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Emerging Computing Paradigms: Principles, Advances and Applications, First Edition.
Edited by Umang Singh, San Murugesan and Ashish Seth.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
1
Cloud Computing
Evolution, Research Issues, and Challenges
Neeraj Gupta and Asha Sohal
School of Engineering and Technology, K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram
1.1 Introduction
A computing process requires resources like processors, memory, network, and
software. The traditional computing model for IT services requires investing in the
computing infrastructure. “On-premise” solution requires that you purchase and
deploy required hardware and software at your premise. Such a solution involves a
capital expenditure on the equipment and recurring operational spending on the
maintenance and technological refreshes required from time-to-time. Another pos-
sible solution can be co-location facilities where the facility owner can provide
services like power, cooling, and physical security. The customer needs to deploy its
server, storage, and other equipment necessary for the operation. This solution
reduces the capital expenditure and increases the operational cost as per the service-
agreement agreed upon for hiring the services. Cloud computing aggregates various
computing resources, both hardware and software, such that they are viewed as one
large pool and accessed as utility services. The word utility refers to hire up the
resources until the demand exists and service provider charges for resource usage.
The term “pay-per-use” or “pay- as-you-go” is used to represent cloud computing’s
commercial aspect.
Most users define cloud computing as IT services located somewhere on the cloud,
where the cloud presents data centers’ location. It is essential to mention here that
co-location data centers are off-premises and private clouds are typically on-premise.
The National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST) [1] define cloud com-
puting as “Cloud Computing is a model for enabling ubiquitious, convenient,
on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources
(e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provi-
sioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.
This cloud model is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models,
and four deployment models.” The definition essentially means that the cloud com-
puting processes are automated, dynamic, and transparent to ensure minimal human
intervention.
This chapter is organized in the following way: Section 1.2 discusses various
technologies that contributed to the evolution of cloud computing. Section 1.3](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-37-320.jpg)
![1 Cloud Computing
4
explains the characteristics of the cloud, service models, and cloud deployment
models. Section 1.4 illustrates various research issues and challenges that con-
front cloud computing. Section 1.5 describes emerging trends and research chal-
lenges associated with them.
1.2 Evolution of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing involves hardware, software processes, and networking. Figure
1.1 illustrates multiple technologies that contribute to the initiation, development,
and management of cloud computing services. This section briefly describes key
technologies such as grid computing, utility computing, ubiquitous computing, ser-
vice-oriented architecture, and virtualization that form the foundation pillars for
cloud computing.
1.2.1 Grid Computing
It is the form of loosely coupled distributed computing. The resources associated
with heterogeneous systems are remotely connected. The system can share each
other resources transparently. The system users can access and utilize the resources,
including processing power, memory, and data storage. The grid is more involved
with huge, non-interactive tasks where the computation can occur independently
without communicating intermediate results between the processor [2]. Grid
computing helps the service providers to create a huge pool of resources without
investing in large and expensive mainframes.
Arpanet Internet World
Wide Web
Web
Services
Web 2.0
Service
Oriented
Architecture
Service
Bureau
Utility
Computing
Grid
Computing
Automatic
Computing
Platform
Virtualization
Open Source
Software
Software as
a Service
Cloud Services
Salesforce.com
Amazon Web
Service
VMWare
IBM-Juniper
Microsoft
Azure
Google Apps
Figure 1.1 Evolution of Cloud Computing (Arockiam, Monikandan and Parthasarathy, 2017).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-38-320.jpg)
![1.2 Evolution of Cloud Computing 5
1.2.2 Utility Computing
Utility computing is a service provisioning model in which a service provider makes
computing resources and infrastructure management available to the customer as
needed and charges them based on usage rather than a flat rate. It is a business
model where customers pay utility company/service providers to access and utilize
the computing as per their requirements. The computing resources can be dynami-
cally acquired and subsequently released by the customer. The pay-as-you-go model
helps in better resource management of pooled resources offered by the service pro-
vider. The customer can save the capital expenditure and recurring operational
expenditure toward infrastructure to run the business [4].
1.2.3 Ubiquitous Computing
Mark Weiser first proposed the idea of ubiquitous computing in 1988 [5]. The
authors’ impression was to integrate computing into the everyday life of people
transparently and seamlessly. It was envisioned that computing devices would
come into various sizes, each developed to perform a particular task. The system
will consist of specialized hardware and software that can communicate using wired
media, radio waves, and infrared waves. The work laid the foundation of context-
aware systems and innovative applications [6]. Pervasive computing is the conver-
gence of mobile computing, ubiquitous computing, consumer electronics, and the
Internet.
1.2.4 Service-Oriented Architecture
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a software design process that enables
software components to access other software components’ functionality through
a communication protocol over a network. The software components, viewed as
services, offer a discrete functionality that can be accessed, updated, and acted
upon remotely by other services to fulfill a task. The design promotes the loosely
coupled distributed software components that can communicate with each other
using a message-passing communication model. The SOA philosophy is
independent of vendor, product, and technology [7]. Web services are based on the
concept of SOA. W3C defines web services as a “software system designed to
support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. It has an
interface described in a machine-processable format specifically web service
description language (WSDL). Other systems interact with the web service in a
manner prescribed by its description using Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP)
messages, typically conveyed using HTTP with an XML serialization in conjunction
with other web-related standards” [8].
Figure 1.2 illustrates the Find-Bind-Execute paradigm that defines the working of
the web services. The service provider publishes the software components as service
in a common registry. The service consumer can find the particular service using
WSDL. Once the service is located service requester can invoke or initiate the web
service at runtime.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-39-320.jpg)
![1 Cloud Computing
6
1.2.5 Virtualization
Personal computing endorsed the single operating image per machine. The operating
system and hardware are tightly coupled with each other. This kind of arrangement
does not fully utilize the power of underlying hardware. Whenever multiple applica-
tions are initiated, resource conflicts can occur, leading to under performance of the
individual applications. Virtualization is a framework that divides physical computing
components into numerous virtual resources. It relies on the software to manage var-
ious resources virtually and distribute to multiple applications flexibly and adhering
to specific requirements. The goals of the virtualization architecture are equivalence,
resource control, and efficiency [10]. The large pool of computing resources, including
server, memory, network, operating systems, and applications are virtualized in data
centers. These virtualized resources are offered to the end-users as metered services.
1.3 Cloud Computing Essentials
The US National Institute of Standard and Technology has defined cloud computing
through five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment
model [1].
1.3.1 Characteristics On-Demand Self-Service
In comparison to on-premise solutions and co-location facilities, the resources are pro-
visioned automatically. There is no human interaction whenever the customer wants to
access the resources offered by the service provider. The cloud computing processes
involvedinprovisioningareautonomous,whichhelpscutthecostandadapttodynamic
changes transparently while hiding the internal complexity to maintain such a system.
1.3.1.1 Broad Network Access
Services are delivered by the service provider and availed by the customer through
a standard communication protocol. The applications can be accessed irrespective
of the type of device. The only requirement is that machines should be online.
Find
Bind and Invoke
Contract
Registry
Register
Service Consumer Service Provider
Figure 1.2 SOA’s find-bind-execute paradigm (Qusay H. Mahmoud, 2005).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-40-320.jpg)
![1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing 9
and the government. The data centers are off-premise entities. Amazon AWS,
Rackspace Cloud Suite, and Microsoft Azure are some of the public cloud service
providers.
1.3.3.2 Private Cloud
In the private cloud, the services are being provisioned and consumed by a particular
organization’s members. The data center is owned, managed, and operated by the
same organization or hired from some third party. The data center can be either
on-premise or off-premise. Eucalyptus, Ubuntu Enterprise Cloud, and VMware
Cloud Infrastructure are some of the players in the private cloud.
1.3.3.3 Community Cloud
The services are provisioned for the organizations that have collaborated on a joint
project. The cloud can be located either on-premise or off-premise. Open Cirrus and
Microsoft government community clouds are a few examples of the community
cloud. The data center could be owned and managed usually by both organizations.
1.3.3.4 Hybrid Cloud
In the hybrid cloud, the services can be provisioned and offered from distinct cloud
infrastructure. The cloud may change over time based on the usage of resources.
Organizations can extend their resources by utilizing both on-premise resources and
cloud resources. Cloud bursting is a temporary arrangement to deal with the sudden
surge in resources demanded by an application running in a private cloud. The addi-
tional resources are hired from the public cloud for the period of burst time.
1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing
In the last decade, cloud computing has evolved as a mature technology. However,
several issues and challenges remains to be satisfactorily addressed.
1.4.1 Resource Management
Resource management is the process of effective delegation of resources and services
among multiple users. The cloud resource can be dynamically provisioned and
released by the clients making resource management in the cloud a complex task.
From the cloud computing perspective, process management is divided into two
phases: Ab-initio resource assignment and Period resource management [12]. Some
of the prominent open research areas that need to be addressed are discussed below.
1.4.1.1 Risk Analysis
The service level agreement defines the fulfillment of Quality of Service parameters
based on specific metrics for the customer’s services. Factors like inadequate
resources, failure of virtual machines, network failure, and non-responsiveness of
applications lead to violation of service level agreements. Since the resources are
dynamically provisioned, there is the requirement to define risk management
processes that will enable service providers to optimize their resources.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-43-320.jpg)
![1 Cloud Computing
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1.4.1.2 Autonomic Resource Management
Elasticity is the essential feature of cloud computing. The resources can be scaled up
and scaled down with time. There is a need to address issues like load management,
virtual machine migration, and network latency. The design of an intelligent resource
management process that can self-manage the elasticity in data centers is an area
that is actively investigated.
1.4.1.3 Standardization
Various cloud service providers have different standards to evaluate the service level
agreements. Heterogeneity and incompatibility between services of the various cloud
service providers is an area that needs thorough investigation. The idea of standard-
ization and benchmarking should be looked upon as a step toward a customer-ori-
ented market.
1.4.1.4 Hybrid and Multi-Cloud Scenarios
Hybrid clouds are the way forward to address the resource crunch faced by academic
institutions, small and medium IT companies, and government organizations. The
available literature defines a mechanism for leasing the additional resources from
the public cloud for the cloud burst time. The hybrid clouds and multi-clouds are
seen as supporting elements and not as long-term solutions. Scheduling algorithms,
fluctuations during the workflow, and reliability issues can be active research areas.
Authors in (Fard et al., 2020) have provided a systematic review of the literature
concerning resolution allocation mechanism contributed in the last decade.
1.4.2 Security Challenges
Like traditional computer networks, cloud computing is subjected to security concerns
involving confidentiality, integrity, availability, and privacy. Increased usage of Internet
and mobile applications has contributed toward an increase in cyber offenses. Various
security issues reported in the literature [16, 17] are closely related to each other. Below
we discuss different security challenges in cloud computing that needs to be addressed.
1.4.2.1 Trust Issues
Public clouds are extensively customer-driven and user-oriented. The multi-tenant
architecture increases the probability of attack from inside the data center. Cloud
services are accessible through the Internet. Online attackers can compromise these
networks. The service provider must address the issue of identification, authoriza-
tion, authentication, and access management. The service level documents should
include the issues of trust management and future activities.
1.4.2.2 Storage
Location independence is one of the characteristics of cloud computing. The user
lacks control over his/her data and is unaware of the data center’s location. The ser-
vice provider deploys data warehouse to manage the data of its customers. Metadata
is data about data. It is often maintained for operational reasons. Metadata can be
exposed to attackers during the transfer of data over the network, issue of confiden-
tiality, integrity, and availability are the main challenges that need to be addressed.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-44-320.jpg)
![1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing 11
1.4.2.3 Application Security
Software applications are offered as a service through SaaS model. Platforms like
play store are the marketplace for such products. Once deployed on the system, such
applications can steal the data, spread malware, tamper the device, lead to repudia-
tion attacks, and initiate denial-of-service. It is crucial to monitor and weed out
malicious programs from the cloud environment.
1.4.2.4 Legal Framework
The data center location could be located in different legal jurisdictions, maybe other
states or even countries. In case of a security breach, the customer needs to comply
with the legal framework prevalent at a data center location. Users need to take care
of the site, country, and city when subscribing to the cloud service. The investigative
framework to control cloud-related cyber crimes is still in the nascent stage. It is a
multidisciplinary area of research that needs active attention.
1.4.3 Green Cloud Computing
Cloud computing has offered several advantages in providing software application
services, middleware services, and platform services. The services are managed
through the large data centers that constitute computing infrastructure (servers,
storage, and networks) and physical electrical infrastructure. According to one
estimate, the world’s data centers consumed 205 terawatt-hours of electricity in
2018. The massive consumption of energy and heat generated by data centers adds
to carbon footprints. Green cloud computing aims to reduce carbon emission
through proper utilization of computing resources, disposal of hazardous com-
puting devices, and reducing electricity consumption [18]. To minimize the energy
consumption following areas can be pursued.
1.4.3.1 Schedule Virtual Machines
Virtual machine scheduling refers to running the virtual machines on different
physical servers in the data center to optimize the computing infrastructure.
Power-Aware virtual machine algorithms aim to consolidate virtual machines to
low utilized physical devices and dynamically shut down other servers to save
energy. Various solutions based on a greedy algorithm [19], genetic algorithm [20],
particle swarm optimization [21], and SDN-Cloud [22] has been proposed in recent
years.
1.4.3.2 Minimizing Operating Inefficiencies
There are plenty of dependencies that are required to run a simple application in the
cloud environment. These dependencies make the system resources hungry and
simultaneously more energy consumption to run heavy applications. The containers
are lightweight stand-alone packages that include the application and its associated
dependencies. The concept of containerization offers the advantages of fast deploy-
ment, reconfiguration, interoperability, and portability. The lightweight virtualiza-
tion technologies such as Docker, Kubernetes, and CoreOS have emerged as popular
alternatives. These lightweight containers are reported to perform faster than the
traditional virtualized technology [23].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-45-320.jpg)
![1 Cloud Computing
12
1.4.3.3 Smart Buildings
Smart buildings is the technology that automatically controls the various building
operations. The discussion on this topic is beyond the scope of this chapter.
1.4.4 Virtual Machine Migration
The virtual machines (VM) can be migrated from one server to another server within data
centers and outside data centers. The migration processes support operations like server
consolidation, server maintenance, energy management, and traffic management. The
VM’s can be transferred in two modes: non-live migration and live migration. In non-live
migrations, the virtualized machine is first suspended and necessary states are captured
and transferred to the destination server. No communication with the virtual machine is
possible during this time. In live migration, the processes are gradually shifted to the
designatedserveraftercertainrequirementsarefulfilled.Threestrategiesareprevalentfor
live migration: pre-copy, post-copy, and hybrid-copy. There are overheads associated
migration process are computation overheads, network overheads, and storage over-
heads.MuchliteraturehasbeencontributedtowardtheVMmigrationprocess.Thefuture
directions in this area are listed below [24, 25].
1.4.4.1 Optimized Process for Memory Migration
The VM’s data in memory must be transferred to the designated machine to ensure
that the process operations are not affected. Memory migration is one of the critical
topics that can contribute toward optimizing the overall migration process. In pre-
copy strategy, the process is transferred to the new machine after certain threshold
conditions are fulfilled. It is felt that more optimized solutions are needed to ensure
that termination of VM on the source machine is done safely. For post-copy and
hybrid-copy there is a need to seek more robust solutions.
1.4.4.2 Migration of VM over Wide Area Networks
Migrating VM’s in data centers connected through wide area networks (WAN)
involves more complexities than migrating the VM’s over LAN in the data center
itself. Several factors like network bandwidth, data size, downtime of process,
heterogeneity in architecture, and reliability need to be addressed.
1.4.4.3 Security
Transferring the VM and its associated data over WAN possesses a security risk.
A strong cryptographic algorithm should be applied when transferring the data to
safeguard from malicious activities. The bugs in software components that are part of
the data migration process should be suitably patched to ensure they are not exploited
during the transfer process.
1.4.5 Simulation Environments
Experimentation in the real environment is a complex problem. Furthermore, these
experiments cannot be repeated since the many factors at the experiment time may
change. The financial cost is another issue that an academic institution may not be able
to bear. Various simulation frameworks have been proposed and widely used to evaluate
the computer application. The interested reader can refer (Margariti, Dimakopoulos and
Tsoumanis, 2020) (Fakhfakh, Kacem and Kacem, 2017) for further reading.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-46-320.jpg)
![1.5 Emerging Trends 13
1.5 Emerging Trends
Based on fact-findings of cloud computing, this section focuses on recent research
areas and usage of cloud applications in areas such as Wireless Sensor and Actuator
Network (WSAN), Fog Computing, Internet of Things (IoTs), Vehicular Adhoc
Network (VANET), Internet of Things, Sustainable Cloud Computing, Serverless
Computing and Blockchains. In the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), motes or
sensors monitor and record physical environment information and relay it to the
computation’s central location. The limitation in computing power, memory,
energy consumption, and scalability drives the need for more resilient computing
solutions. WSAN augments the WSN network by incorporating limited decision-
making capabilities via actors or actuators. However, the massive amount of
information collected from the physical systems and the limitation discussed above
calls for the sensors cloud. As defined by IntelliSys “It is an infrastructure that per-
mits the computations that is pervasive by using the sensors between the cyber and
physical world as an interface, the cluster of data-computer as cyber backbone and
Internet as the medium of communication” [28, 29]. The more emerging para-
digms like Fog Computing and IoT have the research output fallen in this domain.
Issues concerning storage of massive heterogeneous data, security problems
including privacy and authentication, energy efficiency, network access
management, and bandwidth management when cloud sensors increases need
attention from the research community.
Fog computing is an emerging paradigm that brings the cloud closer to the
devices that generate data. The huge amount of unstructured data that is pro-
duced needs to be segregated into times-sensitive data that requires immediate
action by sensory application in the form of machine-to-machine communica-
tion or human- machine interaction. The less time-sensitive data can be pushed
to the cloud for storage and analysis to gain insights into the system. Fog devices
are located near nearby sensors and have computing, storage, and networking
capabilities. These devices work collectively to minimize processing latency time
by bringing compute closer to the data sources. These devices also save band-
width by offloading the data that the device can process on the network edge.
Some of the future directions in this computing field are standardization of SLA’s
for fog devices, Multi-Objective fog computing devices, mobile fog computing,
green fog computing, SDN, and NFV support for fog computing and security
issues [30].
Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET) enables the vehicles to exchange the data for
faster dessimation of information for the reliable and intelligent transportation
system. Autonomous vehicles need to address the requirement of low-latency, high-
mobility, scalability, real-time applications, and security. Fog computing, Software
Defined Networks, and Cloud Computing can provide solutions for the present and
future issues in VANET’s.
Kevin Ashton coined the term Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is machine-to-machine
interaction using the Internet. The technologies endorsed the concept of computing
anywhere, anytime, using any device, in any location and any format or defined as a
set of interrelated and interconnected systems that are collecting and transferring
data through a wireless network without any human interruption. This transfer of
data can be possible using embedded sensors. There are examples of IoTs like smart](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-47-320.jpg)
![1 Cloud Computing
14
homes, smart cities, thermostats, and many more appliances. The devices, some-
times referred to as objects, should be identifiable, must access network and commu-
nicate, and able to sense, interact, and actuate with the environment. WSN, WSAN,
Fog computing, and similar emerging paradigms is fuelling the growth of IoT. The
sheer amount of information, bandwidth requirement, and computing resources
integrate IoT with cloud computing. The cloud centric IoT approach addresses the
problem of scalability, monitoring, deployment, and integration of devices for var-
ious applications.
The growth of the cloud computing industry has accelerated in recent years to
fulfill the user’s requirements. Many data centers have been set up worldwide to
enhance computing power, increased storage, and better user data management.
However, this also contributed to raised carbon footprints. One of the promising
areas is sustainable cloud computing which caters to reducing environmental haz-
ards. Usually, customers face the peculiar problem of “vendor lock-in” where they
are locked in with one particular service provider. A new cloud strategy known as
Omni cloud has been coined up where a customer can avail the services of more
than one service provider. It is different from the hybrid cloud because various ser-
vice providers jointly offer their service in collaboration with each other. Microsoft
and Oracle have already linked their cloud services in the year 2019. Such a multi-
environment cloud offers a variety of services to customers. The integration of tech-
nologies and applications of the multi-cloud environment is a challenging task.
Serverless Computing service is offered to supersede dockers, microservices, and
Kubernetes to manage and deploy the application in the cloud environment. It facil-
itates the user to be more focused on developing and deploying the code. The devel-
oper buys the backend services on the “pay-as-you-go” model. The backend services
are charged based on the computation instead of a fixed bandwidth or server. This
feature enables the auto-scaling feature of the service. Serverless computing is
offered in terms of database, storage, and Function-as-a-Service (FaaS). FaaS pro-
vides a cost-efficient method of implementing microservices. The idea is to execute
the various piece of code on edge in response to an event. Some of the multiple chal-
lenges that need to be addressed are fault tolerance, security, and testing. The var-
ious challenges in the serverless can be referred to in [31].
Blockchain is distributed ledgers that enhance the security of the transaction in a
decentralized environment. The blockchains can be successfully applied to various
PaaS and SaaS applications to enhance security. Customers operating on the cloud
platform can augment various transactions with blockchains. However, a robust
infrastructure should be in place to supplement the resources required to compute
and implement services of blockchains. Refer [32] for detalied issues like integerat-
ing blockchains with IoT, Transperency, Trustability vs. Privacy, and performance.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an emerging paradigm that will fuel the future SaaS
applications deployed on the cloud. The AI technology can optimize resource
management, enhance security, and automize internal processes. Few AI-related
services are IBM Watson, Microsoft Azure Machine Learning, AWS deep Learning,
and Google Cloud Machine Learning Engines.
The other emerging topics to pursue research activities include security algorithms,
interoperability between various heterogeneous devices, context-aware computing,
SDN-NFV, and movement toward integrating various communication protocols.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54429-250505070407-60332691/85/Emerging-Computing-Paradigms-1st-Edition-Umang-Singh-48-320.jpg)
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- 7. Emerging Computing Paradigms Principles, Advances and Applications Edited by Umang Singh ITS, Ghaziabad (U.P.), India (deceased) San Murugesan BRITE Professional Services, Sydney, Australia Ashish Seth Inha University, Incheon, South Korea
- 8. This edition first published 2022 © 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. The right of Umang Singh, San Murugesan, and Ashish Seth to be identified as the authors of this has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Office The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Singh, Umang, 1982-2021, editor. | Murugesan, San, 1978- editor. | Seth, Ashish, editor. Title: Emerging computing paradigms : principles, advances and applications / edited by Umang Singh, ITS, Ghaziabad (U.P.), India (deceased), San Murugesan, BRITE Professional Services, Ashish Seth, Inha University, Incheon, South Korea. Description: First edition. | Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021060411 (print) | LCCN 2021060412 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119813408 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119813415 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119813422 (epub) | ISBN 9781119813439 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Computer science--Technological innovations. | Computer networks--Technological innovations. Classification: LCC QA76.24 .E43 2022 (print) | LCC QA76.24 (ebook) | DDC 004--dc23/eng/20220201 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021060411 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021060412 Cover image: © Rachael Arnott/Shutterstock Cover design by Wiley Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services, Pondicherry, India.
- 9. Dedication We dedicate this book to all the computing pioneers, past and present, who laid foundation for modern computing and contributed to advances in all aspects of computing over the past 75 years—the immense benefits of which not only humans but also “things” around us enjoy today and will continue to relish in the future. Next, we dedicate this volume to Umang Singh, our beloved friend and co-editor of this book, who was a key player in bringing out this book but is no longer with us to see it in print. She couldn’t win the battle against COVID-19 and succumbed to it following an apparent victory that sadly didn’t last long. Her memories and contributions to computing as an academic, as a researcher, and as an excellent human being, will live with us—readers of this book and the community at large.
- 11. vii Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xiii About the Editors xv About the Contributors xvii Part 1 Cloud Computing 1 1 Cloud Computing: Evolution, Research Issues, and Challenges 3 Neeraj Gupta and Asha Sohal 2 Cloud IoT: An Emerging Computing Paradigm for Smart World 19 Ruchi Bhatnagar, Prof (Dr.) Paramjeet Rawat and Dr.Amit Garg Part 2 Quantum Computing and Its Applications 41 3 Quantum Computing: Principles and Mathematical Models 43 Arish Pitchai 4 Quantum Cryptography and Security 63 Anukriti and Vandana Niranjan 5 Quantum Machine Learning Algorithms 79 Renata Wong, Tanya Garg, Ritu Thombre,Alberto Maldonado Romo, Niranjan PN, Pinaki Sen, Mandeep Kaur Saggi and Amandeep Singh Bhatia Part 3 Computational Intelligence and Its Applications 99 6 Computational Intelligence Paradigms in Radiological Image Processing— Recent Trends and Challenges 101 Anil B. Gavade, Rajendra B. Nerli,Ashwin Patil, Shridhar Ghagane and Venkata Siva Prasad Bhagavatula
- 12. Contents viii 7 Computational Intelligence in Agriculture 125 Hari Prabhat Gupta, Swati Chopade and Tanima Dutta 8 Long-and-Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Networks: Architectures and Applications in Stock Price Prediction 143 Jaydip Sen and Sidra Mehtab Part 4 Advances in Wireless Networks 161 9 Mobile Networks: 5G and Beyond 163 Pavel Loskot 10 Advanced Wireless Sensor Networks: Research Directions 177 Richa Sharma 11 Synergizing Blockchain, IoT, and AI with VANET for Intelligent Transport Solutions 193 S.S. Zalte, V.R. Ghorpade and Rajanish K. Kamat Part 5 Blockchain Technology and Cyber Security 211 12 Enterprise Blockchain: ICO Perspectives and Industry Use Cases 213 Ashish Seth, Kirti Seth and Himanshu Gupta 13 Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies: Techniques,Applications and Challenges 235 Snehlata Barde 14 Importance of Cybersecurity and Its Subdomains 247 Parag H. Rughani Index 263
- 13. ix 2021 marks the 75th anniversary of the first general purpose electronic digital com- puter, the 50th anniversary of the microprocessor, and the 40th anniversary of the IBM Personal Computer. These historic developments formed the foundation for amazing continuing advances in computing and IT. In a span of 75 years, from an unproven technology to one that is embedded deeply into every aspect of our work and our daily lives, computers have advanced significantly. The history of the modern computer has its origin to ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), the first general purpose programmable electronic (vac- uum-tube) computer, unveiled to public on February 14, 1946. John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania developed it secretly for the US Army to calculate ballistic trajectory tables more effectively than the mechanical differential analyzers in use at the time. Besides using it for ballistics trajectory research, ENIAC was also used for Monte Carlo simulations, weather predictions, and early hydrogen bomb research. On the eve of unveiling of ENIAC, the US War Department put out a press release hailing it as “a new machine that is expected to revolutionize the mathematics of engineering and change many of our industrial design methods.” Without doubt, electronic digital computers did transform irrevo- cably engineering and mathematics, and also every other conceivable domain. In 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invented the first integrated circuit (IC). Adopting large-scale-integration, very large-scale-integration, and ultra-large-scale integration, the density of ICs continued to increase, closely following the Moore’s Law—the number of transistors in a chip will approximately double every 24 months. In 1971, Intel Corporation, released the world’s first microprocessor, a complete general-purpose central processor unit of a computer on a single IC. Amazing devel- opments in hardware, software, and networking and communication followed, and changed the world irrevocably. As computers have evolved to redefine and transform almost every area of our lives in the past 75 years, they still function on the same fundamental computational con- cepts envisaged at the beginning. As demands on computing, storage, and communi- cation continue to escalate, digital computers based on silicon and conventional architecture approach their limits and face issues related to economics and reli- ability. Thus, certain kinds of problems in domains such as weather forecasting, bio- informatics, robotics, and autonomous systems are faced with limitations tied to the conventional computing paradigm. Preface
- 14. Preface x Research and industry are exploring radical new computing paradigms such as quantum computing and exploring new solutions to yet unresolved problems and challenges—all of which have the potential to bring about a variety of promising new applications. Understanding, mastering, and applying them will empower us to chart the future course of computing. This book explores principles of and potential for some of these paradigms and approaches and examines their current status and future prospects. Book Preview The book presents 14 chapters in five parts, each focusing on an emerging area: cloud computing; quantum computing and its applications; computational intelligence and its applications; advances in wireless networks; and blockchain technology and cyber security. Cloud Computing Cloud computing fundamentally changed the IT industry and the ways applications are built and deployed. This computing paradigm is now being widely used for a variety of applications by individuals, business, and government. The first chapter, “Cloud Computing: Evolution, Research Issues, and Challenges” presents a brief, yet comprehensive, overview of cloud computing and outlines its key technologies and approaches. The chapter also highlights cloud’s challenges and current limitations and discusses several key issues that require further study. Next chapter, “Cloud IoT: An Emerging Computing Paradigm for Smart World,” outlines the role of cloud com- puting and IoT in the emerging smart world and describes a range of applications. It presents a cloud-IoT architecture and briefly describes supporting infrastructure such as edge computing, fog computing, and mist computing. This chapter also dis- cusses challenges and issues in cloud-IoT integration and adoption. Quantum Computing and Its Applications Quantum computing is a new radical computing paradigm. It is fast evolving and attracting growing interest as it has potential to solve computationally intensive problems in a range of areas that are unsolvable even by current supercomputers. The chapter “Quantum Computing: Principles and Mathematical Models” explains the quantum phenomena, superposition and entanglement, and explains introduc- torymathematicsthatdescribeworkingofaquantumcomputer,suchasmathematical notions of single and composite qubits, quantum measurement, and quantum gates and circuits. It also illustrates, with the help of Deutsch Algorithm, supremacy of quantum algorithms over their classical counterparts. The next chapter, “Quantum Cryptography and Security,” beginning with a brief introduction to encryption, provides a brief overview on quantum cryptography. It describes relevant protocols and their applications in cryptography and explains the use of quantum distributive encryption and generation and distribution of quantum keys. It also discusses the effect of noise and spy monitoring over the communication
- 15. Preface xi network and error correction through which the destination user can recover the original message from the corrupted data. Adoption of quantum computing in machine learning presents several new oppor- tunities to solve problems in new smart ways. The Chapter “Quantum Machine Learning Algorithms” presents an overview of recent progress in quantum machine learning and outlines and compares different quantum machine learning algorithms. Computational Intelligence and Its Applications In this part, we present three chapters which discuss application of computational intelligence (CI) in three domains. First, in “Computational Intelligence Paradigms in Radiological Image Processing—Recent Trends and Challenges,” the authors briefly introduce CI and present an overview on radiological information processing using computational intelligence paradigm and discuss emerging trends. They also describe different stages in radiological image processing and explains the use of CI paradigms based on fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks, and evolutionary computation. Next, “Computational Intelligence in Agriculture” discusses various uses of CI in agriculture, such estimation and improvement of crop yield, water conservation, soil and plant health monitoring, and plant disease detection. The chapter also describes various remote sensing methods and different wireless communication protocols and machine learning models used in agriculture applications. Though recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are effective in handling sequential data, they have limitations in capturing the long-term dependencies in the data due to a problem known as vanishing and exploding gradients. Long-and-Short-Term Memory (LSTM), a variant of RNN, overcomes this problem and is very efficient and offers better performance in handling sequential data. The chapter “Long-and-Short- Term Memory (LSTM) Networks: Architectures and Applications in Stock Price Prediction” presents the basic design of LSTM networks and describes their working principles. It discusses and compares six different variants of LSTM models for stock price forecasting. The models were trained and tested on real-world data—the histor- ical NIFTY 50 index of the National Stock Exchange (NSE) of India from December 29, 2014 to July 31, 2020. Advances in Wireless Networks Wireless networks are rapidly advancing and finding application in several areas. The 5G revolution aims to merge all communication networks into one ubiquitous global network with a seamless integration of communication services that are trans- parent to the mobile end users and devices. The chapter “Mobile Networks: 5G and Beyond” reviews main principles of mobile networks and outlines the strategies and challenges in designing 5G mobile networks. In particular, it outlines the concepts, design challenges and key developments in vehicle ad-hoc networks (VANETs) including connected cars, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), and low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites.
- 16. Preface xii Advanced Wireless Sensor Networks (AWSNs) are gaining growing interest among the researchers and practitioners as they have a range of applications like structural health monitoring, precision smart agriculture, smart cities, and smart parking sys- tems. AWSNs, however, present several issues and challenges that need to be addressed. The chapter “Advanced Wireless Sensor Networks: Research Directions” identifies and discusses research areas in AWSNs. It also outlines key principles gov- erning design of mobile networks which are now directly integrated with the 5G cellular networks. The final chapter in this section, “Synergizing Blockchain, IoT and AI with VANET for Intelligent Transport Solutions,” looks at benefits and challenges of embracing the potential of blockchain, IoT and AI with VANET in the context of facilitating intelligent transport solutions. It also examines security aspects of this synergic combination of technologies, showcases novel applications that address UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and outlines future trends in this area. Blockchain Technology and Cyber Security In this part, we feature three chapters focusing on blockchain, cryptocurrencies, and cybersecurity. Enterprise blockchains have the ability to scale well, are less decentralized than a public blockchain, which matches their use case, and presents fewer potential secu- rity issues as they are permissioned networks. The chapter “Enterprise Blockchain,” introduces enterprise blockchain and examines a few of its use cases. The chapter “Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies: Techniques, Applications, and Challenges” describes key elements of blockchain and its features, highlights few applications, and identifies the limitations and challenges. The final chapter, “Importance of Cyber Security and Its Subdomains,” briefly dis- cusses key aspects of cybersecurity and identifies and discusses cybersecurity subdo- mains. It also identifies emerging threats that need to be addressed further. The book gives a glimpse of emerging computing technologies and paradigms and identifies some of limitations and challenges that computing presents. It also iden- tifies research issues in the respective areas that require further study. We encourage researchers and developers from multidisciplinary fields to learn from each other and work together to further advance computing and its applications. Umang Singh Ashish Seth San Murugesan
- 17. xiii Acknowledgements Publication of this book wouldn’t have been possible without the contribution, support, and cooperation of several people. We acknowledge and appreciate their contributions and support. First, we would like to thank each one of the chapter authors for enthusiastically contributing to the book, and thereby sharing their expertise, experiences and insights with the readers. We gratefully acknowledge their support and cooperation. We also extend our gratitude to the reviewers who have provided valuable comments on the chapter manuscripts. Next, the editorial team at Wiley deserves our high commendation for their key roles in publishing this book and in ensuring its quality. In particular, we would like to thank Sandra Grayson, Commissioning Editor; Juliet Booker, Managing Editor; and Becky Cowan, Editorial Assistant for their excellent enthusiasm, support, and cooperation. We would like to thank the staff at Integra for their excellent work on this book which helped to shape and improve the presentation. We highly commend their professionalism and commitment. Finally, we would like to thank our respective family members for their encourage- ment, support, and cooperation which enabled us to make this venture a reality and enjoyable.
- 19. xv Umang Singh was Associate Professor at Institute of Technology & Science, Ghaziabad, UP, India. She has been involved with research and academia for more than 17 years. She was renowned for her keen interest in the areas of Mobile Networks, IoT, Edge Computing and Machine Learning. She has published over 80 research papers in reputed journals and conferences like ACM, Elsevier, Inderscience, IEEE, Springer indexed in SCI, ESCI, SCIE, and Scopus. She served as Guest Editor for special issues of journals including International Journal of e-Collaborations (IGI Global, USA, 2020), and International Journal of Information Technology (BJIT 2010) and edited six Conference Proceedings, three souvenirs and two books. Dr Umang was on the Editorial Board for several reputed journals including Inderscience IJFSE (Switzerland), on the Board of Referees for the International Journal of Information Technology, BJIT, Springer and the Technical Programme Committee Member of national and international Conferences. She was a senior member of IEEE and life member of Computer Society (CSI). San Murugesan is Director of BRITE Professional Services and an Adjunct Professor with Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia. He has vast experi- ence in both academia and industry. He is formerEditor-in-ChiefoftheIEEEComputer Society’s IT Professional magazine and co-editor of several books, including the Encyclopaedia of Cloud Computing (Wiley and IEEE), Harnessing Green IT: Prin- ciples and Practices and Web Engineering (Springer). He guest edited 40 journal special issues and served on editorial boards of sev- eral reputed international journals. About the Editors
- 20. About the Editors xvi He worked as a Senior Research Fellow at the NASA Ames Research Center in California and served as professor of computer science at Southern Cross University in Australia. Prior to these, he worked at the Indian Space Agency in Bangalore in senior roles and led development of onboard microcomputer systems. He is a Distinguished Speaker of ACM and Distinguished Visitor of IEEE Computer Society. He is a fellow of the Australian Computer Society and the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, a Golden Core member of IEEE Computer Society and a Life Senior Member of IEEE. For further details visit www.tinyurl.com/san1bio. Ashish Seth is an author, consultant, researcher and teacher. He is a Professor at the School of Global Convergence Studies, Inha University, South Korea. He is also a visiting facultyatTSI,Riga,Latvia.HeisPhD(Computer Science) in the area of Information Systems from Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India and holds and MPhil(CS) and MCA degree. He has published more than 40 research papers in indexed journals. He has authored four books and several book chapters. He also edited two books and one indexed journal. He is senior member IEEE, life member CSI and an active member of International societies like IACSIT, IAENG, etc. He is also ACM-Distinguished speaker. He has been involved with research and academia for more than 17 years. He worked at various universities in India and abroad holding different positions and responsibilities. He has organized and participated actively in various conferences, workshops and seminars. He served as Subject Expert under the European Union in the areas of Strategic Specialization. His research interests include Service Oriented Architecture, Optimal Computing, Cloud Computing and Blockchain Technologies. He finds interest in reading and writing articles on emerg- ing technologies (https://www.linkedin.com/in/dr-ashish-seth-877b1116)
- 21. xvii About the Contributors Chapter 1 Neeraj Gupta received the BTech Degree in Computer Engineering and M.Tech in Computer Science from Kurukshetra University and JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth (Deemed University) in 1999 and 2006 respectively, and the PhD degree from University School of Information, Communication & Technology at Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delh in 2016. From October 1999 to July 2014 he worked as Assistant Professor in Computer Science Engineering in Hindu College of Engineering, Sonepat, India. He is working as Associate Professor with School of Engineering and Technology at K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram, India since July 2014. He has successfully guided three PhD scholars. He is Professional Member of ACM and life member of Computer Science of India. His research interests are in area of Cloud Computing, Edge Computing, Software Defined Networks, Blockchains, Sensor Networks and Performance Modeling and Analysis of networks. Asha Sohal received the BTech Degree in Computer Engineering and MTech in Information Technology from Kurukshetra University and Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi(GGSIPU) in 2003 and 2011 respectively, and pursuing PhD degree from Department of Computer Science and Applications, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. From August 2003 to July 2007 she worked as senior lecturer in Computer Science Engineering in reputed colleges of engineering, India. From August 2008 to July 2011 and July 2011 to July 2013 she worked as Assistant Professor in Computer Science Engineering in KIIT, Gurgaon and Amity University, Gurgaon respectively. She is working as Assistant Professor with the School of Engineering and Technology at K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram, India since July 2013. Her research interests are in area of Cloud Computing, Fog Computing, Wireless Sensor Networks and MANETs.
- 22. About the Contributors xviii Chapter 2 Ruchi Bhatnagar is a dynamic and prominent research scholar and academic having 15+ years of experience in teaching and study at IIMT University, Meerut. Her primary research fields are Networking and Algorithm, ranging from theory to design to implementation. She has pub- lished her research in several international and national journals and organized and served inter- national conferences program committees at IIMT University, Meerut. Paramjeet Rawat is Professor at the IIMT Engineering College, Meerut. She is a reviewer on several reputed international journals at Elsevier, Inderscience, IJAIS, IJARCSEE, TIJCSA and has published her research in more than 25 reputed and referred journals. She had also presented a curriculum on eth- ical education in Amherst College, USA; where she represented team India and received a letter of appreciation from MLI, USA for her excellent work. She has good analytical and problem solving skills and guided of many PhD scholars. Dr. Amit Garg is a dynamic and vibrant academic having 19 years of experience. Currently he is working as HoD, Department of CSE, IIMT Engineering College, Meerut. He is a life-time member of CSI, IANEG and ISRD. He is an eminent scholar with his international publica- tions including SCOPUS and ESCI Journals. Throughout his carrer he has also worked as SPOC for IBM, WIPRO, TCS, and SAP.
- 23. About the Contributors xix Chapter 3 Arish Pitchai is working as Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be university), Bengaluru, India. He is also associated as Quantum Scientist, Quantum Machine Learning Lab, BosonQ Psi Pvt. Ltd, Bhilai, India. After completing his PhD in quantum game theory, Arish Pitchai worked for a while as an associate consultant in Atos, Quantum R&D. Then he joined CHRIST (Deemed to be University) as an Assistant Professor. Thiruselvan Subramanian works as Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Presidency University, Bengaluru, India. He pursued his PhD in cloud com- puting technology and his research interests include computer vision and quantum computing. Chapter 4 Vandana Niranjan is working as Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University Delhi, India. She graduated in the year 2000 and received her BE degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Government Engineering College (now University Institute of Technology of Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya) Bhopal. In the year 2002, she received her MTech degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (I.I.T) Roorkee with VLSI Design as specialization. In the year 2015, she was awarded her PhD degree in the area of Low Voltage VLSI Design from University School of Engineering & Technology, GGSIP University, Delhi. She has 20 years’ teaching and research experience at Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University, Delhi. Her areas of interest includes MOSFET body bias techniques and low-voltage low-power analog CMOS circuit design. She has several publications to her credit in various international journals and conferences and book chapters. Anukriti has recently completed her Masters in technology in the area of VLSI and Chip design at Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University, Delhi, India. She graduated in the year 2017 and received her BTech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi. She is currently working as a Research Intern under the Openlabs Programme at CERN, Geneva where she is pursing her research career in Quantum Machine Learning and Computing. She is an aspiring researcher and scientist and has published in indexed international conferences when her main area of focus was Machine Learning, Deep learning, Dark Matter Physics and Applied Cosmology.
- 24. About the Contributors xx Chapter 5 Renata Wong received her MA degree in Sinology, as well as BSc. and MSc. degrees in Computer Science from Leipzig University, Germany, in 2008, 2011, and 2013, respectively. She holds a PhD in Computer Science (Quantum Computing) from Nanjing University, PRC, and is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the Physics Division, National Center for Theoretical Sciences in Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C, working in quantum computation and information. Her main research fields are quantum computation and information (especially quantum algorithms), protein structure prediction, foundations of physics, and linguistics. Up to date, she has pub- lished over two dozen journal papers, conference papers and book chapters in English, Chinese and German. Within the field of quantum computing, she has, among others, developed and successfully simulated two quantum algorithms for protein structure prediction. In the area of physics, her contributions are in the research on the logical consistency of physics theories, with focus on the special and the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. In addition to English and her native Polish, she is fluent in Mandarin Chinese, German, and Russian. The current affiliation is: Physics Division, National Center for Theoretical Sciences, Taipei, Taiwan. Tanya Garg is a student at the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Engineering Physics with a minor in Computer Science and Engineering. Interested in the fundamental of physics and computer science, she intends to pursue the field of quantum computing and the related areas of quantum communication and quantum algorithms due to their interdisciplinary nature and the technological potential they propose. She has conducted undergrad- uate research at renowned laboratories and is the recipient of some prestigious schol- arships, namely the DAAD WISE scholarship and the Charpak Lab Scholarship. Ritu Thombre completed her BTech from Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology in Computer Science and Engineering. She recently joined CITI India as Technology Analyst. Her primary interests are Cryptography, Machine Learning, Quantum Mechanics and Astrophysics. She likes to design new machine learning algorithms to solve various problems that have real world applications. She is deeply fascinated by applications of Quantum Computing in Cryptography and Deep Learning. Currently we live in a “vacuum-tube” era of Quantum Computers and hopes to contribute to the advancement of Quantum Computing to achieve “quan- tum-supercomputer” era someday. Alberto Maldonado Romo is a PhD student in Computer Science at the Center for Computing Research, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Mexico, where he has collaborated with the Fermilab and CERN research centres on the GeantVproject, and did his Master’s thesis on quantum image processing. He a technical reviewer of the book Quantum Computing with Silq Programming. Alberto is an administrator for the non-for-profit company Quantum Universal Education, he has conducted workshops and webinars on introduction to quantum computing, designed comics introducing beginning quantum
- 25. About the Contributors xxi computing concepts, and created tutorials in five different quantum programming languages. Niranjan PN, a current Master’s student of Physics at the University of Cologne, is also a quantum developer in a promising startup - BosonQ Psi Pvt.Ltd in India. He has more than two years of experience in the field of quantum computing. His area of interest lies in fault-tolerant quantum hardware and variational quantum algorithms. He is currently working on different projects one of which is covid detection using quantum machine learning. He has presented two lectures; one in Kongunadu Arts and Science College, Coimbatore, India on quantum computing as a beginner and one at the Government College of Engineering, Thanjavur under the Faculty Development Program on Quantum Computing organized by AICTE Training and Learning (ATAL) Academy. He is also a freelance consultant on how to start one’s career in quantum computing. Pinaki Sen is a final year Electrical Engineering undergrad at National Institute of Technology, Agartala, India. His interest lies primarily in the domain of Quantum Computing and Machine Learning. He has research experience in Quantum Machine Learning, Quantum Error Correction, Quantum-dot Cellular Automata and related fields. He has previously worked as a research intern at the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India. Mandeep Kaur Saggi is presently pursuing a PhD in Computer Science Engineering at Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Patiala. She is working on multi- level ensemble modelling for predicting the Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) and Crop Evapotranspiration for CropWater Requirement, IrrigationWater Requirement, and Irrigation Scheduling using Artificial Intelligence, Deep Learning, and Machine Learning techniques. She completed her MTech in Computer Science Engineering at D.A.V University, Jalandhar. She completed her BTech in Computer Science & Engineering from Punjab Technical University. Her area of interest lies in Deep Learning, Machine Learning, Big Data Analytics, Quantum Computing, & Cloud Computing. Amandeep Singh Bhatia is working as a Postdoc in Institute of Theoretical Physics at University of Tubingen, Germany. He is developing quantum computational models and quantum algorithms with new artificial intelligence methods for physics, and novel quantum machine learning techniques. He completed his PhD degree in the realm of Quantum Computation and Information at the Computer Science & Engineering Department at Thapar University in July 2020. He has more than six years of work experi- ence in quantum computing and technologies. He contributed to the progress of quantum automata theory and developed quantum computational models for Biology, Chemistry and Tensor network theory. Presently, he is contributing to the progress of quantum machine learning. He received his BTech and MTech degrees in Computer Science & Engineering in 2010 and 2013, respectively. Up to date, he has published over two dozen journal papers, conference papers and book chapters on several aspects of quantum com- putation and information.
- 26. About the Contributors xxii Chapter 6 Anil B. Gavade is a Associate Professor at the KLS Gogte Institute of Tech nology, Belagavi, Karnataka, India, in the Depart ment of Electronics and Communication Engi neering. He received a BE degree in Instrumentation Engineering from Karna taka University, Dharwad, an MTech in Digital Electronics and PhD in Electri- cal and Electronics Engineering from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. His main research interests include Computer Vision and Machine Learning Applications to Biomedical Imagery and Satellite Imagery. Rajendra B. Nerli is a Professor and Head, Department of Urology, JN Medical College, KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research (Deemed-to-be- University), Belagavi. Dr Nerli has pub- lished over 300 research articles in peer-reviewed indexed journals. He has carried out clinical experimental and field research in the areas of urology, artificial intelligence and medical sciences. As a research mentor, he has guided a number of students leading to MCh and PhD Degrees. He is the Director of Clinical ser- vice at KLES Dr Prabhakar Kore Hospital & MRC, Belagavi. Dr Ashwin S. Patil is presently Professor and Head, Department of Radio-diagnosis, JNMC Belagavi. He completed his Medical School (MBBS) in 1994 and MD-Radiology in 1997 from Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Belagavi and Karnataka University, Dharwad. He has over 27 years of teaching experience and has mentored and guided over 50 postgraduates. He has authored over 17 publications, four of which are published in leading international journals and has presented over 66 presentations (paper, e-poster). He also holds and has held several posts, prominent among them being Board of Studies Member for KAHER since 2014 and BLDE University (2016–2019), Affiliation Inquiry Committee member for
- 27. About the Contributors xxiii Goa University (2016–2017) and Life members of IRIA (Indian Radiology and Imaging Association) and IMA (Indian Medical Association). His subspecialty inter- ests include CT and MRI reporting. He is currently involved in research activities on Artficial Intelligence and tuberculosis in collaboration with Thomas Jefferson University, USA. Shridhar Ghagane is currently working as Research Scientist (R&D) at Urinary Biomarkers Research Centre, KLES Dr. Prabhakar Kore Hospital & Medical Research Centre, Belagavi, India. His area of expertise is in Medical Biotechnology, Urologic-oncology, Cancer Biomarkers and Artificial Intelligence. He has published over 150 research articles in national and international peer-reviewed journals. Currently, he is supervising two PhD candidates at the KLE Academy of Higher Education and Research, Belagavi. Venkata Siva Prasad Bhagavatula is working as Principal Systems Engineer with Medtronic Innovation and Engineering center, Hyderabad, India. He completed his BE degree in Instrumentation Engineering from Karnataka University, Dharwad and completed his Master of Science (Online) in Data science from Liverpool John Moores University, UK. He holds a patent, launched three new products in various roles in Research and Development in the Healthcare industry. He has 18 years of experience in the areas of hardware and systems engineering. His main area of work is in systems engi- neering. His main interests include medical devices, data science and machine learning applications to medical imaging. Chapter 7 Hari Prabhat Gupta is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi, India. Previously, he was a Technical Lead at Samsung R&D Bangalore, India. He received his PhD and MTech degrees in Computer Science and Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati in 2014 and 2010 respectively; and his BE degree in Computer Science and Engineering from Govt. Engineering College Ajmer, India. His research interests include the Internet of Things (IoT), Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), and Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). Dr. Gupta has received
- 28. About the Contributors xxiv various awards such as Samsung Spot Award for outstanding contribution in research, IBM GMC project competition, and TCS Research Fellowship. He has guided three PhD thesis and five MTech dissertations. He has completed two spon- sored projects and has published three patients and more than 100 IEEE journal and conference papers. Swati Chopade received her MTech Degree in Computer Science and Engineering from VJTI, Mumbai, India. Presently, she is pursuing a PhD at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT (BHU) Varanasi. Her research interests include machine learning, sensor networks, and cloud computing. Tanima Dutta is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, India. Previously, she was a researcher in TCS Research & Innovation, Bangalore, India. She received a PhD from the Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati in 2014. Her PhD was supported by TCS (Tata Consultancy Services) Research Fellowship and she received SAIL (Steel Authority of India Limited) Undergraduate Scholarship for perusing her BTech degree. Her research interests include (major) Deep Neural Networks, Machine Learning, Computer Vision, and Image Forensics and (minor) Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) and Intelligent Internet of Things (IIoT). Chapter 8 Jaydip Sen has around 28 years of experi- ence in the field of networking, communica- tion and security and machine learning, and artificial intelligence. Currently, he is associ- ated with Praxis Business School as Professor and the Head of the School of Computing and Analytics. He is also a visiting Professor to XLRI Jamshedpur and also an IBM ICE (Innovation Center for Education) Subject Matter Expert (SME). His research areas include security in wired and wireless net- works, intrusion detection systems, secure routing protocols in wireless ad hoc and sen- sor networks, privacy issues in ubiquitous and pervasive communication, machine learning, deep learning and artificial intelligence. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals and refereed conference proceedings, and 22 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, like Springer, CRC press, IGI-Global, etc., and four books published by reputed internal
- 29. About the Contributors xxv publishing house. He is a member of ACM and IEEE. He has been listed among the top 2% most cited scientists in the world as per a study conducted by Stanford University which has been published in a paper in PLOS ONE journal in September 2020. Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has an MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Artificial Intelligence. Ms. Mehtab has pub- lished ten papers in reputed international confer- ences and two papers in prestigious international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized at the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books published by IntechOpen, London, UK. Seven of her book chapters have been published in the December 2021 volume by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Bangalore, India. Chapter 9 Pavel Loskot joined the ZJU-UIUC Institute in Haining, China, in January 2021 as the Associate Professor after spending 14 years at Swansea University in the UK. He received his PhD degree in Wireless Communications from the University of Alberta in Canada, and the MSc and BSc degrees in Radioelectronics and Biomedical Electronics, respectively, from the Czech Technical University of Prague in the Czech Republic. He is the Senior Member of the IEEE, Fellow of the Higher Education Academy in the UK, and the Recognized Research Supervisor of the UK Council for Graduate Education. He has been involved in numerous telecommunication engineering projects since 1996. His current research interests focus on the problems involving statistical signal processing and importing methods from Telecommunication Engineering and Computer Science to other disciplines in order to improve the efficiency and information power of system modeling and analysis.
- 30. About the Contributors xxvi Chapter 10 Richa Sharma completed her MTech (Computer Science & Engineering), MS, and BSc from Guru Nanak Dev University (GNDU), Amritsar. Ms. Sharma has 4+ years of teaching experience. She has expertise in CS subjects like Computer Networks, Data Structures and Algorithms and has taught these subjects to engineering students. Currently, she is pursuing her doctoral degree in the area of Wireless Sensor Networks. Also, she is a keen researcher and up to 2020 has published 17 research papers. She has pre- sented her research work at international level in IEEE conferences and has had her work published in SCI, SCIE and Scopus Indexed International Journals. She has also contributed voluntarily as a reviewer for reputed International Journals and IEEE Conferences. Her primary areas of interests include the Wireless Sensor Networks and Evolutionary Techniques. Chapter 11 Sheetal Zalte is assistant professor in Computer Science Department at Shivaji University, Kolhapur, India. She pursued her a BSc from Pune University, India and MSc from Pune, India. She earned her PhD in Mobile Adhoc NetworkatShivajiUniversity.Shehas14yearsofteaching experience in computer science. She has published 20+ research papers in reputed international journals and conferences including IEEE (also available online). She has also authored book chapters with Springer, CRC. Her research areas are MANET, VANET, Blockchain Security. Vijay Ram Ghorpade has completed PhD in Computer Science and Engineering from Shri Guru Govindsinghji Institute of Engineering and Technology (An Autonomous Institute of Govt. of Maharashtra), Nanded in 2008. He has more than 30 years of teaching experience at different levels. Presently he is working as the Principal, Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering, Kolhapur. His area of interest is in Internet Security, Mobile Ad hoc Networks, Authentication, Cloud Security, Block Chain, etc.Sofarhehaspublishedmorethan76papers in peer reviewed national and international
- 31. About the Contributors xxvii journals of repute. He has presented more than 69 papers in national and interna- tional conferences organized by IEEE, ACM, CSI. He is a member of various professional bodies such as, ACM, IEEE Computer Society, ISTE, CSI, CRSI, ISACA. He received ‘Best Engineering Principal Award’ from ISTE-Maharashtra-Goa Section in 2015. He has filed five patents, and two of which have been published in the public domain. Rajanish K. Kamat is currently holding the position of Dean, Faculty of Science & Technology in addition to Professor in Electronics and Head of the Department of Computer Science at Shivaji University, Kolhapur a NAAC A++ accredited HEI. He is also Member of Management Council, Academic Council and Senate of the University. Until recently he also served as Director, IQAC (2014–2020) and Director, Innovation, Incubation & Linkages (2018–2020). He has to his credit 200+ publications in journals from reputed publishing houses such as IEEE, Elsevier, Springer in addition to 16 reference books from reputed international publishers such as Springer, UK and River Publishers, Netherlands and exem- plary articles on ICT for Encyclopedia published by IGI. He is a Young Scientist awardee of Department of Science and Technology, Government of India under Fast Track Scheme. Dr. Kamat is also currently working as an Adjunct Professor in Computer Science for the reputed Victorian Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. Chapter 12 Ashish Seth is an author, consultant, researcher and teacher. He is a Professor at School of Global Convergence Studies, Inha University, South Korea and is deputed at Inha University Tashkent, Uzbekistan. He is PhD (Computer Science) in the area of Information Systems from Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India and holds MPhil(CS) and MCA degree. He worked at various universities in India and abroad holding different positions and responsi- bilities. He is senior member IEEE, life member CSI and an active member of International societies like ACM, IACSIT, IAENG, etc. He has delivered many invited talks and also serving as ACM-Distinguished speaker under ACM-DSP program. He has been a consultant with many projects and associated with project granted by Indian government and European Union. His research interests include Service Oriented Architecture, Cloud Computing and
- 32. About the Contributors xxviii Blockchain Technologies. He finds interest in reading and writing articles on emerg- ing technologies. Kirti Seth is researcher and academic. She has a PhD (Computer Science and Engineering) in the area of Component Based Systems from Department of Computer Sciences and Engineering, from AKTU, Lucknow, India and an MTech (Computer Science) from Banasthali Vidyapeeth, Banasthali, Rajasthan, india. She also holds an MSc (CS) degree and has been into research and academia for the last 16 years. She is presently working as Associate Professor at Inha University in Tashkent, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. She has published more than 40 research papers in reputed journals like ACM, Springer and Elsevier and authored four books. She has been participating and organizing seminar, conferences, workshops, expert lecturers and technical events to share knowledge among academics, researchers and to promote opportu- nities for new researchers. She has provided training programs for students and fac- ulties on various areas of computer science including Google’s techmaker event-2018. She has given keynote talks at many international conferences. Her current research interests include Service Oriented Architecture, Bio Inspired Optimizations, Neural Networks and Component Based Systems. She has been awarded “Young Scientist in Software Engineering-2017” in ARM 2017. She also received “Most Promising Women Educationist” of the year award in India Excellence Summit 2017, on 19th August 2017. Himanshu Gupta is working as an Associate Professor in the reputed international university Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida in India. He completed all his academic as well as professional education from the reputed Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh), India. He has visited Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Macau, China and United Arab Emirates for his academic and research work. He has delivered many Technical Sessions on “Network Security & Cryptography” in the field of Information Technology in various reputed International Conferences, World Summit and other foreign universities as an Invited Speaker. He has more than 75 research papers and articles in the field of Information Technology, which have been published in various reputed Scopus and other indexed conference proceedings and journals. He has writ- ten a number of books in the area of Information Security, Network Security and Cryptography as a main author published by reputed national and international publishers.
- 33. About the Contributors xxix He has successfully filed a number of patents in the area of Network Security and Cryptography as an Inventor, which have been published in the “International Journal of Patents” by Patent Department, Govt. of India. He has delivered Online IT Lectures as an Invited Speaker to students of 16 African Countries under the e-Pan African Project sponsored by Govt. of India at Amity University, Noida. Chapter 13 Snehlata Barde is working as Professor at MAT’S University, Raipur, (C.G.). She received her PhD in Information Technology and Computer Applications in 2015 from Dr. C. V. Raman University Bilaspur, (C.G.). She obtained her MCA from Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, (C.G.) and MSc (Mathematics) from Devi Ahilya University Indore, (M.P.). Her research interest includes Digital Image Processing and its Applications in Biometric Security, Forensic Science, Pattern Recognition, Segmentation, Simulation and Modulation, Multimodal Biometric, Soft Computing Techniques, cyber crime, IoT. She has published 61 research papers in various international and national journals and conferences. She has attended 36 seminars, workshop and training programs, she has published six book chapters. She has 22-years’ teaching experience from GEC Raipur, NIT Raipur, SSGI Bhilai. She has reviewed the translated files of the course Cloud Computing offered by IIT Kharagpur in Marathi language. Chapter 14 Parag H. Rughani obtained his Master’s Degree in Computer Applications and PhD in computer science from Saurashtra University. He is currently working as an Associate Professor in Digital Forensics at the National Forensic Sciences University, India. He has more than 16 years of experience in academia and has published more than 16 research arti- cles in reputed international journals. He has delivered more than 34 Expert Talks at various levels. His research interests are broadly in the area of Cyber Security and Digital Forensics. He is currently working on Machine Learning, Memory Forensics, Malware Analysis and IoT Security and Forensics.
- 37. 3 Emerging Computing Paradigms: Principles, Advances and Applications, First Edition. Edited by Umang Singh, San Murugesan and Ashish Seth. © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1 Cloud Computing Evolution, Research Issues, and Challenges Neeraj Gupta and Asha Sohal School of Engineering and Technology, K.R. Mangalam University, Gurugram 1.1 Introduction A computing process requires resources like processors, memory, network, and software. The traditional computing model for IT services requires investing in the computing infrastructure. “On-premise” solution requires that you purchase and deploy required hardware and software at your premise. Such a solution involves a capital expenditure on the equipment and recurring operational spending on the maintenance and technological refreshes required from time-to-time. Another pos- sible solution can be co-location facilities where the facility owner can provide services like power, cooling, and physical security. The customer needs to deploy its server, storage, and other equipment necessary for the operation. This solution reduces the capital expenditure and increases the operational cost as per the service- agreement agreed upon for hiring the services. Cloud computing aggregates various computing resources, both hardware and software, such that they are viewed as one large pool and accessed as utility services. The word utility refers to hire up the resources until the demand exists and service provider charges for resource usage. The term “pay-per-use” or “pay- as-you-go” is used to represent cloud computing’s commercial aspect. Most users define cloud computing as IT services located somewhere on the cloud, where the cloud presents data centers’ location. It is essential to mention here that co-location data centers are off-premises and private clouds are typically on-premise. The National Institute of Standard and Technology (NIST) [1] define cloud com- puting as “Cloud Computing is a model for enabling ubiquitious, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provi- sioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment models.” The definition essentially means that the cloud com- puting processes are automated, dynamic, and transparent to ensure minimal human intervention. This chapter is organized in the following way: Section 1.2 discusses various technologies that contributed to the evolution of cloud computing. Section 1.3
- 38. 1 Cloud Computing 4 explains the characteristics of the cloud, service models, and cloud deployment models. Section 1.4 illustrates various research issues and challenges that con- front cloud computing. Section 1.5 describes emerging trends and research chal- lenges associated with them. 1.2 Evolution of Cloud Computing Cloud computing involves hardware, software processes, and networking. Figure 1.1 illustrates multiple technologies that contribute to the initiation, development, and management of cloud computing services. This section briefly describes key technologies such as grid computing, utility computing, ubiquitous computing, ser- vice-oriented architecture, and virtualization that form the foundation pillars for cloud computing. 1.2.1 Grid Computing It is the form of loosely coupled distributed computing. The resources associated with heterogeneous systems are remotely connected. The system can share each other resources transparently. The system users can access and utilize the resources, including processing power, memory, and data storage. The grid is more involved with huge, non-interactive tasks where the computation can occur independently without communicating intermediate results between the processor [2]. Grid computing helps the service providers to create a huge pool of resources without investing in large and expensive mainframes. Arpanet Internet World Wide Web Web Services Web 2.0 Service Oriented Architecture Service Bureau Utility Computing Grid Computing Automatic Computing Platform Virtualization Open Source Software Software as a Service Cloud Services Salesforce.com Amazon Web Service VMWare IBM-Juniper Microsoft Azure Google Apps Figure 1.1 Evolution of Cloud Computing (Arockiam, Monikandan and Parthasarathy, 2017).
- 39. 1.2 Evolution of Cloud Computing 5 1.2.2 Utility Computing Utility computing is a service provisioning model in which a service provider makes computing resources and infrastructure management available to the customer as needed and charges them based on usage rather than a flat rate. It is a business model where customers pay utility company/service providers to access and utilize the computing as per their requirements. The computing resources can be dynami- cally acquired and subsequently released by the customer. The pay-as-you-go model helps in better resource management of pooled resources offered by the service pro- vider. The customer can save the capital expenditure and recurring operational expenditure toward infrastructure to run the business [4]. 1.2.3 Ubiquitous Computing Mark Weiser first proposed the idea of ubiquitous computing in 1988 [5]. The authors’ impression was to integrate computing into the everyday life of people transparently and seamlessly. It was envisioned that computing devices would come into various sizes, each developed to perform a particular task. The system will consist of specialized hardware and software that can communicate using wired media, radio waves, and infrared waves. The work laid the foundation of context- aware systems and innovative applications [6]. Pervasive computing is the conver- gence of mobile computing, ubiquitous computing, consumer electronics, and the Internet. 1.2.4 Service-Oriented Architecture Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a software design process that enables software components to access other software components’ functionality through a communication protocol over a network. The software components, viewed as services, offer a discrete functionality that can be accessed, updated, and acted upon remotely by other services to fulfill a task. The design promotes the loosely coupled distributed software components that can communicate with each other using a message-passing communication model. The SOA philosophy is independent of vendor, product, and technology [7]. Web services are based on the concept of SOA. W3C defines web services as a “software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. It has an interface described in a machine-processable format specifically web service description language (WSDL). Other systems interact with the web service in a manner prescribed by its description using Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) messages, typically conveyed using HTTP with an XML serialization in conjunction with other web-related standards” [8]. Figure 1.2 illustrates the Find-Bind-Execute paradigm that defines the working of the web services. The service provider publishes the software components as service in a common registry. The service consumer can find the particular service using WSDL. Once the service is located service requester can invoke or initiate the web service at runtime.
- 40. 1 Cloud Computing 6 1.2.5 Virtualization Personal computing endorsed the single operating image per machine. The operating system and hardware are tightly coupled with each other. This kind of arrangement does not fully utilize the power of underlying hardware. Whenever multiple applica- tions are initiated, resource conflicts can occur, leading to under performance of the individual applications. Virtualization is a framework that divides physical computing components into numerous virtual resources. It relies on the software to manage var- ious resources virtually and distribute to multiple applications flexibly and adhering to specific requirements. The goals of the virtualization architecture are equivalence, resource control, and efficiency [10]. The large pool of computing resources, including server, memory, network, operating systems, and applications are virtualized in data centers. These virtualized resources are offered to the end-users as metered services. 1.3 Cloud Computing Essentials The US National Institute of Standard and Technology has defined cloud computing through five essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment model [1]. 1.3.1 Characteristics On-Demand Self-Service In comparison to on-premise solutions and co-location facilities, the resources are pro- visioned automatically. There is no human interaction whenever the customer wants to access the resources offered by the service provider. The cloud computing processes involvedinprovisioningareautonomous,whichhelpscutthecostandadapttodynamic changes transparently while hiding the internal complexity to maintain such a system. 1.3.1.1 Broad Network Access Services are delivered by the service provider and availed by the customer through a standard communication protocol. The applications can be accessed irrespective of the type of device. The only requirement is that machines should be online. Find Bind and Invoke Contract Registry Register Service Consumer Service Provider Figure 1.2 SOA’s find-bind-execute paradigm (Qusay H. Mahmoud, 2005).
- 41. 1.3 Cloud Computing Essentials 7 1.3.1.2 Resource Pooling Various computing resources, including server time, storage, network, operating system, middleware, and application are aggregated and offered as services through the virtualized workspace. Multiple customers, also referred to as tenants, can share these resources in an isolated manner. There is a sense of location independence where the user has no control over the way data is stored and retrieved from the data centers. 1.3.1.3 Rapid Elasticity The resources can be scaled up or released automatically anytime as per the require- ment raised by the customer. The dynamic provisioning of the resources helps the service providers optimize the utilization of the data center resources. 1.3.1.4 Measured Services The resources availed by the customer are usually metered services. The metered service supports the “pay-per-use” or “pay-as-you-go” models. It helps both the ser- vice providers and customers to monitor resource usage. 1.3.2 Service Models The resources in cloud computing are managed in a centralized manner. The virtual- ized resources offered as service to the customer include infrastructure, operating system, middleware, runtime system, and software applications. The cloud service model is represented as a stack of these services and divide broadly into three com- ponents. The infrastructure components include the computing model, storage model, and network model and forms the stack’s first component. The operating system, middleware, and runtime systems are usually taken as the second layer of the stack. Various software applications are running on the top of the stack form the third layer. 1.3.2.1 Infrastructure as a Service The on-demand computing services, which involve computation, storage, and net- work comes under Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). The services sometimes extended up to the operating system level. Instead of buying infrastructure, the orga- nizations with low capital purchase these services as fully outsourced services on demand. Organizations can deploy their operating systems, middleware, runtime environment, databases, and applications. Amazon EC2, Amazon S3 bucket, Microsoft Azure, and Rackspace are some of the examples offered as IaaS. 1.3.2.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS) It involves the customized environment offered by the service provider in terms of infrastructure and customized software environment. These services facilitate appli- cation development without undergoing the complexities of managing the infra- structure and runtime system. Aneka, MapReduce, and Google AppEngine are a few of the PaaS service providers.
- 42. 1 Cloud Computing 8 1.3.2.3 Software as a Service (SaaS) These are the readily developed applications to meet the specific requirements of the users. The applications can be accessed using web interface. The entire stack is managed by the service providers. Gmail, Outlook 365, Saleforce.com, and Box.net are few of the SaaS providers. 1.3.3 Deployment Models The deployment models define the procurement strategies for availing the cloud services. The four deployment models can be characterized by the service providers’ owner, scale, and service type (see Figure 1.3). 1.3.3.1 Public Cloud The services are provisioned for open use by the general public. Such clouds are mostly managed and operated by a business organization, academic organizations, Infrastructure (as a Service) Platform (as a Service) Software (as a Service) Applications Data Runtime Middleware Applications Data Runtime Middleware OS Virtualization Servers Storage Networking OS Virtualization Servers Storage Networking Applications Data Runtime Middleware OS Virtualization Servers Storage Networking Vendor Manages You Manage Figure 1.3 Cloud computing service model (Terkaly and Villalobos, 2013).
- 43. 1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing 9 and the government. The data centers are off-premise entities. Amazon AWS, Rackspace Cloud Suite, and Microsoft Azure are some of the public cloud service providers. 1.3.3.2 Private Cloud In the private cloud, the services are being provisioned and consumed by a particular organization’s members. The data center is owned, managed, and operated by the same organization or hired from some third party. The data center can be either on-premise or off-premise. Eucalyptus, Ubuntu Enterprise Cloud, and VMware Cloud Infrastructure are some of the players in the private cloud. 1.3.3.3 Community Cloud The services are provisioned for the organizations that have collaborated on a joint project. The cloud can be located either on-premise or off-premise. Open Cirrus and Microsoft government community clouds are a few examples of the community cloud. The data center could be owned and managed usually by both organizations. 1.3.3.4 Hybrid Cloud In the hybrid cloud, the services can be provisioned and offered from distinct cloud infrastructure. The cloud may change over time based on the usage of resources. Organizations can extend their resources by utilizing both on-premise resources and cloud resources. Cloud bursting is a temporary arrangement to deal with the sudden surge in resources demanded by an application running in a private cloud. The addi- tional resources are hired from the public cloud for the period of burst time. 1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing In the last decade, cloud computing has evolved as a mature technology. However, several issues and challenges remains to be satisfactorily addressed. 1.4.1 Resource Management Resource management is the process of effective delegation of resources and services among multiple users. The cloud resource can be dynamically provisioned and released by the clients making resource management in the cloud a complex task. From the cloud computing perspective, process management is divided into two phases: Ab-initio resource assignment and Period resource management [12]. Some of the prominent open research areas that need to be addressed are discussed below. 1.4.1.1 Risk Analysis The service level agreement defines the fulfillment of Quality of Service parameters based on specific metrics for the customer’s services. Factors like inadequate resources, failure of virtual machines, network failure, and non-responsiveness of applications lead to violation of service level agreements. Since the resources are dynamically provisioned, there is the requirement to define risk management processes that will enable service providers to optimize their resources.
- 44. 1 Cloud Computing 10 1.4.1.2 Autonomic Resource Management Elasticity is the essential feature of cloud computing. The resources can be scaled up and scaled down with time. There is a need to address issues like load management, virtual machine migration, and network latency. The design of an intelligent resource management process that can self-manage the elasticity in data centers is an area that is actively investigated. 1.4.1.3 Standardization Various cloud service providers have different standards to evaluate the service level agreements. Heterogeneity and incompatibility between services of the various cloud service providers is an area that needs thorough investigation. The idea of standard- ization and benchmarking should be looked upon as a step toward a customer-ori- ented market. 1.4.1.4 Hybrid and Multi-Cloud Scenarios Hybrid clouds are the way forward to address the resource crunch faced by academic institutions, small and medium IT companies, and government organizations. The available literature defines a mechanism for leasing the additional resources from the public cloud for the cloud burst time. The hybrid clouds and multi-clouds are seen as supporting elements and not as long-term solutions. Scheduling algorithms, fluctuations during the workflow, and reliability issues can be active research areas. Authors in (Fard et al., 2020) have provided a systematic review of the literature concerning resolution allocation mechanism contributed in the last decade. 1.4.2 Security Challenges Like traditional computer networks, cloud computing is subjected to security concerns involving confidentiality, integrity, availability, and privacy. Increased usage of Internet and mobile applications has contributed toward an increase in cyber offenses. Various security issues reported in the literature [16, 17] are closely related to each other. Below we discuss different security challenges in cloud computing that needs to be addressed. 1.4.2.1 Trust Issues Public clouds are extensively customer-driven and user-oriented. The multi-tenant architecture increases the probability of attack from inside the data center. Cloud services are accessible through the Internet. Online attackers can compromise these networks. The service provider must address the issue of identification, authoriza- tion, authentication, and access management. The service level documents should include the issues of trust management and future activities. 1.4.2.2 Storage Location independence is one of the characteristics of cloud computing. The user lacks control over his/her data and is unaware of the data center’s location. The ser- vice provider deploys data warehouse to manage the data of its customers. Metadata is data about data. It is often maintained for operational reasons. Metadata can be exposed to attackers during the transfer of data over the network, issue of confiden- tiality, integrity, and availability are the main challenges that need to be addressed.
- 45. 1.4 Research Issues and Challenges in Cloud Computing 11 1.4.2.3 Application Security Software applications are offered as a service through SaaS model. Platforms like play store are the marketplace for such products. Once deployed on the system, such applications can steal the data, spread malware, tamper the device, lead to repudia- tion attacks, and initiate denial-of-service. It is crucial to monitor and weed out malicious programs from the cloud environment. 1.4.2.4 Legal Framework The data center location could be located in different legal jurisdictions, maybe other states or even countries. In case of a security breach, the customer needs to comply with the legal framework prevalent at a data center location. Users need to take care of the site, country, and city when subscribing to the cloud service. The investigative framework to control cloud-related cyber crimes is still in the nascent stage. It is a multidisciplinary area of research that needs active attention. 1.4.3 Green Cloud Computing Cloud computing has offered several advantages in providing software application services, middleware services, and platform services. The services are managed through the large data centers that constitute computing infrastructure (servers, storage, and networks) and physical electrical infrastructure. According to one estimate, the world’s data centers consumed 205 terawatt-hours of electricity in 2018. The massive consumption of energy and heat generated by data centers adds to carbon footprints. Green cloud computing aims to reduce carbon emission through proper utilization of computing resources, disposal of hazardous com- puting devices, and reducing electricity consumption [18]. To minimize the energy consumption following areas can be pursued. 1.4.3.1 Schedule Virtual Machines Virtual machine scheduling refers to running the virtual machines on different physical servers in the data center to optimize the computing infrastructure. Power-Aware virtual machine algorithms aim to consolidate virtual machines to low utilized physical devices and dynamically shut down other servers to save energy. Various solutions based on a greedy algorithm [19], genetic algorithm [20], particle swarm optimization [21], and SDN-Cloud [22] has been proposed in recent years. 1.4.3.2 Minimizing Operating Inefficiencies There are plenty of dependencies that are required to run a simple application in the cloud environment. These dependencies make the system resources hungry and simultaneously more energy consumption to run heavy applications. The containers are lightweight stand-alone packages that include the application and its associated dependencies. The concept of containerization offers the advantages of fast deploy- ment, reconfiguration, interoperability, and portability. The lightweight virtualiza- tion technologies such as Docker, Kubernetes, and CoreOS have emerged as popular alternatives. These lightweight containers are reported to perform faster than the traditional virtualized technology [23].
- 46. 1 Cloud Computing 12 1.4.3.3 Smart Buildings Smart buildings is the technology that automatically controls the various building operations. The discussion on this topic is beyond the scope of this chapter. 1.4.4 Virtual Machine Migration The virtual machines (VM) can be migrated from one server to another server within data centers and outside data centers. The migration processes support operations like server consolidation, server maintenance, energy management, and traffic management. The VM’s can be transferred in two modes: non-live migration and live migration. In non-live migrations, the virtualized machine is first suspended and necessary states are captured and transferred to the destination server. No communication with the virtual machine is possible during this time. In live migration, the processes are gradually shifted to the designatedserveraftercertainrequirementsarefulfilled.Threestrategiesareprevalentfor live migration: pre-copy, post-copy, and hybrid-copy. There are overheads associated migration process are computation overheads, network overheads, and storage over- heads.MuchliteraturehasbeencontributedtowardtheVMmigrationprocess.Thefuture directions in this area are listed below [24, 25]. 1.4.4.1 Optimized Process for Memory Migration The VM’s data in memory must be transferred to the designated machine to ensure that the process operations are not affected. Memory migration is one of the critical topics that can contribute toward optimizing the overall migration process. In pre- copy strategy, the process is transferred to the new machine after certain threshold conditions are fulfilled. It is felt that more optimized solutions are needed to ensure that termination of VM on the source machine is done safely. For post-copy and hybrid-copy there is a need to seek more robust solutions. 1.4.4.2 Migration of VM over Wide Area Networks Migrating VM’s in data centers connected through wide area networks (WAN) involves more complexities than migrating the VM’s over LAN in the data center itself. Several factors like network bandwidth, data size, downtime of process, heterogeneity in architecture, and reliability need to be addressed. 1.4.4.3 Security Transferring the VM and its associated data over WAN possesses a security risk. A strong cryptographic algorithm should be applied when transferring the data to safeguard from malicious activities. The bugs in software components that are part of the data migration process should be suitably patched to ensure they are not exploited during the transfer process. 1.4.5 Simulation Environments Experimentation in the real environment is a complex problem. Furthermore, these experiments cannot be repeated since the many factors at the experiment time may change. The financial cost is another issue that an academic institution may not be able to bear. Various simulation frameworks have been proposed and widely used to evaluate the computer application. The interested reader can refer (Margariti, Dimakopoulos and Tsoumanis, 2020) (Fakhfakh, Kacem and Kacem, 2017) for further reading.
- 47. 1.5 Emerging Trends 13 1.5 Emerging Trends Based on fact-findings of cloud computing, this section focuses on recent research areas and usage of cloud applications in areas such as Wireless Sensor and Actuator Network (WSAN), Fog Computing, Internet of Things (IoTs), Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET), Internet of Things, Sustainable Cloud Computing, Serverless Computing and Blockchains. In the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), motes or sensors monitor and record physical environment information and relay it to the computation’s central location. The limitation in computing power, memory, energy consumption, and scalability drives the need for more resilient computing solutions. WSAN augments the WSN network by incorporating limited decision- making capabilities via actors or actuators. However, the massive amount of information collected from the physical systems and the limitation discussed above calls for the sensors cloud. As defined by IntelliSys “It is an infrastructure that per- mits the computations that is pervasive by using the sensors between the cyber and physical world as an interface, the cluster of data-computer as cyber backbone and Internet as the medium of communication” [28, 29]. The more emerging para- digms like Fog Computing and IoT have the research output fallen in this domain. Issues concerning storage of massive heterogeneous data, security problems including privacy and authentication, energy efficiency, network access management, and bandwidth management when cloud sensors increases need attention from the research community. Fog computing is an emerging paradigm that brings the cloud closer to the devices that generate data. The huge amount of unstructured data that is pro- duced needs to be segregated into times-sensitive data that requires immediate action by sensory application in the form of machine-to-machine communica- tion or human- machine interaction. The less time-sensitive data can be pushed to the cloud for storage and analysis to gain insights into the system. Fog devices are located near nearby sensors and have computing, storage, and networking capabilities. These devices work collectively to minimize processing latency time by bringing compute closer to the data sources. These devices also save band- width by offloading the data that the device can process on the network edge. Some of the future directions in this computing field are standardization of SLA’s for fog devices, Multi-Objective fog computing devices, mobile fog computing, green fog computing, SDN, and NFV support for fog computing and security issues [30]. Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET) enables the vehicles to exchange the data for faster dessimation of information for the reliable and intelligent transportation system. Autonomous vehicles need to address the requirement of low-latency, high- mobility, scalability, real-time applications, and security. Fog computing, Software Defined Networks, and Cloud Computing can provide solutions for the present and future issues in VANET’s. Kevin Ashton coined the term Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is machine-to-machine interaction using the Internet. The technologies endorsed the concept of computing anywhere, anytime, using any device, in any location and any format or defined as a set of interrelated and interconnected systems that are collecting and transferring data through a wireless network without any human interruption. This transfer of data can be possible using embedded sensors. There are examples of IoTs like smart
- 48. 1 Cloud Computing 14 homes, smart cities, thermostats, and many more appliances. The devices, some- times referred to as objects, should be identifiable, must access network and commu- nicate, and able to sense, interact, and actuate with the environment. WSN, WSAN, Fog computing, and similar emerging paradigms is fuelling the growth of IoT. The sheer amount of information, bandwidth requirement, and computing resources integrate IoT with cloud computing. The cloud centric IoT approach addresses the problem of scalability, monitoring, deployment, and integration of devices for var- ious applications. The growth of the cloud computing industry has accelerated in recent years to fulfill the user’s requirements. Many data centers have been set up worldwide to enhance computing power, increased storage, and better user data management. However, this also contributed to raised carbon footprints. One of the promising areas is sustainable cloud computing which caters to reducing environmental haz- ards. Usually, customers face the peculiar problem of “vendor lock-in” where they are locked in with one particular service provider. A new cloud strategy known as Omni cloud has been coined up where a customer can avail the services of more than one service provider. It is different from the hybrid cloud because various ser- vice providers jointly offer their service in collaboration with each other. Microsoft and Oracle have already linked their cloud services in the year 2019. Such a multi- environment cloud offers a variety of services to customers. The integration of tech- nologies and applications of the multi-cloud environment is a challenging task. Serverless Computing service is offered to supersede dockers, microservices, and Kubernetes to manage and deploy the application in the cloud environment. It facil- itates the user to be more focused on developing and deploying the code. The devel- oper buys the backend services on the “pay-as-you-go” model. The backend services are charged based on the computation instead of a fixed bandwidth or server. This feature enables the auto-scaling feature of the service. Serverless computing is offered in terms of database, storage, and Function-as-a-Service (FaaS). FaaS pro- vides a cost-efficient method of implementing microservices. The idea is to execute the various piece of code on edge in response to an event. Some of the multiple chal- lenges that need to be addressed are fault tolerance, security, and testing. The var- ious challenges in the serverless can be referred to in [31]. Blockchain is distributed ledgers that enhance the security of the transaction in a decentralized environment. The blockchains can be successfully applied to various PaaS and SaaS applications to enhance security. Customers operating on the cloud platform can augment various transactions with blockchains. However, a robust infrastructure should be in place to supplement the resources required to compute and implement services of blockchains. Refer [32] for detalied issues like integerat- ing blockchains with IoT, Transperency, Trustability vs. Privacy, and performance. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an emerging paradigm that will fuel the future SaaS applications deployed on the cloud. The AI technology can optimize resource management, enhance security, and automize internal processes. Few AI-related services are IBM Watson, Microsoft Azure Machine Learning, AWS deep Learning, and Google Cloud Machine Learning Engines. The other emerging topics to pursue research activities include security algorithms, interoperability between various heterogeneous devices, context-aware computing, SDN-NFV, and movement toward integrating various communication protocols.
- 49. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 53. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Men of the Merchant Service
- 54. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: The Men of the Merchant Service Author: Frank Thomas Bullen Release date: March 21, 2021 [eBook #64896] Most recently updated: October 18, 2024 Language: English Credits: MWS, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MEN OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE ***
- 55. THE MEN OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE BEING THE POLITY OF THE MERCANTILE MARINE FOR 'LONGSHORE READERS BY FRANK T. BULLEN, F.R.G.S. AUTHOR OF "THE CRUISE OF THE 'CACHALOT,'" "THE LOG OF A SEA-WAIF, "IDYLLS OF THE SEA," ETC. LONDON SMITH, ELDER & CO., 15, WATERLOO PLACE 1900
- 56. (All rights reserved) PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. TO RUDYARD KIPLING IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF BOTH HIS WONDERFUL GENIUS AND HIS GREAT KINDNESS TO THE AUTHOR PREFACE. It has been repeatedly represented to me by disinterested friends, that among the innumerable works of both fact and fiction dealing with the sea, there are none telling in a comprehensive way what are the conditions of life in the Merchant Service; in other words, that there is no work to which a parent, yielding to his son's importunity to be allowed to go to sea, and seeking to know something of the nature of things on board of a merchant ship in
- 57. detail, can turn with the assurance that he may there find what he needs. Nor can the youth anxious to go to sea in the Merchant Service find any guidance which will at once be comprehensive and reliable compacted into one handy volume. And as these same friends have done me the honour to suggest that I have the qualifications necessary for producing such a work, I have, not at all unwillingly, acceded to their suggestions, and undertaken the task. The recollection of many kindly criticisms on the preface to the "Log of a Sea-Waif," scolding me good-naturedly for what it has pleased them to term my exaggerated modesty, prevents me from sinning now in that direction. I will merely say that I have done my best to justify my friends' confidence in me, and that I earnestly hope the book will not fall too far short of their expectations. The planning of such a work seems to be comparatively easy. The first thing that suggested itself was the setting forth, in a series of chapters, the duties, required qualifications, difficulties, privileges, etc., of the various members of a ship's company. A doubt has naturally arisen in my mind as to how far it is justifiable to deal with sailing ships in these latter days. My own personal knowledge and predilections are on the side of the "wind-jammer," and consequently I feel the less inclined to deal with her perfunctorily. I cannot, however, conceal from myself the fact that the passing of the sailing ship is being greatly accelerated of late years, and that in all probability another twenty years will witness her final disappearance. On the other hand, I should not be at all surprised to see a sudden recrudescence of sailing ship building. Considering the sailing ship's economy, her vast carrying capacity, the fact that her very slowness as compared with the steamer is actually no mean advantage in a great number of instances, viz. to quote one, where goods are bought in a low market and are not required by the buyer for some months, so that their shipment by a sailer actually saves warehouse charges as well as freight—I cannot understand why the sailer should be suffered to disappear. Nevertheless, as engineering science advances, economies will
- 58. doubtless be found possible in steamships which will so greatly lessen their expenses as to make the competition of sailers out of the question. The opening of a Panama Canal, too, which will certainly not be much longer delayed, will deal a tremendous blow at the vast sailing trade around Cape Horn. It seems, indeed, destined to be the final factor in the elimination of the sailing ship. Meanwhile the white-winged fleets come and go in far greater numbers than landsmen have any idea of; and as nearly all authorities are agreed that, in spite of the immense strides taken by steam navigation, the sailing ship is still the only school wherein to train a thorough seafarer, she will certainly receive her full need of attention here. Care has been taken to avoid, as far as possible, all technical treatment of the subject. I have not assumed the possession of too much nautical knowledge on the part of my prospective readers; not nearly as much, for instance, as would be permissible in a work of fiction. Having before me, too, the hope that sons as well as parents will be able to read and enjoy, as well as thoroughly grasp the meaning of this book, I have aimed at making it entertaining, giving a plentiful supply of anecdotes as well to illustrate as to lighten what might easily become rather "stodgy." Finally, I feel constrained to add that, even if my friends are wrong, and there are works with which they, as well as myself, are not acquainted, better calculated to serve the purpose for which this book is intended, I have the temerity to believe that no apology is necessary for its appearance. The overwhelming importance of our over-sea commerce to Great Britain cannot be too greatly emphasized, while the astounding ignorance of maritime matters manifested by British people generally makes one gasp in amazement. Any book, therefore, that does anything to popularize knowledge of Mercantile Marine details cannot be superfluous in this country; and should this present one succeed in bringing home to our inland dwellers with any clearness the conditions of life on board the vessels upon whose regular advent depend our supplies of daily food, I shall feel abundantly justified in issuing it to my countrymen.
- 59. Dulwich, July, 1900. SYNOPSIS. CHAPTER I. THE RISE OF THE MASTER (IDEAL). PAGE Magnitude of the Merchant Service—Ignorance of its details ashore—Want of information upon the subject—Popularity of sea-fiction—And unreliability of its details—"Master" or "Captain"— Cadet ships—Their value—The way up (ideal) 1 CHAPTER II. THE RISE OF THE MASTER (REAL). Apprentice difficulties—Sketch of an officer's progress—Looking for a ship—Classification of masters—Range between Atlantic "liner" and foreign-going schooner—Enviable position of the master of a "liner"—Pilots' responsibility—Reliable officers—But the master is emperor—All responsibility centres in him 9 CHAPTER III. THE MASTER (OF A TRAMP). Tramp masters—Less pay, more work—Hardships of tramps—Economical owners—Anxious considerations—And all-round qualifications—The aristocracy of tramps—Shore berths for old skippers—Black sheep 18 CHAPTER IV. THE MASTER (SAILING SHIPS). Sailing ships—Their gradations—The beauty of seamanship in Sunda Straits—Ship handling and 26
- 60. pluck—Devilish ships—Local knowledge v. "book larnin'"—The Horn—"Swansea men"—A glorious old skipper—Overdue ships—Mediocrities CHAPTER V. THE MASTER (SAILING SHIP)—continued. The skipper's temptations—His power over young officers—Painting v. sailorizing—And the result— Various temperaments of skippers—The discipline of the "Yank"—And of the "Blue-nose"—Their seamanship—The "Down Easter"—The Yankee clipper—His passion for cleanliness—And brutality —Elementary methods 36 CHAPTER VI. THE MASTER'S QUALITIES. The personal equation—An ideal commander— Want of tact—They do these things better in "Yanks"—Good to have a hobby—High standard of excellence—Difficulties of the British shipmaster with respect to his crew—Unpalatable truths—The fear of God—Honesty of shipmasters—Incitements to dishonesty 45 CHAPTER VII. THE MASTER'S DUTIES. A glimpse of navigation—The unstable compass— Dead reckoning—Pilotage anxieties—The shipmaster as trustee—As lawyer—As doctor— Rough-and-ready surgery—A true hero—The "malingerer" 53 CHAPTER VIII. THE MASTER'S DUTIES—continued. Voluntary duties—Knowledge of engineering—Of ship construction—Of natural history—The danger of drink—A drunkard or two—A memorable 63
- 61. voyage—The Blue-nose skipper—His all-round excellence CHAPTER IX. THE MATE. The "mate and his duties"—An ancient and honourable title—His range of importance—A long step from mate to master—Both in position and pay—Education of British officers—Examinations 73 CHAPTER X. THE MATE'S WORK. A good mate precious above rubies—Some difficulties of the young mate—Sensitiveness— Manager of a large business—A great gulf between tramp and liner for the mate—Low wages—Difficult generalship—A scandalous miscarriage of justice—Again better in the "Yank"—Compensations 82 CHAPTER XI. THE MATE'S WORK (IN A SAILING SHIP). Peculiarities of status—The excellence of the sailing-ship mate—"Humouring" a ship—Care of her aloft—The mate's right-hand man—Keeping them at it—The joy of a good sailing ship—A happy mate—Keeping the log 91 CHAPTER XII. THE MATE'S WORK (IN A SAILING SHIP)—continued. Ideal log-book literature—Ruffianly mates—But splendid seamen—A "nigger-driver"—The mate as cargo clerk and warehouseman—His temptations —An exultant Hebrew—The drink question again— The mate's privileges 101 CHAPTER XIII. THE SECOND MATE (IN STEAM).
- 62. "Hazing" a second mate—His importance—His assured excellence in a liner—Careful selection— Really first lieutenant in a liner—But in the tramp "a servant of servants shall he be"—An upper housemaid—An anomalous position—As stevedore —The Yankee second mate 112 CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND MATE (FIRST STEPS). The passing of the "Board"—School-boy work— Theoretical navigation—Practical seamanship— Colour-blindness—Queer instruction—A kindly examiner—The astonishment of the schoolmaster —Only mate—And "bo'sun-second-mate" 121 CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND MATE (OF A SAILING SHIP). The difference between steam and sail—A kindly skipper for a beginner—The second mate's position as pupil—The seamy side—Everybody's dog—Again the difference between lime-juicer and Yank—The second mate of the East Lothian— Oh, what a surprise!—The value of muscle—The want of discipline in our ships 131 CHAPTER XVI. THE THIRD MATE. Of great importance or none at all—A suggestion from the Navy—No respect due to him—The owner's pet—The poop ornament—His bringing up —A lost opportunity—The bully third mate of an American ship—An error in judgment—Idlers 142 CHAPTER XVII. THE BO'SUN. A romantic figure—Rough but genuine—The naval bo'sun—The working foreman—Bo'sun and 151
- 63. "lamps" combined—The old-time bo'sun—A thorough sailor—A queer bo'sun—A broken-down bo'sun—A brevet bo'sun CHAPTER XVIII. THE CARPENTER. His general excellence—And unique position—A man of many qualifications—All carpenters in British North America—As in Finland—"Chips" and sailor too—An independent member—Always plenty of work—The whaleship carpenters—And boat-builder 161 CHAPTER XIX. THE SAILMAKER. An occupation that is passing—Its fascination for good sailors—The art and mystery of sailmaking— The Yankee sailmaker—His contempt for British sails—Like the carpenter, the sailmaker always has plenty to do—The beauty of sails 171 CHAPTER XX. THE STEWARD (IN STEAM). Wide range of status—But always a steward— Wonderful colspan="2" align="center"management—A small army to control—Work never done—The tramp steward— His duties and difficulties—The "providore" 180 CHAPTER XXI. THE STEWARD (SAILING SHIPS). The passenger sailing ship almost extinct— Consequently few chief stewards in sail—The responsible steward—The captain's pet—Funny little ways—A bitter experience—The Yankee steward—His onerous post—The stewardess—My friend's pathetic story 188
- 64. CHAPTER XXII. THE COOK (IN STEAM). The most interesting figure on board ship—A chef indeed—Where do they come from?—Difficulties of ship cookery—Under the best conditions— Careful, hard-working men—Australian cooks— Black Sam—Humpy Bill—His tribulations and triumphs—The cook of a tramp 195 CHAPTER XXIII. THE COOK (SAILING SHIPS). His materials—His usual qualifications—No room for a good cook—Good sailing ships—And bad— From the food point of view—Bad food wasteful as well as dear—The craving for vegetable—The cook's day's work—So different in Yankee ships— Blue-nose cookery—"Cracker hash"—"Duff" 205 CHAPTER XXIV. THE COOK (SAILING SHIPS)—continued. Salt junk—The never-satisfied sailor—Pork and peas—Dirty cooking—Abysmal ignorance—A lower depth—Bad weather 215 CHAPTER XXV. THE APPRENTICE (SUGGESTIONS). A serious matter—Want of knowledge—The system of apprenticeship—Need for revision—The influx of foreign officers—No want of aspirants here—An experience of my own—No-premium apprentices—Training ships—The housing of sea apprentices—A vexed question—To stop the waste of young seamen—An A.B. no mere labourer—A good example—A model ship for apprentices— Training ships in America 223 CHAPTER XXVI.
- 65. THE APPRENTICE (SOME FACTS CONCERNING HIS LIFE). The average boy's helplessness—The need for lessons in homely things—An unhappy home— Waste of outfit—Need of personal supervision— And honest treatment—Apprentices substituted for sailors—Some instances—All depends upon the master—Wasted years—The embryo officer in the U.S. and Canada 234 CHAPTER XXVII. THE APPRENTICE (SOME PRACTICAL INFORMATION). How to get your boy to sea—Beware of the apprenticeship broker—A typical instance—Some hints as to outfit—A list of necessaries—The choice of a ship—Personal relations of parents with officers—Hints to apprentices themselves 244 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE A.B. (GENERAL QUALIFICATIONS). The "common sailor"—His one-sided view of things—His difficulties—The reading sailor— Argumentative qualities—His shyness ashore—The religious sailor—Misconceptions of his duties— Hardships of good men from the shipment of duffers—The skilled A.B., some of his duties—The "steamboat sailor"—One instance 253 CHAPTER XXIX. THE A.B. (HIS ROUTINE). Some details fixed—Others varying indefinitely according to the will of the master—The incidence of watches—Difference of work in steamships and sailing vessels—No easy times in American ships— Keeping them "at it"—Wheel and look-out case in point 263 CHAPTER XXX.
- 66. THE A.B. (HIS POSITION). Putting a premium on incompetency—The steamship partly to blame—Are we getting lazy?— The need for a Naval Reserve? Why does the Reserve languish?—Not a bad life after all—Plenty of British seamen to be got—But they must have discipline 276 CHAPTER XXXI. THE O.S. (ORDINARY SEAMAN). His elimination—No system—Many better than A.B.'s in the same ship—A typical instance—An O.S.'s duties—A piece of technical detail, crossing a royal yard—His position in the fo'c'sle—"A servant of servants shall he be"—A rough-and- ready way out 283 CHAPTER XXXII. THE BOY. A romantic figure—Changed conditions—The bad old days—Better treatment forward than aft—The unfair change for a boy from the training ship to the trading ship—Cleanliness barred—Bad advice —What to do for him—Running away to sea—An old-time shipping office—Small ships, bad and good 294 CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ENGINEER. Need for literary engineers—A noble calling—Its perils and its pride—No sea-joys for the engineer —A nineteenth-century hero—A unique profession —Producing a high-grade man—The evolution of the marine engineer—No foreigners allowed—The E.R.A.—In case of war—No mere mechanic—The blindness of the Admiralty with regard to the engineer 305
- 67. CHAPTER XXXIV. THE FIREMAN AND TRIMMER. Why do men become firemen?—A terrible calling —Some of his duties—The voice of steam—Better drunk—Cleaning fires—The slavery of civilization— A lower deep—Are we nearing finality? 317 CHAPTER XXXV. CONCLUSION. Pertinent questions—The whole truth—Does magnanimity answer?—The peril of the alien—No Trade Union for sailors—The officer's chance—A valuable educational factor—Our national safeguard—Finis 328 THE MEN OF THE MERCHANT SERVICE. CHAPTER I. THE RISE OF THE MASTER (IDEAL). Viewed from whatever standpoint we may choose, it is impossible to arrive at any other conclusion than that the British Mercantile Marine is not only the greatest British industry, but that, for its overwhelming importance and far-reaching effect upon mankind, it is the most stupendous monument of human energy and enterprise that the world has ever seen. Yet, with that peculiar absence of pride in our own institutions, that easy-going magnanimity which, in spite of what not only foreign writers, but many of our own authors assert, is really the most distinctive characteristic of the British race, we show but little appreciation of this marvel of commercial genius
- 68. and concentrated effort. Dependent by our own action upon our ships for food, we evince no alarm at the possibility of disaster to these main arteries of our national life. Go where you will, up and down this country of ours, and, except among people directly engaged in shipping business, or a few earnest souls who think it is their duty to know something of the conditions under which their dear ones live, you will find scarcely any knowledge of the British Merchant Service at all. The vast majority of people know of but one form of seafaring, the Navy, as they call it, par excellence; and if a man tells them that he is a sailor, they are disinclined to believe him unless he wear the familiar loose blue clothing and gold-lettered cap of the man-o'-war's-man. But this is a trivial matter compared with the ignorance of the great matters of life and death wrapped up in our Mercantile Marine. That lads eager to get out upon what has tacitly come to be regarded as our peculiar domain—the open sea—and there uphold the traditions of the race, should not know where to go for information concerning it that can be relied upon, seems strange to-day. Stranger still that, instead of all manner of facilities being given to our own youths who wish to become seamen, all manner of disheartening hindrances should be put in their way. And what shall we say in face of the almost universal manifestation of malevolence towards us by foreign powers in what they believe to be our hour of tribulation, of a British minister who from his high position declares he sees no cause for alarm in the prospect of our merchant ships being entirely manned by foreigners? It is only one more proof that the ignorance of our greatest industry is universal; that, from the highest class to the lowest, our people have grown to look upon this most important of our national assets, this indispensable bridging of the ocean for the supply of our daily food, as something no more needing our thoughtful attention than the recurrence of the seasons or the incidence of day and night. And yet books about the sea are usually popular. In spite of the technicalities involved (usually wrong, owing to the want of a first- hand acquaintance with the subject), almost any sea-fiction will sell.
- 69. So long as the story be good, the plot workmanlike, the great mass of the reading public will not criticize the nautical technique from lack of ability; they take it for granted, and learn nothing from it. Exceptions may be gratefully remembered, especially Kipling, whose nautical stories, like his engineering ones, have no flaws. They might have been written by a man who had spent his life upon the sea, and had served in all grades. In like manner did R.L. Stevenson grasp detail in the "Wrecker" and the "Ebb-tide;" while to read Morley Roberts' work in this direction is to sit again in the dim fo'c'sle, with the reek of the slush-lamp mingled with most pungent tobacco-smoke and a dozen other unholy odours making your nostrils tingle, while outside the sea-voices murmur their accompaniment to the long yarn being spun within. There are others, but of them only one can be here mentioned—that brilliant, wayward man of splendid abilities and attainments, J.F. Keene. He has gone, and left no one to fill his place. Intolerant of civilized life, he fled from it to the freedom of the tramp or the fo'c'sle scallywag, and drank deep of the cup of life as he loved it. But his books do not make light reading. They are compounded of blood and iron, and bitter as the brine that stained his manuscript. But this preliminary digression is keeping us from consideration of the important character we have to become acquainted with—the shipmaster, or captain, as he is, by courtesy only, usually styled. No commander of a merchant vessel, no matter how magnificent she may be, is legally entitled to be called Captain. That honourable title belongs only to the Royal Navy. Mr. So-and-so, master of the ship "So-and-so," is all that the most experienced and highly placed merchant seaman may claim. And yet it may well be doubted whether even the proudest captain of a ship of war has more varied qualifications for his splendid post than the ideal shipmaster. Difficulties that never trouble the naval man meet his "opposite number" in the Merchant Service at every turn, not to be evaded, but met and justified by success, or else loss of appointment, and the pinch of poverty follows promptly.
- 70. The road to this eminent position is a plain and simple one. In its most favourable traversing the would-be master has parents who can afford to send him direct from school to such a nautical training college as H.M.S. Worcester or H.M.S. Conway—the former a splendid vessel of the old wooden-wall type, moored in the Thames off Greenhithe, and commanded by a most able merchant seaman, David Wilson-Barker, Esq., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., etc., himself an alumnus of the Worcester; and the latter a kindred vessel moored in the Mersey. Here the aspirant is thoroughly taught the theory and practice of navigation in all its ramifications, while those branches of study which he was pursuing at school are carried on in a generous spirit. Seamanship, as far as it can be taught on board a stationary vessel, takes naturally a most prominent place in the training scheme, while naval architecture, languages, engineering, and nautical science all have their allotted place. So useful are all the subjects taught to the average man, that one is tempted to believe that no college course in the country is more admirably calculated to fit him for the battle of life, whether he goes to sea or not. Dull indeed must the youngster be who does not emerge from the Worcester or the Conway, upon the completion of his three years, better calculated to make his way in the world than any lad of the same age is upon leaving a public school. The Board of Trade have frankly recognized this by allowing the course on board these training-ships to count as one year's sea-service in the required qualification for second mate. That is to say, while the ordinary candidate for a second mate's certificate must produce either completed apprentice indentures for four years or certificates of discharge for the same length of sea-service, one year of which must have been served as an able seaman, the old Worcester or Conway boy need only produce a record of three years' sea-service to entitle him to enter as a candidate. Now, assuming that the youngster has finished his training-ship course with credit, and been duly bound as an apprentice in a fine sailing-ship belonging to a good firm, his way is clear before him. Passing through his probationary period undaunted by the none too easy life he has led,
- 71. he appears before the examiners of the Board of Trade, and if he has only kept up the most cursory acquaintance with the navigation he knew when he left the training-vessel, his "passing" is ridiculously easy. I do not propose to discuss here a much-vexed question, but will merely state that it has often been proposed, as a remedy for what has been considered the too low status of the shipmaster, that the standard set by the Board of Trade should be periodically raised until the amount of education required for successfully passing it would enable those paying for it to demand higher salaries and more honourable recognition of their position. No doubt it would greatly tend to lessen the numbers obtaining certificates of competency, but, alas! there seems also no doubt that, as things are at present, it would greatly increase the number of alien officers in command of British ships. Well, our young friend has his second mate's certificate, but unless he be exceptionally fortunate he will have to make a voyage as third mate before he takes up the position to which it entitles him. As third mate in his old ship, or a similar one belonging to the same company, he may be gradually permitted to keep a watch, to stand on the quarter-deck in charge of a hundred thousand pounds' worth of property and thirty or forty lives. (Of course, throughout I am speaking of the sailing-ship, since she is as yet, in all but two or three instances, the recognized medium for the beginner.) Pursuing his career with care, he reaches home ready to take a ship as second mate, and if the firm he serves is what it ought to be, no long time will elapse before such a berth is ready for him. One twelvemonth's voyage as second mate, and he may again approach the examiners for his chief mate's certificate. Again he should find not the slightest difficulty in passing, the additional qualifications required from him being quite simple. Should he be very lucky, he will get a berth now as chief officer; but even if he be compelled to go another voyage as second, he will be permitted to pass the Board of Trade examination for master on his return, providing he can show that he has acted for two years as second mate. With his master's certificate in his possession, it is only a question of time
- 72. until he stands in the proud position of monarch of his little realm, and that time may be greatly shortened in many cases if he happen to have a comfortable sum of money to invest in the ship. Should he desire to equip himself with all the certificates which the Board of Trade can grant, he will proceed at once to undergo the examination for Master Extra; he will also "pass in steam"—an examination most necessary for those masters who propose to take command of steamships—and he will also take an examination in magnetism. Of all these extra examinations it may also be said that if our friend has kept up his cadet training, they will have no terror for him; they are only difficult to those who find mathematics irksome, and never practise more than they are compelled to. Then, of course, they get rusty, since the amount of mathematics really necessary to keep a ship's position accurately at sea is very small. By the continual invention of clever mathematicians, nautical astronomy has been reduced to mere expertness in handling tables, and the indolent man will avail himself of these aids to the fullest extent. CHAPTER II. THE RISE OF THE MASTER (REAL). The Liner. So far, I am afraid that in sketching out the possible rapid rise and progress from college to quarter-deck I have not been very amusing or enlightening. The non-professional reader will be bewildered by the swift passage of the young sailor through the various grades without any elucidation of the "how" of each process, while the professional seaman reading it will smile sardonically, and endeavour to recall any instances within his knowledge of such an upward flight. Feeling this, I hasten to explain that the foregoing is but an impressionist sketch of an ideal condition of things, and that such a smooth attainment of the object of a young sailor's ambition is of
- 73. the very rarest occurrence. Moreover, it has to be remembered that only the favoured few can have the advantage such as is conferred by a Worcester or Conway training. The great majority of youths who take to a sea life go direct to their apprenticeship from school— go, too, in vessels whose owners have but few ships, and consequently small facilities for advancing their apprentices in the profession when once their indentures have expired. As I propose to deal with the apprentice in a chapter devoted to him entirely, I must be careful not to say too much now, so I will merely indicate the undoubted fact that an apprenticeship to any firm of ship-owners, no matter what the excellence of the individual apprentice may be, carries with it no guarantee of employment after the apprenticeship is over. In this, as in many other respects, the sea is unlike any other profession. In a large engineering firm, for instance, it would be considered a waste of good material to discharge apprentices when out of their time unless they had proved themselves hopelessly incompetent. But it is not possible for a firm owning, say, four ships and carrying six apprentices in each of them, to find employment for those apprentices when they are fit to assume the position of officers. The four masters are not at all likely to resign their berths frequently, masters of ships in an employ such as I am now speaking of usually retaining their commands for many years. They block the flow of promotion, never very rapid, so that it is no infrequent thing to see the same set of three officers, master, mate, and second mate, in one ship for several long voyages. What, then, is the young newly passed officer to do when, with his creamy new certificate in his pocket, he finds nothing before him in his old firm but a voyage before the mast as an able seaman? Well, if his folks have any acquaintances among ship-owners—in other words, any influence in that direction—now is the time to use it. Or, if they have any money to invest, they will not find it difficult to purchase a certain amount of interest, which should, and generally does, result in their son getting an opening for employment. But if neither of these levers are available, the aspirant is almost certainly in for a bad time. Probably the best course for him will be to put his
- 74. pride in his pocket, and take a berth before the mast, always keeping his eyes open when abroad for an opportunity of slipping into a vacant second mate's berth, where he will get the rough edges worn off his newness, and become accustomed to command. In the mean time he must keep carefully in touch with his old firm, so that should he be on hand when there is a vacancy, he may not miss it. His great object, of course, will be to get a footing in a good firm, owning many ships, where promotion is fairly rapid for the smart officer. Of course, he will hunger and thirst after a steamer; but, unless he makes up his mind to go in the lowest class of tramp, and plod painfully onward at very low wages for a long time, he had better stick to sailing-ships until he gets his master's certificate. This for reasons which will appear later on. Into this stage of the officer's upward progress the element of chance or coincidence enters so largely that it is impossible to do more than generalize as to the probable time which will elapse before he reach the goal of his desire. But there is one feature in such a career as I am now attempting to sketch that has not its counterpart, as far as I know, in any other form of employment whatever. It is in the seeking for a berth. I know of no more depressing occupation than that of a capable seaman looking for a ship as officer. It does not greatly matter whether he wanders round the docks or goes to the owner's offices, he is made to feel like a mendicant; and on board most ships he is also made to feel like a supplanter when he asks for employment. To go aboard of a likely looking ship seeking a berth, say as mate, and to meet the present holder of the office, is the usual experience, and a most awkward one it is. Here the pushful man will score heavily. Putting all diffidence in his pocket, he will broach his message, boldly disregarding the frowning face of the gentleman in charge, who naturally looks upon him as a foe. But the shy, reserved man (and both these qualities are very common among seamen) will stammer and beat about the bush, conceal the true nature of his errand, and retire awkwardly in considerable confusion. Having obtained a berth, however, it will generally rest with himself how far he will be able to raise himself by
- 75. its means. True, there are many things—which will be treated fully under the different headings of the various officers—which by no fault of his own may hinder and dishearten him, but the unattached officer must not allow them to daunt him. He must persevere, keeping his weather eye lifting for every opportunity of advancement, and especially perfecting himself in all the complicated details of his profession, in anticipation of the day when, a full-blown shipmaster, he will be where his longings have led him. It may be asked, "But what has all this to do with the master himself —his duties, his position, etc.?" The question is quite reasonable, and I feel the full force of it; but there is a strong temptation to anticipate the succeeding chapters, when one remembers the passage over the generally thorny way leading up to the chief position on board ship. However, I will do my best to avoid further digression, and proceed at once to give, to the best of my ability, a sketch of that much-envied individual's privileges and responsibilities. The first difficulty that presents itself is classification. For, although the Board of Trade certificate of master qualifies its possessor to take command of the most splendid liner, it is absolutely essential to the assumption of chief charge of a tiny schooner engaged in foreign trade. Yet it must be obvious that between these two positions there is a great gulf fixed—not in qualification, for there is really no reason why the holders thereof should not change places at any time. In many cases it is accident alone that determines whether a man shall be master of a liner or a clumsy little brig, lumbering painfully across to the West Indies. In spite of this fact, one cannot expect that the grand gentleman who commands such a magnificent ship as the Teutonic or Campania, for instance, should be able to refrain from looking down upon his brother master of the Susan, brigantine of two hundred tons register. To the liner master's credit be it said, he does not show nearly the same hauteur towards his less fortunate fellow that he might reasonably be expected to do. That sort of view of their respective positions is usually taken by people ashore, who know
- 76. just enough of the conditions to enable them to make such a tactical mistake. The master of a great liner is in a really enviable position—not, perhaps, as regards his earnings in solid cash, for it still remains to the discredit of British seafaring that its most highly placed officers are far worse paid than men greatly their inferiors engaged in business ashore. But in power, in importance in the eyes of his fellow-men, in comfort, he is far before them. His are the responsibilities, upon him rests the reputation of the ship among the people who pay the piper, the passengers, but beyond that his life is rightly looked upon by his less fortunate brethren as one long holiday. No laborious keeping of accounts for him, no worrying about freights or scanty passenger lists, no anxious study of weather charts or calculation of course to be pursued in reference to the time of year and consequently prevalent winds. At the appointed time for sailing he comes upon the bridge, and greets most cordially or nods most frigidly to the pilot according to his temperament. That individual, one of the elect of his fine calling, is paid by the company for his exclusive services, and it is his duty to see the monster ship safely through the intricacies of the river mouth out into free and open waters. The master's presence on the bridge is a matter of form—necessary, however, because by some queer twist of maritime law, although ships going foreign are compelled to take a pilot who is responsible for her safe conduct out to certain limits, the master's responsibility is always alive. Should the pilot lose the ship and the master not be on deck, the latter would be held equally to blame, although at what precise time his intervention would be permissible is left delightfully ambiguous. The pilotage limit is reached, and the pilot gets into his own place on board of his own cutter; the voyage is begun. Now is the master lord indeed; but such a ship as this will have at least six officers, of whom most likely all will hold certificates as Master Extra. Each of these in their turn take charge of the ship under the master's orders, subject to certain regulations peculiar to the different companies, and the least tribute that can be paid to them is that every one of
- 77. them is probably fully as competent to command the ship as is the master himself. It is etiquette, however, for him to remain on the bridge while the vessel is in waters that may by any stretch of nautical terms be called narrow, although he does not interfere in any way, if he be a gentleman, with the handling of the ship. The navigating officer (usually the second officer) works assiduously at nautical astronomy, calculating the position, the error of the compass, etc., continually, but his work is checked by the master and the other officers, who work the main details independently of him. No ships afloat are navigated with more jealous care than these, no ships can show a more splendid record of actual correctness in working, and it needs a strong personality indeed on the part of the master to avoid laxity. Having so fine a set of subordinate officers, why should he trouble himself? The love of holding the reins, jealousy of the slightest encroachment upon his prerogatives, will usually keep him from this, but the temptations to enjoy the charmingly varied society in the midst of which he moves as king is certainly very great. All honour to these capable gentlemen that so few of them succumb to it. Whenever stress of weather demands their presence on the high and lofty bridge (Mount Misery, the wise it call), they will be found there, cheery and confident, with apparently no sense of weight of responsibility upon them, although they might well be excused if their brows were permanently furrowed with anxious thought. To know that upon you rests the charge of two thousand souls, to say nothing of from half to three- quarters of a million pounds' worth of property being hurled over the howling sea at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour, is surely enough to give even the most jovial heart pause. Yet these splendid men conceal with great ease any appearance of worry, and behave as though they had nothing more serious on their mind than the making of an Atlantic passage pleasant to their guests. The master of a ship cannot enjoy that peculiar repose common to every other member of his crew. Deeply as they may feel the weight of their special responsibility while on watch, the moment they are
- 78. relieved the relief is complete. No matter how black the outlook, it is the other fellow's business now. The relieved one goeth unto his bunk, and divesting himself of his clothing, passes into dreamland as free from care as if in some cosy bed ashore. Not one vestige of his late anxieties trouble him. They will come on again all too soon; meanwhile he will get as much sleep into the allotted hours as possible, and nothing short of a summons from his commanding officer shall disturb that calm. The poor skipper, on the other hand, has no such relief. He must cultivate confidence in his officers, or want of rest will soon make an old worn-out man of him; but in any case he must be always ready to assume full responsibility. I have often wondered how the masters of swift Atlantic liners can keep up their spirits as they do, knowing what a number of derelicts there are lurking about the Atlantic. I suppose they say to themselves that, remembering the wideness of the sea, there are an infinity of chances against their striking against any one of those awful shifting dangers, numerous though they be. And they must cultivate a habit of refusing to contemplate possible disasters that are by no means inevitable, else would they soon become unfit for their position. It must not be forgotten that they are in the last resort also responsible for the performance of the tremendous giants below, the steam-engines that thrust the vast fabric through the seas at such headlong speed. But, unlike their brethren in the Navy, they do not think lightly of the engineer. They recognize to the full his wonderful ability and trustworthiness, and I think I am well within the mark in saying that no department of the ship's management gives them less anxiety than the most important of all, the engine and boiler- rooms. For it is impossible to conceive of even a second-rate engineer rising to be in command of a liner's engine-room. There is a process of weeding-out in action there that is very efficient, so that while it is conceivable that by a combination of favourable circumstances and highly placed influence a duffer might come to command a fine ship, the same thing could not happen in the engineering department.
- 79. CHAPTER III. THE MASTER (OF A TRAMP). From the liner to the tramp is by no means the great step that might be imagined. Indeed, so fine are the gradations in the quality and positions of steamships that it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line anywhere. For even among tramp steamers undoubtedly there are many shades of difference until we reach the very lowest class of all, run on principles despised by all ship-owners of repute. The hierarchy of merchant shipping, the great floating palaces belonging to such firms as the P. & O., the Cunard, the White Star, and the British India, to mention only a few, and without any invidious idea of selection, fall easily into a class by themselves, association with which in almost any capacity confers a sort of brevet rank upon a seaman. But once they are left, and the lines entered upon to whom cargo is the one thing needful and passengers are merely incidental, we get a new order of things entirely: first of all, a great reduction of speed, for the sake of economy in running; consequent upon this, a corresponding reduction of staff, both on deck and in the engine- room. Yet in the highest class of cargo carriers and the lowest class of ocean-going passenger ships the master's position is still a proud one. His vessel is often of immense size, carrying up to ten thousand tons of freight, and, especially if she be one of the hand-maidens of a great company owning swift passenger ships as well, his salary will be fairly good, though probably fifty per cent. below that of his more fortunate fellows in the liner pure and simple. Also his work will be increased. For there is no difference at sea in the old axiom that the less a man does the more money he gets for it. Still, where he is in a regular trade, as in the highest class of cargo ships he will be, his clerical work connected with the ship's earnings will be almost nil, although he may not carry a purser to do the interior accounts of the ship or such matters as wages bills, etc.
- 80. It may truly be said that the master of a first-class cargo steamer is in much better case than his brother in some small lines of passenger steamers that could be named. He is better paid, better housed, and has far less worry. Some of those small passenger steamers going (for steam vessels) long voyages are run so economically that the master has hard work to keep up any sort of appearance at all. I knew myself of one firm, which shall be nameless, whose advertisements for passengers were most persistent and alluring, who thought it not shameful to pay their masters £12 a month, at the same time insisting that they should invest at least £250 in the company. Cases like these are very disheartening to the striving seaman. For where the master's wages are kept so low, other economies are conducted in proportion. Such a vessel, say of 1500 tons register, would carry at most three mates and eight seamen. The latter would be mostly foreigners, the work for such a small complement being so hard that home-born men worth their salt fight shy of them. And the officers' wages, unfixed as the men's are, would also be cut down deplorably low. Still, even in such a ship as this the master's clerical work is very small. Agents of the company at each port await the vessel's regular arrival, and see to it that she departs on scheduled time, cargo or no cargo. So that the master has no carking care as to how the ship is paying, no responsibility beyond the navigation and management of the ship herself. He has, of course, to consider his passengers, with no buffer between him and their often querulous complaints and constant questionings, such as his exalted brethren in the big liners have in their purser. He is usually a man who has been passed over in the race, and while his ability is of the highest order, he feels naturally shelved upon a very much lower ledge of his profession than he once hoped to reach. In command of these small passenger-carrying ocean-going steamers are to be found some of the very best of our merchant skippers, whose worth and merit are so great that their reward strikes one as most shockingly inadequate.
- 81. Beneath these comes the tramp proper. It has just dawned upon me in time that often as I have used the word, I have not yet given any definition of it for the benefit of those who I hope will read this book principally, shore people. A tramp steamer, then, is a vessel of large cargo-carrying capacity and low power of engines, built upon the most economical principles, and run likewise. She goes wherever freight is to be had, although usually built for certain trades, and this is in itself a sore point with underwriters, who complain bitterly that they are often led to insure a certain type of vessel on the understanding that she will be trading in such waters as the Mediterranean and the Baltic, but presently find her braving the tremendous seas of the Atlantic. The best type of tramp is built and owned in north-east English ports, where the highest shipbuilding science is brought to bear upon the construction of cargo-carriers that shall be at once cheap, roomy, economical, and seaworthy. And it must be said that many firms up there, by careful attention to tramp building and owning, have made tremendous strides in the direction of safety for the ships, and even comfort for the crews, although of the latter there can never be very much in a tramp. The lowest type of tramp, on the other hand, is one that is built to sell to the first bidder—built so as to pass Lloyd's surveyor, but without one single item in her equipment that can be dispensed with. Such vessels as these merit all the hard words that have been said of them. Very slow, very unhandy, with dens for the crew to live in and upper works of the commonest material, they are always coming to grief. They are mostly owned by single-ship companies, of which the shareholders are generally people knowing absolutely nothing of shipping matters, who have been induced by speciously worded circulars, issued by some deeply interested manager, to invest their scanty capital in these dubious enterprises. The master of such a ship as this may well feel that his lot is hard. With wages cut down to a point that could only attract a man upon his last legs financially, the manager always endeavours to get some investment, however small, out of the unfortunate master, to give him an interest in the ship. The food and stores supplied are of such
- 82. bad quality as to make the life very much harder than it need be (in any case it is hard enough), while the number of men carried in proportion to the vessel's tonnage is appallingly small. Yet the master's work is far more onerous than in better ships. In addition to the necessity he is under of nursing his ungainly, low-powered vessel in heavy weather, he is always being sent to fresh places, entailing upon him the acquisition of an immense amount of local knowledge. The purchase of coal in far-away ports, with all the vicissitudes of price to which that indispensable commodity is subject, makes his hair grey and his face wrinkled before he comes to middle age. If he carries a good supply of coal for fear of a rise in price, at his next port he may have to shut out cargo; if he neglects to do so, expecting to be able to buy well and be disappointed in his expectations, he is held responsible. Low freights make him unhappy, although he is powerless to alter economic conditions, for his first duty is to make his ship pay. Worst of all his troubles are repairs. Such vessels as these are peculiarly prone to damage, from their cheap construction, yet any expense incurred abroad for repairs is looked upon as almost a crime. Then there is the necessity laid upon him for the most careful watching of the freight-markets. Although he may secure a good freight on one passage, he may, upon reaching his port, find that freights there are either unpayably low or non-obtainable. And his spirits fall, because he knows how such an experience will lower his average earnings for the voyage. The qualifications that such a master need have are, although nominally the same as in any other branch of his trade, immensely varied. And it may be taken for granted that a successful tramp skipper is always a good all-round man—something of a diplomat, of a lawyer, of an accountant, of a merchant: all these qualities superadded to his ability to handle his vessel at sea in all weathers, contend with crews of the smallest and of the lowest kind of men, who are as far removed from the popular idea of what a sailor is as day is from night. But such men are of inestimable value to the commerce of the country. They seldom forget that their first duty is to their employers, nor allow the thought of their hard, laborious
- 83. position to tempt them into neglect of it. Poor fellows! the penalty for want of success is not easy to bear, even though they may be in no way to blame. These, of course, are the lowest kinds of tramps. But there is an aristocracy among tramp steamers, owned by wealthy firms of high reputation, both for well and carefully built cargo-carriers and generous treatment of their faithful servants. Although these ships do also go wherever cargo is to be found on which a payable freight will be paid, yet the conditions under which the officers serve are very much better. They are not harassed, either, by the fear of making a loss upon the voyage, since such firms will have their correspondents in most ports, who make freight arrangements for the skippers. Between owners and masters in this class of vessel often subsist the most firm friendships, men growing grey in one employ, and feeling always that their faithful service is fully appreciated. Of course the pay is not high, but the tenure is good, and there is always the chance of picking up a tow, a fellow-tramp with broken shaft, or something of a like disabling nature. And this may mean a small fortune, often does so, since the skipper never fails to take a most substantial share of the total award. Besides, there is a prospect, too, that a well-known skipper may, before he is worn out with sea-service, get a comfortable berth as harbour- master, or dock-master, or ship's-husband, or any of the congenial employments for which experienced shipmasters are so eminently fitted. Pilotage, too, may come their way, although this can hardly be looked upon as comfortable retirement after a hard life at sea. But whatever they get as a sort of retiring berth, they may truly be said to have earned it. Unfortunately, many of them must leave the sea with advancing years, having nothing to support them but such scanty savings as they have been able to put by. And as the days when skippers were able to amass fortunes have long passed away, these hard-working seamen are often hardly bestead in their old age —far more hardly than any one knowing their long period of command, but ignorant of their pay, could possibly imagine.
- 84. In leaving the steamer-skipper for him of the wind-jammer, as sailing vessels are contemptuously termed by steamer-sailors, a few words may suffice for the ungracious task of dealing with the black sheep. As in all other professions, of course among steamship-masters there are drunken blackguards, who in some mysterious way manage to get and keep command. But the proportion is very small. There is hardly any room for them. The conditions of service are too onerous, the necessity for constant care and forethought is too great, to admit of many worthless men being in command. Especially is this the case in the north-east ports, where every man's goings-on are known and discussed, as villagers dissect one another's business in remote inland hamlets. No; taking them by and large, to use a time-honoured sea phrase, the tramp skippers need not fear comparison with any class of public servants in this country, while for the importance of the duties they fulfil they are certainly second to none. CHAPTER IV. THE MASTER (SAILING SHIPS). So great is the difference in duties to be performed by masters of sailing ships from those of masters of steamers, that they are almost like members of another profession. The range, too, in status is exceedingly extensive. Between the man in command of, say, a small brigantine going foreign, and the commander of a four-masted steel clipper carrying 5000 tons of cargo to and from the Colonies, there is not only a great gulf of status, but a large number of gradations. Yet it will readily be admitted by all shipmasters that the position of master of even a fifth-rate steamship marks a step upward from the same position on board of the finest sailing ship afloat. And almost any shipmaster is glad to step down from the exalted pinnacle he may have occupied for years as master of a splendid "wind-jammer"
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