lock Box No. 12,
Caldwell,
Noble County, Ohio.
I will be very glad to exchange foreign postage stamps with any readers of Young People.
Correspondents will please send a list of their stamps for exchange.
O. L.
Welch,
40 Bank
Street, New York City.
I live on the San Jacinto River. My papa has a plantation on the Trinity. He has a plum orchard, and
we go up there and eat plums. Mamma is going up there to preserve some. I am collecting snail
shells. I have about four hundred.
I would like to exchange birds' eggs or postage stamps with any little boy or girl. I am nine years
old.
Pearl A.
Hare,
Lynchbur
g, Harris County, Texas.
I have stamps from Venezuela and Curaçao I wish to exchange for others.
Charles
De Sola, care of B. De Sola,
23
William Street, New York City.
I will exchange twenty-five kinds of postmarks from Georgia for twenty-five kinds from any other
State. I will also exchange foreign stamps for their equivalent value in birds' eggs, shells, minerals,
curiosities of all kinds, or for other stamps.

Louis J.
Brumly,
P. O. Box
126, Athens, Georgia.
I will exchange postmarks and French stamps for any American and European stamps except
English and Canadian. To any one who will send me ten stamps, all different, I will send by return
mail twenty postmarks.
Willie
Gurnett,
Ingersoll,
Ontario, Canada.
I live near Niagara Falls. I have a white pony. She is very gentle, and can do a great many tricks.
She will lie down and let me get on her back.
I take Young People, and like it so much I can hardly wait from one week till the next for it. I would
like to exchange specimens of rock from Niagara Falls for shells or sea-weed. I would also like to
exchange coins. I am eleven years of age.
Harry
Symmes,
The
Grove, Drummondville,
Near
Niagara Falls, Canada.
E. McGarrah.—It is said that Robert Burns, when a youth of nineteen, became acquainted with Douglas
Grahame, an honest farmer who lived at Shanter, and who afterward figured as Tam o' Shanter in the
wonderful poem of that name. A merry story told of Grahame by his friends served as the material
which Burns long afterward turned to such good account. The original story was as follows: Grahame
had a friend named John Davidson, the Souter Johnnie of the poem, with whom he often made merry
when in town on market-day, frequently lingering so late at night as to cause severe displeasure to the
good dame waiting at home. It happened once, when returning later than usual, on a very dark, stormy
night, Grahame had the misfortune to lose his bonnet, or cap, in which was all the money he had
made that day at the market. Fearing the scolding which he knew awaited him, he took advantage of
his wife's superstition and credulity, and invented a terrible story of a band of witches which had
appeared to him at Alloway Kirk, and from which he had barely escaped with his life. The dame was
satisfied with his explanation, and gave thanks for the miraculous preservation of her husband. Honest
Douglas Grahame, however, quietly returned by daylight to Carrick Hill, where he was fortunate enough
to find his bonnet and money safe in the bushes near the Bridge of Doon. Grahame and Davidson, the
originals of Tam o' Shanter and Souter Johnnie, are buried in the church-yard at Kirkoswald.

Mansfield.—In earliest times skins, cattle, corn, and other articles were used as money. According to
Homer, certain numbers of oxen were paid for the armor of warriors; and even our modern word
pecuniary, the etymology of which is traced directly to the Latin word pecus; signifying cattle, is a
convincing proof that those beasts were used as money by the ancient Romans.
Precious metals were also given and taken in payment at a very early age. Abraham is represented in
Genesis as coming up out of Egypt very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold, and payments made in so
many pieces or shekels of silver are frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. It is supposed that at
this period the precious metal was in the form of lumps of different weights, but bore no stamp.
Wrought jewels are also mentioned as serving for money.
The first coined money is supposed to have been used by the Lydians about 700 or 800 b.c. Greek coins
appeared at a little later period, the earliest being those of Ægina. The first coins were very rough in
appearance, a rude device being stamped from a die on a lump of metal of a certain weight by a blow
of a hammer. The early Lydian coins bore a lion's head, and the Æginetan a tortoise on the obverse, the
other side being marked only by an indentation caused by the blow.
The oldest extant Jewish coins, specimens of which may be seen in the British Museum, are the shekel
and half-shekel of Simon Maccabæus, the priest and prince of the Jews, to whom Antiochus VII., the
son of Demetrius I., granted the right of coining money about 139 b.c. The silver shekel and half-shekel
had for their devices on one side the almond rod with buds (Numbers, xvii. 8, 10), with the legend,
Jerusalem the Holy; and on the other the pot of manna (Exodus, xvi. 33), and the legend, Shekel of
Israel, or Half-Shekel. This early coinage never bore a head, as that would have violated the law
forbidding idolatry. The value of the Maccabæus silver shekel may be estimated at 2s. 6d. sterling, or 60
cents.
Lyman C.—You can buy the cover for Young People of Harper Brothers for thirty-five cents, or forty-eight
cents if sent by mail, but they can not bind your copies for you.
Newman G.—In Young People No. 36, in the story entitled The Mohawk Bowmen, you will find directions
for making bows and arrows, and in the Post-office Box of No. 51 the process of feathering arrows is
described. In the Post-office Box of No. 19 are instructions for making a kite.
PUZZLES FROM YOUNG CONTRIBUTORS.
No. 1.
BOTANICAL CONUNDRUMS.
1.Plant a youthful Virginian before it can walk, and what comes up?
2.Plant a piece of bunting, and what comes up?
3.Plant a wise man, and what comes up?
4.Plant a large, inclosed basin, and what comes up?
5.Plant a ruminant's lips, and what comes up?
6.Plant an egg, and what comes up?
7.Plant a color, and what comes up?

8.Plant a sea-shore, and what comes up?
9.Plant yourself, and what comes up?
10.Plant a muff, and what comes up?
A. and
T. J.
No. 2.
WORD SQUARE.
First, a dead body. Second, a bay-window. Third, stiff. Fourth, a net. Fifth, a shrub.
Bolus.
No. 3.
ENIGMA.
My first is in corn, not in grain.
My second in hail, not in rain.
My third is in lamp, not in light.
My fourth in darkness, not in night.
My fifth is in well, not in sick.
My sixth is in cane, not in stick.
My seventh in maple, not in pine.
My eighth is in back, not in spine.
My ninth is in green, not in red.
My tenth is in needle, not in thread.
My eleventh in archer, not in bow.
My whole was an emperor long ago.
May E. T.
ANSWERS TO PUZZLES IN NO. 53.
No. 1.
S M
A T E D I M
S T O R MI N E R
E R R I M E W
MI S E R
Y A ME N O W

MA N O R O B I N
MO B WI T
R N
No. 2.
Marseille.
No. 3.
1. Winnipiseogee. 2. Niagara Falls.

NEW BOOKS FOR YOUNG READERS.
The early history of America is always a subject of great interest to boys and girls; and although they
may get ahead very slowly in the school history, which is invariably dull, as its statements are of
necessity as condensed as possible, put a volume in their hand in which the story of their country is told
in picturesque and easy style, and made more interesting than many works of fiction, and the rapidity
with which it is absorbed by young readers is wonderful. A new and very interesting book of this
description is Old Times in the Colonies,[1] by Charles C. Coffin, whose earlier works, The Boys of '76
and The Story of Liberty, are favorite volumes with boys and girls. From this new book children will
learn about the hardships and sufferings of the pioneer settlers of the United States—how they fought
with frost and snow, and desolate, rocky lands, living in constant fear of attacks by Indians, to whose
tomahawks many a brave man and many women and little children fell victims; and how, in spite of all
obstacles, they struggled ahead with the courage of true men, never faltering and never stopping until
the liberty and prosperity of this great country were firmly established.
The few passages from this volume which have appeared in the columns of Harper's Young People have
found universal favor with young readers throughout the country, and we are sure all those children
who find this handsome book in their bundle from Santa Claus will count it among their best gifts. The
volume is printed in type so large and clear that no little eyes will ever ache over it, the illustrations are
very numerous and exceedingly attractive, and the binding is handsome and substantial.
One of the most delightful stories ever written for boys is The Moral Pirates,[2] which is now published
in a small, neat volume, with fifteen full-page illustrations. This has been one of the most popular serials
published in Harper's Young People, and many of the little friends of Harry Wilson, Tom Schuyler, and Joe
and Jim Sharpe, will be happy to renew their acquaintance with them in this pretty little book, while
those who have not read the story have some delightful hours in store. The cruise of Harry and his
three friends in the Whitewing—a neat little boat, well stocked with provisions and camping-out
comforts by Harry's uncle John—is accompanied by many innocent and amusing adventures. It takes
the boys some time to learn how to manage themselves and their boat, as new difficulties are
constantly arising; and when at last they reach Brandt Lake, and have become experienced moral
pirates, their adventures come to a sudden end in a very unexpected manner. This charming story has
a new incident and new interest on every page, and will induce many boys to attempt next summer a
cruise in the style of these young mariners of the Whitewing.
All children are by nature fond of small living pets. There is scarcely a child who, if it has a home, does
not spend hours in petting its old Maltese cat or aged dog, and the smallest tricks performed by these
common domestic animals are matters of intense interest to the youthful master or mistress. Books
containing stories of animals are always welcome, and one of the best writers of books of this
description is Olive Thorne Miller, whose last publication, entitled Queer Pets at Marcy's,[3] is destined to
be very popular with young readers. There are stories of all kinds of animal pets from lions to mice:
parrots climb about, making all sorts of funny speeches, mischievous crows make havoc in peaceful
households, and dogs and cats do most wonderful and intelligent things. There are stories of funny
baby-owls, prairie-dogs, opossums, bears, deer, and many kinds of birds and reptiles. Indeed, Marcy
and her neighbors appear to have transformed a whole menagerie into household pets. Delightful and
wonderful as these stories are, they are given as facts, and in reading them children will gain not only

amusement, but learn many things about the habits of birds and beasts when domesticated. The book
is beautifully bound, and contains many fine illustrations.

HARPER'S YOUNG PEOPLE.
Single Copies, 4 cents; One Subscription, one year, $1.50; Five Subscriptions, one year, $7.00—payable in
advance, postage free.
The Volumes of Harper's Young People commence with the first Number in November of each year.
Subscriptions may begin with any Number. When no time is specified, it will be understood that the
subscriber desires to commence with the Number issued after the receipt of the order.
Remittances should be made by Post-Office Money-Order or Draft, to avoid risk of loss.
Volume I., containing the first 52 Numbers, handsomely bound in illuminated cloth, $3.00, postage
prepaid: Cover, title-page, and index for Volume I., 35 cents; postage, 13 cents additional.
HARPER BROTHERS,
Franklin Square, N. Y.

GAMES FOR WINTER EVENINGS.
MACHINE SONNETS.
Although this species of poetry has been considered hard to write, and oftener harder to read when
written, a simple recipe is here given by which sonnets by any one, with very little effort, can be
produced. One person selects a sonnet from the works of any author—the less known the better—and
covers the printed lines with a sheet of paper, leaving the last word of each line only visible. He then
reads aloud the word which concludes the first line, and waits until every player has composed a line
ending in this word in any metre, and on any subject. When all are ready he reads the next word, and
so on until every person present has composed a poem, all of which differ in every way excepting that
the last words are alike. This game will be found interesting alike to children and their parents, and is
well worthy the attention of the most experienced players.
STILL THERE.
Place a small card upon the tip of one of the fingers of the left hand, and on the card, immediately
above the finger, put a coin. Now give a smart blow to the card with the second finger of the right
hand, and it will be whirled from under the coin so swiftly that the latter will be left on the tip of the
finger. A similar feat can be performed with two wine-glasses. Place a sheet of card-board over both,
and then, with a smart fillip, send it spinning from under the coins you have placed upon it, and they
will drop into the glasses.

LIGHT FROM OYSTER SHELLS.
It has long been known that certain compounds of lime and sulphur had the property of absorbing light,
and giving it out again when placed in the dark. A simple way to do this is to expose clean oyster shells
to a red heat for half an hour. When cold, the best pieces are picked out and packed with alternate
layers of sulphur in a crucible, and exposed to a red heat for an hour. When cold, the mass is broken
up, and the whitest pieces are placed in a clean glass bottle. On exposing the bottle to bright sunshine
during the day, it is found that at night its contents will give out a pale light in the dark. Such a bottle,
filled more than a hundred years ago, still gives out light when exposed to the sun, proving the
persistency of the property of reproducing light. The chemicals, ground to a flour, may now be mixed
with oils or water for paints, may be powdered on hot glass, and glass covered with a film of clear
glass, or mixed with celluloid, papier-maché, or other plastic materials. As a paint it may be applied to a
diver's dress, to cards, clock dials, sign-boards, and other surfaces exposed to sunlight during the day;
the paint gives out a pale violet light at night sufficient to enable the objects to be readily seen in the
dark. If the object covered with the prepared paint is not exposed to the sun, or if the light fades in the
dark, a short piece of magnesium wire burned before it serves to restore the light-giving property. The
preparation, under various fanciful names, is being manufactured on a large scale.
LITTLE TOMMY'S THANKSGIVING NIGHTMARE AFTER A
BUSY DAY PULLING WISH-BONES.
Retributive Chorus. Now, then, all together!
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Old Times in the Colonies. By Charles Carleton Coffin. Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 460. New York:
Harper Brothers.
[2] The Moral Pirates. By W. L. Alden. Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 148. New York: Harper Brothers.
[3] Queer Pets at Marcy's. By Olive Thorne Miller. Illustrated by J. C. Beard. 8vo, pp. 326. New York:
E. P. Dutton Co.

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