![THE GRACKLES.
The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its
subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky
Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as
southern Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian
Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant of
birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near
farms instead of in the natural “timber” which it formerly used. It
breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable
colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant,
though frequently seen in migration. In the latter days of August and
throughout September it is found in immense numbers before
moving southward.
[35] Quiscalus quiscula.
The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and
fruit and robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346
stomachs shows that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects,
most of which are injurious. The bird also eats a few snails,
crawfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The
stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birds’ nests to
any great extent, as remains of birds and birds’ eggs amount to less
than half of 1 per cent.
It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most
deserves condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and
only for a short time in summer is other food attractive enough to
induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring
probably consists of waste kernels from the stubble. The stomachs
do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat
eaten in July and August and the corn eaten in fall are probably from](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-52-320.jpg)
![BREWER BLACKBIRD.
The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of
the grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley
and farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It
breeds east to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters
over most of its breeding range in the United States and south to
Guatemala. At home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and about
ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and
weeds, sometimes in trees, and is very gregarious, especially about
barnyards and corrals. The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in
cultivated fields, and when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a
share. During the cherry season in California the birds are much in
the orchards. In one case they were observed feeding on cherries,
but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow his orchard
almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly opened
ground close after the plowman’s heels in its eagerness to secure
the insects turned up.
[36] Euphagus cyanocephalus.
The laboratory investigation of this bird’s food covered 312
stomachs, collected in every month and representing especially the
fruit and grain sections of southern California. The animal portion of
the food was 32 per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent.
Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the
whole food and were eaten every month. They include many of
those pests known as cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear
worm, was identified in at least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found
pupæ of the codling moth. The animal food also included other
insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-54-320.jpg)
![Fig. 12.—Baltimore oriole. Length,
about 7½ inches.
BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness
of song, and food habits to which no
exception can be taken are some of
the striking characteristics of the
Baltimore oriole[37] (fig. 12). In
summer it is found throughout the
northern half of the United States
east of the Great Plains. Its nest
commands hardly less admiration
than the beauty of its plumage or
the excellence of its song. Hanging
from the tip of the outermost bough
of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so
strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements.
[37] Icterus galbula.
Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that
caterpillars constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In
204 stomachs they formed 34 per cent of the food, and they are
eaten in varying quantities during all the months in which the bird
remains in this country. The fewest are eaten in July, when a little
fruit also is taken. The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants,
wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are principally
click beetles, the larvæ of which are among the most destructive
insects known; and the bugs include plant and bark lice, both very
harmful, but so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by
most birds. Ants are eaten mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and
August, and wasps and spiders with considerable regularity
throughout the season.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-56-320.jpg)
![BULLOCK ORIOLE.
The Bullock oriole[38] is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore
oriole, taking the place of that species west of the Plains and
throughout the Pacific coast region. It does not essentially differ in
its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative, but it is
less beautiful in plumage. The examination of 162 stomachs shows
that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few spiders, a
lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per
cent, and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were
found in 19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees,
wasps, etc., were in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them.
Including the ants, they amount to nearly 15 per cent of the food of
the season.
[38] Icterus bullocki.
One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary
was the black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5
per cent of the food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per
cent or more of the contents, and in one, 30 individual scales could
be counted. They were evidently a standard article of diet, and were
eaten regularly in every month of the oriole’s stay except April.
Hemipterous insects other than scales, eaten quite regularly, make
up a little more than 5 per cent of the food. They were mostly
stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. Plant lice were found in
one stomach.
Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the
oriole’s animal food. The average consumption during its summer
stay is a little more than 41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most
interesting were the pupæ and larvæ of the codling moth. These
were found in 23 stomachs, showing that they are not an unusual](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-58-320.jpg)
![THE MEADOWLARKS.
The eastern meadowlark[39] (fig. 13) is a common and well-
known bird occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains,
where it gives way to the closely related western species,[40] which
extends thence westward to the Pacific. It winters from our southern
border as far north as the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and
occasionally Iowa. The western form winters somewhat farther
north. Although it is a bird of the plains, and finds its most congenial
haunts in the prairies of the West, it is at home wherever there is
level or undulating land covered with grass or weeds, with plenty of
water at hand.
[39] Sturnella magna.
[40] Sturnella neglecta.
In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all
insects) constituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable
matter 26 per cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects
were ground species, as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and
caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, and spiders. A number of the
stomachs were collected when the ground was covered with snow,
but even these contained a large percentage of insects, showing the
bird’s skill in finding proper food under adverse circumstances.
Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the
most important, constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and
72 per cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention
the beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in
the height of the grasshopper season. Of the 1,514 stomachs
collected at all seasons of the year, 778, or more than half, contained
remains of grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of 37 of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-60-320.jpg)
![THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS.
The red-winged or swamp blackbird[41] in its various forms (fig.
14) is found all over the United States and the region immediately to
the north. While common in most of its range, its distribution is
more or less local, mainly on account of its partiality for marshes. It
builds its nest over or near standing water, in tall grass, rushes, or
bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large
tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for
nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, though single families,
consisting of a male and several females, may sometimes be found
in a small slough, where each female builds her nest and rears her
own little brood, while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and
struts in the sunshine. In the upper Mississippi Valley the species
finds most favorable conditions, for the countless prairie sloughs and
the margins of the numerous shallow lakes afford nesting sites for
thousands of red-wings; and here are bred the immense flocks
which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the
West. After the breeding season the birds congregate preparatory to
migration, and remain thus associated throughout the winter.
[41] Agelaius phœniceus.
Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are
recognized,[42] but practically no difference exists in the habits of
these forms either in nesting or feeding, except such as may result
from local conditions. Most of the forms are found on the Pacific side
of the continent, and may be considered as included in the following
statements as to food and economic status.
[42] Agelaius phœniceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius tricolor.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-63-320.jpg)
![Fig. 15.—Bobolink, rice bird, or reed
bird. Length, about 7 inches.
BOBOLINK.
The bobolink, rice bird, or reed
bird[43] (fig. 15) is a common
summer resident of the United
States, north of about latitude 40°,
and from New England westward
to the Great Plains, wintering
beyond our southern border. In
New England there are few birds
about which so much romance
clusters as this rollicking songster,
naturally associated with sunny
June meadows; but in the South
there are none on whose head so
many maledictions have been
heaped on account of its fondness
for rice. During its sojourn in the
Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects and seeds of useless
plants; but while rearing its young, insects constitute its chief food,
and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. After the young are able
to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins to live
almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists for the most part
of weed seeds, since in the North these birds do not appear to
attack grain to any great extent. They eat a few oats, but their
stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain.
As the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move
southward, until by the end of August nearly all have left their
breeding grounds. On their way they frequent the reedy marshes
about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast
region and subsist largely upon wild rice. In the Middle States,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-66-320.jpg)
![during their southward migration, they are commonly known as reed
birds, and becoming very fat are treated as game.
[43] Dolichonyx oryzivorus.
Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some
of the more southern States were devoted to rice culture the
bobolinks made great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring
and upon the ripening grain on their return migration in the fall.
With a change in the rice-raising districts, however, this damage is
no longer done.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-67-320.jpg)
![CROW.
In one or another of its geographic races the common crow[44]
(fig. 16) breeds in great numbers throughout the States east of the
Plains and from the Gulf well up into Canada, while in less
abundance it is found in California and in the Northwestern States.
During the colder months a southern migratory movement brings
most of these birds within the borders of the United States, and at
about the latitude of Philadelphia and southern Illinois we find them
congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers dwelling in the vicinity of
such roosts frequently suffer losses to shocked corn.
[44] Corvus brachyrhynchos.
In fact none of our native birds so much concerns the average
farmer of the Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our
present criticisms of this bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding
on ripening ears, damaging fruits of various kinds, destroying poultry
and wild birds, and disseminating diseases of live stock, were
common complaints in the days of the early colonists. Many of the
virtues of the crow, now quite generally recognized, also have been
matters of record for many years. In recent times, however, scientific
study of these problems, including the examination of the stomachs
of hundreds of crows secured in every month of the year and under
a variety of conditions, has enabled us to render a much fairer
verdict than was formerly possible.
The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early
summer any form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its
diet, and in winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or
vegetable kingdoms which contains a morsel of nutriment is
overlooked.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-68-320.jpg)
![Fig. 17.—Blue jay. Length, about
11½ inches.
BLUE JAY.
The blue jay[45] (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird
population east of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant
plumage contrasts vividly with the brown foliage. Even in winter he
stays with us, though at this time he is less common along our
northern border. In spring and summer, while by no means
uncommon, the blue jay is not so often noticed, as the retiring
disposition which he assumes during the breeding season assists in
protecting him from enemies. This also allows him to carry on with
considerable impunity that inglorious practice of nest robbing of
which, in a measure, he has been rightfully accused.
[45] Cyanocitta cristata.
Examination of 530 stomachs
collected at all times of the year in
30 of our Eastern States and Canada
shows that insects comprise about
22 per cent of the yearly
sustenance. About three-fourths of
these are injurious, the remainder
being neutral or beneficial. Of the
injurious insects grasshoppers form
the largest portion; in August nearly
a fifth of the food. Caterpillars are
conspicuous in July and August and
at this time average about a tenth of the stomach contents. Both
laboratory investigations and field observations have established the
fact that in winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the
hibernating larvæ of the brown-tail moth in New England are eagerly
sought. Scarabæid beetles form about 4 per cent of the yearly food,
and click beetles and wireworms about 1 per cent. Of the beneficial](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-72-320.jpg)
![PACIFIC COAST JAYS.
In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in
evidence under several more or less well-marked forms.
The Steller jay[46] much resembles the eastern bird, but it is
more shy and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the
ranch buildings. Stomach examination shows that its food does not
radically differ from that of the eastern blue jay. As is the case with
that bird, a very considerable part of the food consists of mast,
together with a little fruit and some insects. The insects are largely
wasps, with some beetles and grasshoppers. The jay also eats some
grain, which is probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far as
known, are made against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it
is not likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer’s
preserve.
[46] Cyanocitta stelleri.
The California jay,[47] although of a different genus, more nearly
resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely
visits the stockyards near ranch buildings, and orchards and
gardens. As a fruit stealer it is notorious. One instance is recorded
where seven jays were shot from a prune tree, one after the other,
the dead bodies being left under the tree until all were killed. So
eager were the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and
the sight of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree.
In orchards in canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other
cover great mischief is done by this bird. In one such case an
orchard was under observation at a time when the prune crop was
ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were seen to come down a
small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and return.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-75-320.jpg)
![[47] Aphelocoma californica.
Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California
jay. That it robs hens’ nests is universal testimony. A case is reported
of a hen having a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay
came to a tree a few rods away, and when it heard the cackle of the
hen announcing a new egg it flew at once to the nest. At the same
time the mistress of the house hastened to the spot to secure the
prize, but in most cases the jay won the race. This is only one of
many similar cases recounted. The jays have learned just what the
cackle of the hen means. Another case more serious is that related
by a man engaged in raising white leghorn fowls on a ranch several
miles up a canyon. He stated that when the chicks were very young
the jays attacked and killed them by a few blows of the beak and
then pecked open the skull and ate out the brains. In spite of all
efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the losses in this way
were serious.
Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27
per cent of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and
73 per cent of vegetable. Although the great bulk of the animal food
is made up of insects, the remains of eggshells and birds’ bones
appear much too often. The insect food is fairly well distributed
among the more common orders, but grasshoppers are slightly the
most numerous and constitute 4.5 per cent of the year’s food. In
July, August, and September, however, the amount is 14, 18, and 19
per cent, respectively. Four per cent of the food consists of wasps,
bees, etc., but in the three months named they constitute 15, 7, and
9 per cent, respectively. A worker honeybee found in each of two
stomachs is rather surprising, for it is unusual to find a bird like the
jay eating many of these active and elusive insects, which enter into
the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect food is pretty
evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars.
Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds’ bones in 5. Six
stomachs contained the bones of mammals and two those of a
lizard. No bird has a worse reputation for nest robbing than has the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-76-320.jpg)
![THE PHŒBES.
Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is
more welcome than the phœbe (fig. 18). The common phœbe[48]
breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and
winters from the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward. Its
western relative, the black phœbe,[49] is found from Texas west to
the Pacific coast, which it occupies as far north as Washington,
replacing through most of this region the common or eastern form.
[48] Sayornis phœbe.
[49] Sayornis nigricans.
Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of
rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the
eastern species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in
the more thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen
at any great distance from a farmhouse, except where a bridge
spanning a stream affords a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding
disposition renders it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom
disturbed.
The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of
which are caught upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs
showed that over 89 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects
and spiders, while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects
belong chiefly to noxious species, and include many click beetles,
May beetles, and weevils. Other beetles, belonging to 21 families
that were identified, make up 10.65 per cent. They appear to be
eaten very regularly in every month, but the most are taken in
spring and early summer. May is the month of maximum
consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether amount to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-78-320.jpg)
![Another phœbe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as
far north as Alaska is the Say phœbe.[50] Investigation of its food
was based on the examination of 86 stomachs, and while none were
available for the months when insects are most numerous, the bird
proved to be one of the most exclusively insectivorous of the family.
That it takes a few useful insects can not be denied, but these are
far outnumbered by the harmful ones it destroys, and the balance is
clearly in favor of the bird. Its vegetable food amounts to only 2 per
cent and is made up of a little wild fruit, seeds, and rubbish.
[50] Sayornis sayus.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-82-320.jpg)
![THE KINGBIRDS.
The well-known eastern kingbird[51] (fig. 19) is essentially a lover
of the orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably
its original habitat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky
Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific
coast. Its hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial, and for this
reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard.
On one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which
attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so
severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds whose nest was near by that
the would-be robber was glad to escape without his prey. Song birds
that nest near the kingbird are similarly protected.
[51] Tyrannus tyrannus.
The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and
takes on the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however,
confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects
from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of
myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the species
by both professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys
largely upon honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the
kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives;
but when the stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert
entomologist, not a trace of honeybees could be found.
An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the
country was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found
to contain remains of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were
in all 61 honeybees, of which 51 were drones, 8 were certainly
workers, and the remaining 2 were too badly broken to be further
identified.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/68506-250622085016-55d18a3a/85/Enterprise-Transformation-Understanding-and-Enabling-Fundamental-Change-Wiley-Series-in-Systems-Engineering-and-Management-1st-Edition-William-B-Rouse-83-320.jpg)
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- 7. ENTERPRISE TRANSFORMATION Understanding and Enabling Fundamental Change edited by William B. Rouse TennenbaumInstitute Georgia Institute o f Technology A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
- 8. Copyright 02006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-601I, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support,please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317)572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData is available. ISBN-I 3 978-0-471-73681-3 ISBN-I 0 0-471-73681-3 Printed in the United States of America I 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- 9. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Contributors Part I. Introduction to Transformation 1 Introduction & Overview William B. Rouse Contemporary Context Pursuing Transformation Business Processes and Value Streams Outsourcing and Offshoring Asset Management Transformation Archetypes Transformed Value Propositions Transformation Via Acquisitions & Mergers Transformation Via New Value Propositions Summary Overview of Book Introduction to Transformation Elements of Transformation Transformation Practices Transformation Case Studies References 2 EnterprisesAs Systems William B. Rouse Abstract Introduction Essential Challenges Enterprise Transformation Perspectives on Transformation Approaches to Transformation Enterprise Solutions xix - xxii xxiii - xxxii 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 G 7 9 9 9 11 12 14 15 17 17 17 18 22 23 24 25
- 10. vi Contents Research Issues Best Practices Methods &Tools Enterprise Technologies Organizational Simulation Investment Valuation Organizational Culture & Change Research Methodology summary Conclusions References 3 A Theory of Enterprise Transformation William B. Rouse Abstract Introduction Role of Theory Context of Transformation Modeling the Enterprise A Theory of Enterprise Transformation Value Deficiencies Drive Transformation Work Processes Enable Transformation Allocation of Attention & Resources Management Decision Making Transformation Processes Summary of Theory Ends, Means & Scope of Transformation Value Deficiencies Drive Transformation Work Processes Enable Transformation Illustrations of Transformation Transportation Computing Contemporary Illustrations Conclusions 26 26 28 29 30 31 32 32 33 33 34 39 39 39 40 41 43 45 46 46 47 48 50 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 58 61
- 11. Contents vii Implications of Theory Implications for Systems Engineering and Management Conclusions References Part 11. Elements of Transformation 4 TransformationalLeadership William George Abstract Introduction Transactional Leaders and Transformation Leaders The Rise of “The Gamesman” Transformational Leaders Mission and Values A Transformational Vision Transformation Strategies Organization Building Transformation Systems and Processes Measurement: The Discipline of Getting Results Conclusion References 5 Organizationand CultureChange Joyce L. Shields Abstract Introduction Implementing Successful Change The Change Process Deciding to Change Articulating the Case for Change Linking Vision to Core Values and Building Senior Commitment Organizational Climate Leadership Styles Guiding Change Four Cultural Models 61 63 64 64 69 69 69 69 70 71 71 72 73 73 74 75 76 76 79 79 79 80 82 83 83 84 85 85 86 87
- 12. viii Contents Targeted Cultural Modeling Supporting Change Building Organizational Accountability Sustaining Change Getting the Right People in the Right Roles Performance Management and Reward Systems Conclusion References 6 Manufacturingand EnterpriseTransformation Leon F. McGinnis Abstract Introduction Twentieth Century Manufacturing Transformations Manufacturing Process Transformations Manufactured Product Transformations Organization and Operation Transformations The Manufacturing Enterprise Product Structure Process Structure Information Versus Tangible Products Transformation Revisited Some Thoughts on Transformation Future Manufacturing Transformations Conclusion References 7 Transformationin the Logistics Industry Chelsea C. WhiteIII and Dale Belman Abstract Introduction Overview of the Logistics Industry Trucking Industry Third Party Logistics Industry Regulation-Driven Transformations 89 93 94 100 100 100 104 105 107 107 107 108 109 111 112 1I4 116 1 I8 1I9 120 124 125 127 128 131 131 131 133 133 140 140
- 13. Contents ix Economic Regulation Economic Deregulation Coordinative Regulation Social Regulation Commercial Driver’s Licenses Homeland Security Truck Drivers: Transformation Without Gain Customer Driven Transformations Lean Manufacturing Disintermediation, Internet and Expansion of PX into LTL Outsourcing Expanded Services Off-Shoring Information Technology Conclusions References 8 ServicesManagement Benjamin Schneider Abstract Introduction Contributions From Marketing Contributions From Operations Management (OM) Contributions From HRM with a Focus on Service Climate Contingencies on Linkage Results The Need for Strategic HRM for Transformation in the World of Services Management Marketing, HRM, and OM Need to Talk to Each Other Measurement Systems Should Focus on Service Quality Indicators Analyze the Strategic Focus Accorded all HRM Practices Identify What Managers at all Levels do to produce Positive Service Climates and High Levels of Customer Satisfaction Avoid the Coffee Mugs and Posters Approach to Service Quality Conclusions References 141 i44 146 146 149 150 151 154 154 155 155 156 157 158 159 159 161 161 161 162 164 165 166 167 168 169 169 170 170 170 171
- 14. x Contents 9 Value-CenteredR&D William B. Rouse and Kenneth R. Bog Abstract Introduction Characterizing Value Principle No. 1 Principle No. 2 Principle No. 3 Assessing Value Principle No. 4 Principle No. 5 Managing Value Principle No. 6 Principle No. 7 Principle No. 8 Principle No. 9 Principle No. 10 Organizing for Value Overall Design Process Defining “As Is” and “To Be” Designing Action Plans Executing Action Plans References Appendix Formulation and Calculation for Option-Based Valuations Framing Options Estimating Input Data Calculating Option Values Performing Sensitivity Analyses Examples From Table 2 10 Six Sigma Quality Tirthankar Dasgupta and C.R.Jeff Wu Abstract 175 175 175 176 178 179 182 185 186 188 190 190 192 193 194 195 196 196 197 200 201 202 205 205 205 205 206 206 207 209 209
- 15. Contents xi Brief History of Six Sigma What is Six Sigma? The Many Facets of Six Sigma The Six Sigma Metric and Its Computation Examples Breakthrough Strategy for Six Sigma Implementation Organization for Six Sigma Training and Tools for Six Sigma Case Study: Reduction of Cracks in Copper Gasket Rings Define Phase Measure Phase Analyze Phase Improve Phase Control Phase Documentation and Results Conclusions Acknowledgement References 11 Enterprise IT and Transformation Rahul C.Basole and Richard A. DeMillo Abstract Introduction High-Performance Engineering One-to-one Marketing The Information Economy Information Technology as a Transformation Enabler Business Value Versus Cost Key processes and Transformational Events The Role of Architectures Maturity Measurement and Six Sigma Models IT Architecture and Transformation Transformational Events Examples of Enterprise IT Transformation 209 210 211 214 215 216 215 215 219 219 220 220 220 221 221 221 221 221 223 223 223 226 227 229 230 230 232 232 233 234 236 237
- 16. xii Contents Cisco Home Depot HP/Compaq Merger Enabling Capabilities Open Standards and Interfaces Composition and Modularity Data Consistency/Integration Network Access and Applications Scalability Service-Orientation Human-Centered Technology Transformational Maturity Conclusion References Part 111. Transformation Practices 12 TurnaroundPlanningand Execution Scott Avila and Mark Barbeau Abstract Introduction & Overview Drivers of Underperformance The Stages of a Turnaround Identifying the Turnaround Candidate Declining performance Broken Relationships Reacting Versus Planning Denial Getting Started Leadership The Team The Assessment Development of an Organizational Transformation Plan Execution of the Turnaround Plan Information 237 239 239 240 242 243 243 244 244 244 245 246 248 250 253 253 253 253 254 254 254 255 255 256 256 256 257 259 262 263 264
- 17. Contents xiii Organizational Transformation Environment Communication Conclusions References 13 Financing in a Crisis Michael Tennenbaum Abstract Introduction Cash Control Examples Foster Wheeler Consolidated Freightways Read-Rite Objectives - Operate or Liquidate Selecting a Capital Structure Negotiation Strategy Bankruptcy -Yes or No The Leader Conclusion References Leading a Turnaround 14 Transformation and Chapter 11 Reorganization Process Paul S .Aronzon and ThomasR. Kreller Abstract Introduction The Landscape of the Chapter 11 Reorganization Process The Bankruptcy Code The Bankruptcy Court The Estate and the Debtor in Possession Secured Creditors The Official Unsecured Creditors Committee Equity Holders Other Interested parties 265 266 267 267 269 269 269 269 270 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 276 278 278 279 283 283 283 284 285 286 286 287 287 288 288
- 18. xiv Contents Transformation Opportunities Afforded to a Chapter 11 Debtor The Opportunity to Stabilize and Analyze the Business The Automatic Stay Ordinary Course of Business Transactions Post-Petition Financing Plan Exclusivity The Opportunity to Dispose of Excess Baggage De-Leveraging Through a Plan Selling Assets “Free and Clear” Rejecting Burdensome Contracts and Leases Leaving Behind Legacy Liabilities The Opportunity to Focus on the Future The Challenges of Operating in Chapter 11 Alternative Paths to Emergence From Chapter 11 Pre-Packaged Chapter 11 Plans Pre-Negotiated Chapter 11 Plans “Traditional” Chapter 11 Plans Conclusion 15 Tax Issues In Crises Jerome M.Schwartzman and Steven J. Jofe Abstract Introduction Tax Issues for Companies in Crisis Primary Tax Considerations s and CFOs of Companies In Crisis Things CEOs and CFOs Should and Should Not Do Tax Consequences of Restructurings Importance of Information Gathering Parties to Restructurings Restructurings in Bankruptcy Vs. Out of Bankruptcy Out-of-Bankruptcy Restructurings/CorporateDebtor Bankruptcy Restructurings/CorporateDebtor Impacts of Shareholder and Creditor Actions on Use of NOLs Utilization of NOLs and Sale of Assets in Bankruptcy 289 289 290 290 291 292 293 293 296 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 303 305 305 305 305 306 306 308 309 310 31 1 312 312 3 14 315
- 19. Contents xv Tax Impact to Holder/Corporate Debtor Post Emergence Tax Consequences General Limitations on Utilization of NOLs Taxes on Pre-Bankruptcy Operations Partnership Bankruptcies Other Issues State and Local Tax Impact Liquidating Trusts Qualifiedmesignated Settlement Funds Property Taxes Pension Issues Conclusions References Appendix Tax Flow Chart Restructurings Out of Court Restructurings in Bankruptcy 16 Public Relations in Crises Michael Sitrick Abstract Prologue Introduction Tell the Truth Determine and Then Organize the Facts Focus and Frame Your Messages Use Factual Sources of Unimpeachable Veracity Take Control Be Consistent Closing Thoughts References 17 Lessons From The TransformationFront Wallace P. Buran and Bruce Chew Abstract 316 317 318 320 321 322 322 323 323 324 324 324 324 326 326 326 328 331 331 331 332 334 343 350 350 353 356 358 358 359 359
- 20. xvi Contents Introduction: Lessons From the “Front” Two Types of Transformation Linking Performance Improvement and Value Creation A Tale of Two Transformations summary Lessons From the Leaders Dispelling Some Myths Frontier Practices of Successful Enterprise Transformations Type I Enterprise Transformations: Playing the GameBetter Type I1 Enterprise Transformation: Playing by a Different Set o f Rules An Overarching Concept -The Pivot Point Fatal Moves When is Enterprise Transformation Strategic? Concluding Thoughts Part IV. Transformation Case Studies 18 Newell Rubbermaid WilliamPierre Sovey Abstract Introduction Newell History Strategy Mission Financial Objectives Culture Changing Retailing Market Place Newell Goes Public Company Organization Start of Growth Cycle Elements of Newellization Major Acquisitions Internal Growth Conclusions References 359 360 360 365 369 370 371 373 375 378 383 387 391 394 397 397 397 398 399 400 401 402 402 402 403 404 407 408 409 410 410
- 21. 19 The Transformation of Reebok Dominie Garcia with David Perdue Abstract Introduction History of Reebok Expanding the Line The Need For Change The Five Pillars of the Transformation Cleaning Up the Balance Sheet and Fixing the Income Statement Reconnecting with the Customer Segmentation of Product Development and Marketing Partnering with Retailers Structure and Organization Leadership and Management Lessons Learned and Future Direction Conclusions References 20 Lockheed Martin Aeronautics WilliamC.Kessler and Ralph D. Heath Abstract LM Aeronautics Restructure and Transformation Making the Decision to Restructure and Transform Leadership Realities of Large Scale Transformation Setting Intents -First Step in Restructure & Transformation Contents xvii 413 413 413 414 415 416 418 420 421 422 425 426 427 428 429 429 431 431 433 433 435 436 Launching the Restructure and Transformation -the Foundation and Establish Capability to Restructure & Transform - The Development Phase 446 Restructure & Transformation Results - The Execution Phase 45I Conclusions 460 460 460 461 References 463 Design Phase 439 Restructure and Transformation Lessons and New Approach Lessons From Restructure and Transformation An Emerging Framework Supporting Large Scale Transformation
- 22. xviiiContents 21 Doing Well By Doing Good L. Beril Toktayand Lynn Selhat with Ray Anderson Abstract Introduction The Interface Story The Awakening The Journey Key LeamingdOpportunities Creating a Sense of Urgency Value Creation -Doing Well By Doing Good A Conversation with Ray Anderson Acknowledgements References 22 Transformationin Academia WilliamB. Rouse and Dominie Garcia Abstract Introduction Rankings of Academic Programs Case Studyof Transformation Determinants of Rankings Conclusions References Organization Index Author Index Subject Index 465 465 465 466 466 468 482 482 483 490 492 492 495 495 495 499 500 502 505 505 507-510 511-516 517-527
- 23. ENTERPRISE TRANSFORMATION WILLIAM B. ROUSE Technological invention and market innovation are widely recognized as primary factorsin economic growth. This phenomenon is commonly illustrated in terms of new technologies that enable new products, often brought to market by startup companies whose goals include public offerings of their stock. This view is much too narrow and, equally important,very simplistic. One reason is that many innovations involve processes rather than products. More effective and efficient processes for manufacturing, distributing, and servicingproducts can result in substantial market innovations. There is no better example than Wal-Mart’s revolutionizing the retail market via information technology and associatednew business practices. Another argument for a richer view is the fact that both product and process innovations often originate with established enterprises rather than startups. Realization of the full value of these innovations often requires transformation of these enterprises to design business practices and organizationalcultures to better align with the nature of the innovations. UPS provides a great example of such fundamentalchanges, transforming from a leading package delivery company to a globalsupply chain managementservicescompany. Such transformationspresent enormous challenges. This book considershow best to understand and accomplish these fundamental changes. The goal is to document and communicatethese best practices to the many enterprises - in both private and public sectors -- in need of transformation. The methods, tools, and practices discussed in this book can foster tremendous economic value. Indeed, Wal-Mart’s and UPS’S stories, as well as many other case studies provided in this book, offer definitiveevidenceof the enormous value of transformation. ORGANIZATIONOF THIS BOOK Enterprise Transformation is organized in four parts. Part 1, “Introduction to Transformation,” includes three chapters than provide an introduction and overview of the book, a broad systems-oriented view of transformation, and a more theoretical perspective on the forces that prompt transformation and the nature of how transformationis pursued. Part 2, “Elements of Transformation,” includes eight chapters. Two chapters address the crosscutting issues of transformational leadership, and organizational
- 24. xx Preface and cultural change. More functionallyoriented chapters focus on manufacturing, logistics, services, R&D, enterprise computing, and quality management. These chapters provide a mixture of transformation principles and case studies of transformationwithin their domains. These chapters focus on transformationplanning and execution, financing,bankruptcy, tax issues, public relations, and lessons learned from a wide range of transformation experiences. These chaptersreflectthe collectivewisdomof severalkey players in the business of transformation. Part 4: “Transformation Case Studies,” includes five chapters on Newel1 Rubbermaid, Reebok, Lockheed Martin, and Interface, as well as considerationof transformation in academia that provides an overview of fundamental change at Georgia Tech. These chapters provide in-depth views of how principles and practices were actually applied and the consequent results. Part 3: “Transformation Practices,” includes six chapters. ORIGINS OF THIS BOOK My interest in enterprise transformationand motivation for this book grew out of a rich set of experiences working with private and public sector enterprises. Beginning in the late 1980s and continuing now, I have worked with over 100 major corporations and government agencies to address strategy issues that often involved fundamental changes of the enterprise. These changes ranged from pursuit of new markets, to offering significantly differentproducts and services,to adoptingnew processes for allocatingresources. Most of these changes were much easier to design than they were to deploy and sustain. Conceptualizing transformation was much easier than making it happen. This realization led me to explore past transformations in the transportation,computer,and defense industries. In Start Where You Are (Jossey- Bass, 1996), I considered a wide variety of attempts to transform and the great difficultiesof making such transitions. My thesis was that transformation failures were due to enterprises not having good assessments of their situations, externally andor internally. This led to a deeper look at why assessments tend to be so poor. In Don ’t Jump to Solutions (Jossey-Bass, 1998), I explored organizational delusions that often undermine strategic thinking by management teams as they attempt to address-or avoid addressing- needs for fundamental change. Managers seem to delude themselves regarding what is happening in the marketplace, how well they stand with their customers, and the extent to which their change initiatives are succeeding. Consequently, their plans fail because they are designed for an enterprisethat no longer exists, or perhaps never existed. The research underlying these two books caused me to see the common challenges that every management team must face. In Essential Challenges of Strategic Management (Wiley, 2001), I outline the strategic challengesof growth,
- 25. Preface xxi value, focus, change, future, knowledge, and time and summarize alternativeways of addressing these challenges. Of particular importance, there are many ways to address each challenge and no “silver bullets,” except senior management commitment. The present book, Enterprise Transformation,emerged from recognition that a range of material neededto be brought together in one source. Beyond the topics addressed, multiple perspectives are needed. Consequently, the authors of the chapters include many senior executives,numerous top consultants, and a range of academics. These people have led enterprise transformations, supported management teams addressing fundamental change, and researched the best ways to transformfunctions,organizations,and whole enterprises. I am indebted to these authors for what I have learned from them, both from their writing and our ongoing interactions. Fundamental change is very difficult and most initiatives are less than fully successful. The authors of the chapters in this book have addressed fundamental change, succeeded in accomplishing such change and, in this book, provide the insights gained and lessons learned. I am also pleased to acknowledgethe assistanceof Kristi Kirkland of Georgia Tech who served as managing editor in bringing together and integrating all of the elementsof this book. WilliamB. Rouse Atlanta, Georgia October2005
- 27. CONTRIBUTORS Ray C. Anderson, Founder and Chairman of Interface, Inc., graduated from Georgia Institute of Technology with Highest Honors in 1956 and with a bachelor’s degree in industrial engineering. He learned the carpet and textile businesses through 14-plus years at various positions at Deering-Milliken and Callaway Mills, and in 1973, set about founding a company to produce the first free-lay carpet tiles in America -- Interface, Inc. He developed a partnership with Britain’s Carpets International Plc. that year and set up operations in LaGrange, Georgia. Ten years later, Interface took over Carpets International. Today, Ray commands the world’s largest producer of commercial floorcoverings. Ray received the inaugural Millennium Award from Global Green, presented by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1996, and was named co-chairman of the President’s Council on Sustainable Development in 1997. He was also recognized in 1996 as the Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year for the Southeast Region, and as the Georgia Conservancy’s Conservationist of the Year in 1997. In January 2001, the National Academy of Sciences selected Ray to receive the prestigious George and Cynthia Mitchell International Prize for Sustainable Development, the first corporate CEO to be so honored, and in September of that year, the SAM-SPG Award Jury presented the Sustainability Leadership Award 2001 to Ray in Zurich, Switzerland. The US Green Building Council honored Ray with their inaugural green business Leadership Award for the private sector in November, 2002. Ray was named a Senior Fellow and Leading Voice for Green and Sustainable Design by the Design Futures Council in 2003, and also received the IIDA Star Award. In 2004, he was honored with the National Ethics Advocate Award from The Southern Institute for Business and Professional Ethics. He holds honorary doctorates from Northland College (public service), LaGrange College (business), N.C. State University (humane letters)and University of SouthernMaine (humane letters). His book, Mid-Course Correction, (Chelsea Green, 1998) describes h s and Interface’s transformationto environmentalresponsibility. Paul Aronzon is the Co-Chair of the Financial Restructuring Group of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy LLP and is resident in the Firm’s Los Angeles office. Mr. Aronzon has had a diverse twenty-plus year practice, having represented domestic and international debtors, financial institutions,lender syndicates,public debt, trade and other creditors, trustees and receivers, committeesof creditors and equity securities holders, and entities interested in acquiring overleveraged or otherwise troubled companiesor their assetsboth in and out of court. Mr. Aronzon is a Fellow in the American College of Bankruptcy and a frequent lecturer and author in the fields of bankruptcy and commercial law. He was included in
- 28. xxiv Contributors Turnarounds and Workouts Special Report: Outstanding Bankruptcy Lawyers 2001. Mr. Aronzon is also included in the Best Lawyers in America (WoodwardiWhite) and in the K&A Register of the Leading Bankruptcy and Financial Restructuring Lawyers and Financial Advisors in the United States. He is admitted to practice law in California, Washington, D.C. and New York. Scott Avila is a managing partner with Corporate Revitalization Partners, LLC an interim and crisis management consulting f i r m . Serving as an advisor and an interim executive, Mr. Avila has led the organizational transformation of many domestic and international organizations in a wide range of industries. Mr. Avila received his bachelor’s degree in Business Administration from California State University at Hayward and his Masters in Business Administration from the University of Southern California. He has earned the designation of Certified Turnaround Professional and is actively involved in numerous professional organizations. Mr. Avila is a frequent speaker on the topics of corporate reorganizations and has served on the board of directors of numerous corporations. Mark Barbeau is a managing partner of Corporate Revitalization Partners, LLC, an interim and crisis management f i r m . He has extensive experience in the reorganization of distressed companies as an interim and crisis manager, financial advisor and investor. Since 1990he has been involved in more than 40 turnaround and restructuring engagements in a wide range of industries. He and partners also invest in distressed companies through privately negotiated transactions and bankruptcy proceedings. He writes and speaks on the subjects of corporate reorganizations and bankruptcy, and has served on several boards of directors. Mark has an MBA from Washington University in St. Louis, and a Bachelor of Journalism from the University of Missouri. Rahul C. Basole is a Doctoral Candidate and Tennenbaum Fellow in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Most recently, he was the CEO and VP Research of mobileAnalytics, the Director of Research and Development at MShifi, and a Technology Consultant at AMS-CGI. His current research interests include strategic IT management and planning, the business value and impact of IT, and issues related to IS/IT adoption, implementation, and use with a particular focus on mobile information and communication technologies. He holds a B.S. in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Virginia Tech, a M.S. from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in Industrial and Operations Engineering, and has completed graduate research in Engineering-Economic Systems and Operations Research at Stanford University. Dale Belman is a Professor and Associate Director for Graduate Studies in the School of Labor and Industrial Relations at Michigan State University. He is an Associate Director of the Trucking Industry Program, academic chair of the
- 29. Contributors xxv Construction Industry Council of the Labor and Employment Relations Association, and facilitates the Construction Economics Research Network of the CPWR. His two most recent books, Sailors of the Concrete Sea: The Work and Life of Truck Drivers (MichiganStateUniversity Press, 2005) and Trucking in the Age of Information (Ashgate, forthcoming), both address issues of the trucking and the logistics industries. Kenneth R. Boff, Ph.D., serves as Chief Scientist of the Human Effectiveness Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. In this position, he has responsibilityfor the technical direction and quality of a broad multi-disciplinaryR&D portfolio encompassing human-engineering of complex systems, training, safety, biotechnology, toxicology, and deployment logistics. He is best known for his work on understanding and remediating problems in the transition of research to applications in the design and acquisition of complex human-systems. Holder of a patent for rapid communication display technology, Boff has authored numerous articles, book chapters and technical papers, and is co-editor of "System Design" (1987), senior editor of the two- volume "Handbook of Perception and Human Performance" (1986), and the four- volume "Engineering Data Compendium: Human Perception and Performance" (1988). Boff actively consults and provides technical liaison with government agencies, international working groups, universities and professional societies.He is founder and technical director of the Department of Defense Human System InformationAnalysis Center, and founding member and former Chair of the DoD Reliance Human-Systems Interface Technology Panel. Currently, he is serving part-time on the faculty of the Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Industrial and Systems Engineering as an Edinfield Executive in Residence. Until recently, he was the US National Voting Member and Chair for the NATO RTO human factors technology area. In 2003, he received the NATO Scientific Achievement Award. Boff is a Fellow of the Human Factors & Ergonomics Societyand the InternationalErgonomicsAssociation. Wally Buran is a Senior Partner with The Monitor Group, a global family of professionalservice firms focused on enhancing client competitiveness,and is The Edenfield Executive in Residence at The Georgia Institute of Technology. He is also a Senior Advisor in The Tennenbaum Institute for Enterprise Transformation, helped establish its initial research agenda and supports its major initiatives. He has consulted and advised clients in a broad range of industries for over 25 years in strategic planning, enterprise transformation, supply chain strategy, SG&A management, business process reengineering, mergers & acquisitions, sales and marketing effectiveness, procurement, and innovation management. Previously, Mr. Buran was CEO of Worldcrest Group, and was a line manager with General Motors, Avon Products and IBM. Currently his research focuses on enterprise transformation,frontier management concepts and shareholdervalue development.
- 30. xxvi Contributors He serves as an advisor to severalprivate equity firms and lives in Atlanta with his wife and children. W. Bruce Chew, PhD, is a GlobalThought Leader with The Monitor Groupbased in their Cambridge, Massachusetts office. Dr. Chew’s work and research focuses on the bridging of management action and enterprise competitiveness.This work began while he was a professor at the Harvard Business School and has continued with an emphasis on practical applicationsincejoining Monitor over a decade ago. He is the co-founder of Monitor’s Activities, Processes and Systems Group which focuses on effective operationalredesign as opposed to organizationaldesign, i.e., the configuration of assets activities, and people to create distinctive capabilities. Currently, major themes in his work include identifying and building advantaged systems of capabilities, managing strategic tensions as a basis for breakthrough strategies, creating industrial solutions and supporting transformation efforts through research, advisory services and executive education. Dr. Chew is an award-winningteacher and journal editor who has been published in the Harvard Business Review, The Sloan Management Review, the papers of the Brookings Institute as well as contributing to otherjournals, books and periodicals. He lives in Massachusetts and Maine where he enjoys his four children and fishing for striped bass. Tirthankar Dasgupta is Ph.D. student in the School of Industrials and Systems Engineering at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, working under the supervision of Prof Jeff Wu. Prior to his Ph.D. work, he was associated with several reputed Industries in India as a Quality Management and Six Sigma Consultant. Richard A. DeMillo is the Imlay Dean and DistinguishedProfessor of Computing at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He returned to academia in 2002, after a career as an executive in industry and government. He was Chief Technology Officer for Hewlett-Packard, where he had worldwide responsibility for technology and technology strategy. Prior to joining HP, he was in charge of Informationand Computer Sciences Research at Telcordia Technologies (formerly Bellcore) in Morristown,New Jersey, where he oversaw the developmentof many Internet and web-based innovations. He has also directed the Computer and Computation Research Division of the National Science Foundation. Before joining industry during the height of the internet boom, he was Professor of Computer Sciences and Director of the Software Engineering Research Center at Purdue University. He also held major faculty positions at Georgia Tech where he was the founding Director of the Software Research Center and a visiting professorshp at the University of Padua in Padua, Italy. The author of over 100 articles and books, Dr. DeMillo’s research has spanned several fundamental areas of computer science and includes fundamental innovation in computer security, software engineering and mathematics. His present research interests are focused
- 31. Contributorsxxvii on information security and nanotechnology. He is developing hardware-based architectures for trusted computingplatforms. He is also working on computing and communicationarchitecturesfor massively distributed nano-scale components. He is active in many aspects of the IT industry, serving on advisory boards and panels and he is a member of the Boards of Directors for several companies. He is a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery and The American Associationfor the Advancement of Science. Dominie Garcia is a PhD candidate in the Tennenbaum Institute at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Her research interests include triggers and processes of enterprise transformations,as well as outcomes measures of transformations. Her current focus is on measuring the variables of transformationprocesses. She has worked with the Vice Chairman of AOL Time Warner, and is a co-founder of Emerging Venture Network, an organization focused on matching high-growth potential,minority-led organizationsw i t hprivate equity fundingsources. Dominie holds a Bachelors degree in Economics from Vassar College and an MBA from Babson College. Bill George is former chairman and CEO of Medtronic, the world’s leading medical technology company. He is a board member of Goldman Sachs, Target, and Novartis. He has served as an executive-in-residenceat Yale Universityand is currently Professor of Management Practice at Harvard Business School. George has been recognized as “Executiveof the Year” by the Academy of Management, “Directorof the Year” by the National Association of CorporateDirectors,and one of Business Week’s “Top 25 Managers.” He has been widely quoted in the New York Times, Fortune, Face the Nation, The News Hour with Jim Lehrer, and NPR’s All Things Considered. He is the author of Authentic Leadershitx Rediscoveringthe Secretsto CreatingLasting Value (Jossey-Bass, 2003). Ralph D. Heath serves as Executive Vice President - Aeronautics, Lockheed Martin Corporation. In this role, he has leadership responsibility for the corporation’s military aircraft business activities. With some 28,000 employees and major locations in Fort Worth, Texas; Marietta, Georgia; and Palmdale, California, Lockheed Martin Aeronautics’ product lines include combat aircraft, air mobility, advanced developmentprograms, and reconnaissance aircraft.Before assuming responsibility for the business area at the beginning of 2005, Mr. Heath served as LM Aeronautics‘ExecutiveVice President and General Manager for the F/A-22 since 2002, leading the restructure of this $60 billion program and the transition from development to full rate production. From 2000-2002, Mr. Heath was the Chief Operating Officer for the newly formed LM Aeronautics company and led the three heritage companies into the single company that exists today. During the past 20 years he has been a leader in the tremendous growth of LM Aeronauticsinternational business, starting with the formation of TAI Joint Venture Aerospace Company in Turkey. In the 1990s)Mr. Heath successfullyled
- 32. xxviii Contributors the Business Development organization during the build-up of the largest F-16 backlog in the history of the company. Steven J. Joffe is a Senior Managing Director with FTI Consulting and primarily provides tax expertise in bankruptcy restructurings and other business transactions. Mr. Joffe is a transactional tax specialist and lawyer with over 28 years of diversified experience in consulting, private industry, law f i r m practice and government service. Mr. Joffe has extensive experience in the identification of tax issues and the development of tax efficient strategic solutions for restructuring distressed companies, mergers, and the acquisitions and dispositions of assets. Mr. Joffe has co-authored numerous articles on bankruptcy tax and other tax subjects. Dr. William C. (Bill) Kessler serves as Vice President Advanced Enterprise Initiatives at Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company. In this position, he provides executive assessment of the company operating concept and capability alignment with the customer’s transforming needs. From 2000-2003, He supported the Chief Operating Officer in the restructure and transformation from three heritage companies to one company, LM Aeronautics. This effort involved the development and deployment of the concept of operations, capability architecture design and deployment, and the deployment of company-wide capable processes. From 1997-2000, Bill was Vice President of Enterprise Productivity at the Marietta Company and led the deployment of lean and six sigma across the company. Prior to 1997, Dr Kessler was an Air Force senior executive leading the Air Force manufacturing technology and industrialbase assessment programs. Thomas R. Kreller is a Partner in the Financial Restructuring Group of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy LLP and is resident in the Firm’s Los Angeles office. Mr. Kreller specializes in bankruptcy and corporate reorganization law and has represented debtors, lenders, equity holders, committees and acquirors in bankruptcy cases, loan restructurings and workouts and out-of-court acquisitions. Mr. Kreller was admitted to the California bar in 1992 following his graduation from the School of Law (J.D. 1992) and Anderson Graduate School of Management (M.B.A. 1992) at the University of California, Los Angeles. Prior to entering the J.D.M.B.A. program at UCLA, Mr. Kreller was a Certified Public Accountant with the Chicago office of Ernst & Young (formerly Ernst & Whinney). Mr. Kreller is a member of the Los Angeles County and American Bar Associations, The State Bar of California and Financial Lawyers Conference. Leon McGinnis is Gwaltney Professor of Manufacturing Systems at Georgia Tech, where he also serves as Director of the Product Lifecycle Management Center of Excellence, and Associate Director of the Manufacturing Research Center. Professor McGinnis teaches and leads research in the area of discrete event logistics systems, including warehouse and logistics system design, material handling systems design, high-fidelity simulation methodology, and system
- 33. Contributors xxix performance assessment and benchmarkingtools. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Industrial Engineering and a recipient of the Reed-Apple Award by the Material Handling Education Foundation. David A. Perdue is Chairman of the Board and Chef Executive Officer of Dollar General Corporation. Prior tojoining the company in April 2003, Mr. Perdue was chairman and CEO of Pillowtex Corporation, a leading home textiles company. He also served as executive vice president of Reebok International Limited and president/CEO of the Reebok Brand. Earlier in his career, Mr. Perdue spent 12 years with K u r t Salmon Associates, an international management consulting firm. Subsequently, he served as vice president and managing director of Asian operations at Sara Lee Corporation in Hong Kong and as senior vice president of operations for Haggar Corporation. Mr. Perdue received both his Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering and his Master of Science in Operations Research from the Georgia Institute of Technology. He is a director of Alliant Energy Corporation, is on the Georgia Tech Advisory Board and serves on various philanthropic, industry and community boards. William B. Rouse is the Executive Director of the university-wide Tennenbaum Institute whose multi-disciplinary portfolio of initiatives focuses on research and education to provide knowledge and skills for enterprise transformation. He is also a faculty member in the College of Computing and the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering. Rouse has written hundreds of articles and book chapters, and has authored many books, including most recently Essential Challenges o f Strategic Management (Wiley, 2001) and the award-winning Don 't Jump to Solutions (Jossey-Bass, 1998). He is co-editor of the best-selling Handbook o f Systems Engineering and Management (Wiley, 1999) and edited the eight-volume series Human/Technology Interaction in Complex Systems (Elsevier). Rouse is a member of the National Academy of Engineering,as well as a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Institute for Operations Research and Management Science, and the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. He received his B.S. from the University of Rhode Island, and his S.M. and Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Jerome M. Schwartzman is a tax attorney with extensive experience in US and cross-border transactions, advising private equity investors, corporate strategic investors and financial institutions in connection with mergers & acquisitions, leveraged buyouts, and acquisition and disposition transactional structuring. Mr. Schwartzman also has substantial bankruptcy tax experience and has co-authored numerous articles in that field. Mr. Schwartzman began his tax career in the National Office of the Office of Chief Counsel (IRS) in Washington, DC where he specialized in corporate tax matters and tax controversies.
- 34. xxx Contributors Joyce Shields serves as a senior leader of the Hay Group and is an Owner of the fm. Hay Group is a worldwide human resources consulting firm with over 60 offices in 30 countries. Her areas of expertise are in leadership development, executive coaching, human resource planning and development, change management, competency-based systems, selection and retention, and HR reengineering. Dr. Shields has consulted with a large number Fortune 500 companies as well as major governmental and non-profit groups and has been widely recognized by professional societies for her contributions to the field of psychology. Dr. Shields holds a Ph.D. in Measurement and Statistics from the University of Maryland, an M.A. in Experimental Psychology from the University of Delaware, and a B.A. in Psychology fromthe Collegeof Williamand Mary. Michael S. Sitrick is Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Sitrick And Company. A nationally recognized expert in the strategicuse of communications, Mr. Sitrick has been the subject of numerous articles and profiles focusing on the results he has achieved for clients. The Los Angeles Times called him, “The Wizard of Spin.” Forbes called lum “The Flack For When You‘re Under Attack.” Since founding Sitrick And Company, he has provided advice and counsel to hundreds of companies, including some of the nation’s largest corporations,and to some of our nation’s highest profile individuals -- both on routine and extremely sensitivematters. Under his direction, SitrickAnd Companyhas consistently been ranked either the number one or number two strategicpublic relations firm in the U.S. by leading trade publications. Prior to forming the firm, Mr. Sitrickserved as Senior Vice President - Communications for Wickes Companies, Inc. Before joining Wickes, Mr. Sitrick headed Communications and Government Affairs for National Can Corporation, was a Group Supervisor for the Chicago public relations f i r m Selz, Seabolt and Associates, and served as Assistant Director of Public Information in the Richard J. Daley ahnistrationin Chicago. He also did reporting for such publications as the Washington Star and the Baltimore News American, as well as WSID Radio in Baltimore. Mr. Sitrick is the author of the critically acclaimed book, “Spin- How to Turn the Power of the Press to Your Advantage” published by Regnery, and is a contributing author to the book, “Turnaroundsand Workouts,”published by Dow Jones/Irwin. Mr. Sitrick serves on the Board of Directors of the TurnaroundManagement Association, the Jewish TelevisionNetwork and is a member of the Advisory Board of The1939 Club, the largest Holocaust Survivors organization in the U.S. He holds B.S. degrees in Business Administrationand Journalismfrom the University of Maryland, College Park. Benjamin Schneider is Senior Research Fellow at VALTERA (formerly PRA, Inc.), a human resources consulting firm in suburban Chicago specializing in employee opinion surveys, personnel selection systems, and 360 degree feedback systems. Prior to VALTERA, Ben for many years was the Head of the Industrial and Organizational Psychology program at Maryland where he is now Professor
- 35. Contributorsxxxi Emeritus. He has published more than 125 professionaljournal articles and book chapters, as well as eight books. His most recent books are (with Susan White) Service Quality: Research Perspectives (Sage, 2004) and (with D. Brent Smith) Personality and Organizations (Erlbaum, 2004). Ben has consulted on service qualityissues with numerous companies,recently including Allstate, IBM, Toyota, Giant Eagle, Nextel and Pepsico. A writer and editor, Lynn Selhat startedher career as ajournalist and later shifted to business and academic writing. Working primarily with professors from INSEAD and The Wharton School, Selhat writes and edits books, business cases, working papers, and academic articles. She is a contributing writer to KnowledgeO,Wharton, an online business publication with some 400,000 readers. Selhat holds a bachelor’s degree in English Literature from Gettysburg College and a master’s degree with a concentration in Science and Technical Communicationfrom DrexelUniversity. William Pierre Sovey is a 1955 graduate of Georgia Instituteof Technology with a degree in Industrial Engineering. He attended Harvard Business School’s Advanced Management Program in 1977. Mr. Sovey’s business career spans 50 years with the last 15 years with Newel1Rubbermaid where he served as President and Chief Operating Officer, Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the Board of Directors. He retired as CEO in 1997 and now divides his time between homes in Georgia and Connecticut.. Michael E. Tennenbaum is the founder of the TennenbaumInstitute and Senior Managing Partner of Tennenbaum Capital Partners, Chairman of PEMCO AviationGroup, Chairmanof Anacomp, Vice Chairman of Party City Corporation, and former Vice Chairman of Bear Steams & Co., Inc. A graduateof the Georgia Institute of Technology with a degree in IndustrialEngineering, Mr. Tennenbaum received a Masters in Business Administration, with honors, from Harvard University. He is a member of the Board of Associates of Harvard Business School and was a member of its Visiting Committee. In addition, he served as a member of the National Advisory Board of Georgia Tech and as a Trustee of the Georgia Instituteof TechnologyFoundation,Inc., where he was Chairman of its Investment Committee,and he currentlyis TrusteeEmeritus. L. Beril Toktay is an Associate Professor of Operations Management in the College of Management at the Georgia Institute of Technology. She received her PhD in Operations Research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She holds BS degrees in Industrial Engineering and Mathematics from Bogaziqi University, and an MS degree in Industrial Engineering from Purdue University. Dr. Toktay’s recent research focuses on the management of closed-loop supply chains, which are supply chains in which value is recovered from used products via recycling, remanufacturing or repair operations. Dr. Toktay’s research in this
- 36. xxxii Contributors area has received distinctions such as The Wickham Skinner Award for the Best UnpublishedPaper presented at the 2005 POMS conference.She has published in Management Science and Operations Research. She serves on the Editorial Board of Manufacturing and Service Operations Management and Production and OperationsManagement. Chelsea C. White I11 holds the Schneider National Chair of Transportation and Logistics in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at Georgia Tech, where he is the Director of the TruckingIndustryProgram(TIP) and the Executive Director of The Logistics Institute (TLI). He serves on the boards of directors for several organizations, including CNF, Inc. His most recent research interests include analyzing the role of real-time information and enabling information technology for improved logistics and, more generally, supply chain productivity and security, with special focus on the U.S. trucking industry. He has recently served as keynote speaker for the U.S.-China Modem Logistics Conference (Beijing, May, 2004). His recent activities includepresentationsat the Council on Competitivenessand the Brookings Institution,both of which were concernedwith the impact of informationtechnology on internationalfreight distribution,security, and productivity. Professor C.F. Jeff Wu is Coca-Cola Chair Professor of Engineering Statistics in the School of Industrials and Systems Engineering at Georgia Institute of Technology,Atlanta. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and a fellow of the American Society for Quality and the American Statistical Association.
- 37. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & OVERVIEW WILLIAM B. ROUSE Change is inherent in all enterprises, whether they are companies, government agencies, educational institutions, non-profit associations or perhaps even religions. The forces driving change may have economic, political, social, and/or technological sources. The implications of change may be both positive and negative, with the balance between positive and negative depending on perspectives of the particular types of stakeholderimpactedby change. This book concerns how enterprises can understand and should respond to change - how they can best change themselves in response to both external and internal forces. In particular, this book addresses fundamental change rather than routine business process improvement’. As elaborated in later chapters, fundamental change involves more than doing work better. It involves doing work differently and/or doing different work. Consequently, fundamental change is almost always very challenging. CONTEMPORARYCONTEXT Enterprise transformation is not a new topic. Indeed, later chapters in this book include many “stories” of transformation over the past 200 years. Nevertheless, several contemporary trends make this topic of particular importancenow. Senior executives in both private and public sectors are seriouslyconcerned with how best to respond to these trends. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a wave of “downsizing” and “rightsizing” as companies tried to reduce costs, in part due to recession and, more importantly, in part due to capacity gluts in several industries such as steel, tires, and automobiles. Jensen (2000) discusses the great difficulties companies had in exiting when they found that their hlgh-cost capacity was no longer competitive*. A mixture of denial and dithering wasted huge amounts of capital. Perhaps the best ongoing example of this phenomenon is the automobile industry (Easterbrook, 2005). This industry can produce many more cars than the world can buy. Thus, financial incentives are often needed to sell cars, which ’The phrase ‘%businessprocess” is intended to relate to how enterprises conduct business, whether they are in the private, public, or non-profit sectors. * Jensen cites Schumpeter (1976) on capitalism’s overall penchant to create and destroy capacity, as well as the enterprisesthat invest in capacity to satisfy marketplaces. Entetpr-ise Tr-unsforniation: Under-standingand Enabling Funduniental Change edited by William B. Rouse Copyright X I 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- 38. 2 EnterpriseTransformation undermines and often eliminatesprofits. There is too much capacity. One or more players have to reduce capacityor possibly exit the industry. Jensen (2000) describes the great difficulty that managers have making such decisions. They often invest good money after bad to avoid addressing such problems. They cannot face the personal pain, increased uncertainty, and sidetracked careers, for themselves, their teams, and their employees. Consequently, they use cash flow to shore up losing businesses rather than investingit where returns are possible and likely. This may be due, in part, to a lack of information about costs and the enterprise’s true competitive position. It also can be due to organizational delusions that undermine managers’ abilities to understand what is happening in their markets and their positions in these markets (Rouse, 1998;Economist, 2005). Thus, for one reason or another,managers may be relativelyclueless. However, another strong possibility is that managers understand where they are and have quite reasonable strategies for pursuing change. Their difficulty is that they cannot get their enterprises to implement these strategies. Charan and Colvin (1999) address this possibility and report that 70% of high-profile CEOs that were fired lost theirjobs for exactly this reason. Quite simply, they failed to make change happen. Moving forward to the late 1990s and early 2000s, we find, as Thomas Friedman (2005) argues,that the world is flat. Areas where we once had no equals - R&D,new product development,and graduate education- are now competitive battlegrounds involving China and India. The 1,000,000 engineers produced annually by China, India, and Japan is dwarfing our production of 65,000 engineerseach year. Computer and communications technologies have enabled outsourcing and offshoring to countries with high levels of education and relatively low wages (Baskerville, et al., 2005). As business processes increasingly become standardized,this trend will accelerate (Davenport, 2005). Friedman’s vignettes and scenarios convincingly illustratethis possibility. So, change is pervasive in both traditionalindustries such as automobiles and leading-edge industries like software. Leaders of enterprisesmust address change creatively and energetically or risk losing their jobs andor their enterprises. The marketplace will not be patient with “business as usual’’ and leaders must accept and pursue the challengeof change. Consequently the playing field has quickly been leveled. PURSUING TRANSFORMATION Once managers agree to the premise that business process improvement will be insufficient for long-term success, their next concern is how to move beyond improvementto transformation. It is much more straightforwardto try to do work better than it is to do work differently. It is an even bigger challenge to attempt to do differentwork (Gouillart& Kelly, 1995;Kotter, 1995).
- 39. Introduction& Overview 3 The next two chaptersin Part 1 of the book address these issues in some depth as, of course, does the whole book. At this point, discussion of how transformation can be pursued is limited to a few broad themes. These include businessprocesses and value streams,outsourcing and offshoring, and redeploying assets. Business Processes and Value Streams A business process is the set of activities that an enterprise pursues to achieve particular objectives for specific external or internal customers. Processes typically cut across business functions such as marketing, finance, and so on. Processescreate value by doing work that yields outcomes of benefit to customers. Functions contribute to processes and, thereby, help to create value. Understanding and managing processes are central to business process reengineering (Hammer & Champy, 1993) and lean thinking (Womack & Jones, 1996). Value streams are those processes that directlyprovide the benefits sought by customers. External customers want products and services that provide desired features and functions, as well as high quality at a reasonable price. Thus, it is common to think in terms of product development and product support as value streams. As Slywotsky (1996, 1997) demonstrates, these desires tend to evolve and perceptions of value in terms of willingness to pay change, making it necessaryto rethink value streamsto find “profitzones.” Thus, transformation tends to involve focusing on processes and understandingwhere and how value is created. Processes and activitiesthat do not create value - either for external or internal customers - should be eliminated. Investments should be targeted at areas where value can be greatly enhanced. Suchdecisionsshouldbe drivenby the benefits soughtby the marketplace. Adopting of process-oriented thinking can be transformational in itself. For example, explicit portrayal of decision processes and the use of data to inform these processes can be a transformative step from ad hoc advocacy-based decision making to well-informed collaborative problem solving and decision making (Rouse, 2001, 2002). This not only yields better decisions; it can transform an enterprise’sview of itself. Outsourcing and Offshoring With a process-oriented view of one’s enterprise, it is natural to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the enterprise’sprocesses. Benchmarking among peer enterprisesis common. Various professionalassociationsand other providers conduct periodic benchmarking studies. Thus, for example, we regularly see tabulations of metrics such as labor hours per automobile produced for each car manufactureror cost per mile flown for each airline.
- 40. 4 Enterprise Transformation Benchmarking helps one to know where to improve. Increasingly, it also raises the question of whether or not processes should be outsourced rather than performed internally. In general, enterprises try to retain core competencies and the processes associated with these competencies. For instance, a company might retain R&D, product design, marketing, and sales, and outsource manufacturing, finance, human resources, customer support,and information systems. Outsourcingcan be transformative. However, successdepends on dismantling these functions internally and dovetailing the outsourced functions with one’s business processes. The idea is to both recoup assets formerly deployed in these functions and create efficient value streams across both internal and external operations. Another important issue concerns value stream risks due to dependenceon other enterprisesand, in some cases, other economies. Offshoring typically involves outsourcing to another country, especially of late to China and India. In some sense, offshoring is just a particular flavor of outsourcing. However, the ramificationsare more profound for our economy and creation of high-paying jobs. The “best and brightest” from Asia are no longer automatically coming to the U.S. for graduate school and, consequently,they are deploying their knowledge and skills in their home countries. On the long term, companies may have no choice but outsourceR&D and softwaredevelopment,for example,to the Asian companiesthat employthis talent. Asset Management Once one understands the enterprise’s business processes, has benchmarked their effectiveness and efficiency, and identified outsourcing candidates and providers, the next concern is how best to deploy and manage the enterprise’s assets - financial,human, and physical. Transformation may involve streamlining processes, investing in core processes, outsourcing non-core processes, acquiring key competencies via acquisitions, andor selling or liquidating assets. As a result assets will be redeployed. Such redeployment requires capturing assets freed by outsourcing, liquidation, and sales. It also involves managing these assets in the context of the “tobe” enterpriserather than the “as is” enterprise. As indicated earlier, the decision-making processes associated with asset deployment and management are also candidates for transformation. Data-driven decision making can change the ways that an enterprise thinks of itself and its context. Indeed, addressing many aspects of transformationcan be enhanced by well-designedand well-informed decisionprocesses. TRANSFORMATIONARCHETYPES Later chapters outline the nuances of enterprise transformation. This section describes, quite simply, three broad archetypes that necessarily gloss over the nuances. These archetypes are illustrated with over twenty examples of well-
- 41. Introduction & Overview 5 known transformations. These illustrations provide compelling evidence of the pervasive and necessary nature of enterprise transformation across the economy. This book is focused on how best to transform, to maximize success amidst a plethora of false starts and failures. Transformed Value Propositions This archetype includes enterprises that transform their business models and market offerings. Transformation requires that they dismantle old ways of doing things and adopt new ways. The extent of the dismantlingrequired influencesboth the scope of transformation, investment required, and the llkelihood of success. Illustrations of this archetype include (in alphabeticalorder): The U.S. Department of Defense is in the process of adopting effects-based planning of military operations and capabilities-based acquisition of military systems. This enables, for example, DoD to purchase airlift capabilities rather than airplanes. Once this transformationis accomplished,the defense industry will necessarily have changed profoundly. General Electric transformed from a broad, unfocused conglomerate to a more focused emphasis on leading market positions, revenue growth, and profitability, as well as financial services. The company shrank dramatically initially then achieved strong growth. Georgia Tech dramatically changed its market position from being a strong undergraduate educational institution to become a leading research university via streamlined entrepreneurial leadershp and substantial investments in human and physical resources. (See Chapter 22.) Interface redefined its business model around green practices (i.e., minimal use of non-renewal resources and minimal production of waste) and, consequently, repositioned itself in the carpet industry and more broadly as an exemplar of “doing well by doing good”. (See Chapter 21.) IBM moved from tabulators to mainframes to networks (servers, PCs, etc.) to technology services via, for example, outsourcing the components of the IBM PC (when such outsourcing was unknown in the computer industry) to selling its PC business to its leading Chinese supplier. Motorola moved from battery eliminators to radios to cell phones to satellite networks, the latter with little success. Its successful moves were associated with decisive leadership, committed investments, and technological innovations. Indecisiveness lost Motorola its lead in the cellular market when it stuck with analog technology too long.
- 42. EnterpriseTransformation NCR moved from cash registers to applications of computer and communicationstechnologies in retail and banking, revolutionizingthe latter with ATMs. Banking was transformed more than NCR, who tried to play in the computing market, was acquiredby AT&T, and then spun off to return to its strong roots. Reebok innovated in women’s sports shoes and apparel, consequently growing to a dominantposition. Nike with its sports celebrityorientationtook the lead away. Reebok rebounded by focusing on original values, product innovation,and execution.(See Chapter 19.) UPS transformed from a successful, one-size fits all, package delivery companyto a global supply chain servicescompany via strategic acquisitions, informationtechnology, and focus on people, carefully redesigning the brand to leverage strongroots while creating a new, aggressivemarket position. These nine illustrations suggest several variations on the archetype of new value propositions. Some involved strategic acquisitions, e.g., UPS, while others involved strategic divestitures, e.g., GE. Other involved changing the game played, e.g., Georgia Tech, while others involved changing the rules of the game, e.g., Interface. All of these illustrationsrequired fundamental change, pursued by strong leadership with committed investments. Transforming an existing enterprise involves dismantling the “as is” enterprise to create the “to be” enterprise, while also keeping the enterpriserunning, keeping customers satisfied, and yielding acceptable financial results. This archetype results in many more failuresthan successes. TransformationVia Acquisitions & Mergers Another transformation archetype involves enterprises that transform the companies they acquire. The examples shown below are but a few of the large number of companies transformed in this manner. The chapters on “TransformationPractices”provide a wealth of other examples. Newel1 Rubbennaid continually acquired and “Newellized” scores of home products companies focusing on process efficiency and management competency, enabling low costs and prices. Their acquisitions were transformed to hgh-value companies within this retail domain. (See Chapter 18.) DRS Technologies continually acquired and rationalized defense electronics companies taking advantage of weakened companies in depressed markets. Good management practices, especially strong financial controls, enabled transforming weak independent companies to strong members of the DRS defense conglomerate.
- 43. Introduction & Overview 7 0 Lockheed Martin merged three aircraft companies into one (Lockheed Martin Aeronautics) due to reduced customer demand that prompted consolidation. Three strong corporate cultures of former competitors were transformed into an integrated aeronautics company and leader in military aviation. (See Chapter 20). 0 TennenbaumCapital acquire dominant positions in disparate companies - for example, Pemco Aviation (aviation), Anacomp (informationtechnology), and Party City (retail) - and installed strong management teams, reengineered business processes, and exacting accountabilityto create highly competitive, profitablebusinesses. Note that this transformation archetype is rather different than the previous archetype. The acquiring company can dictate the business processes and practices of the acquired company. Such dictates often fail, but transforming the new members of the portfolio is quite different from transforming long-standing members of the portfolio. At the very least, the act of acquisitionwill have gotten people’s attention. They will not expect business as usual. TransformationVia New Value Propositions There are a wealth of examples of innovative enterprises that forced competitors and suppliers to transform. Typically, the innovating company does not really transform. They develop and perfect the new business model and practices. If they are successful - most ideas fail to become successful innovations - then their competitors and suppliers often have to transform themselves to adopt the innovation. An excellent example is K-Mart and Sears having to adopt Wal- Mart’s practices to remain competitive and, more recently, agreeing to merge to remainplayers in the retail arena. Note that most of the ten examples listed below (in alphabetical order) involve companies that were started on the basis of the new business model and practices. Thus, by definition, they did not transform in the processes of deploying and refining their models. 0 Amazon redefined the retail book market via new business practicessupported by information technology, resulting in Amazon being the largest customer of most major publishers. CNN redefined news offerings with 24 x 7 news, frequent updates, embedded reporters, and a sense of news happening in one’s own living room. As CNN, Fox, and others have refined this model, traditional network news has declined in popularity, as have print newspapers.
- 44. EnterpriseTransformation Dell developed and refined build-to-order computer assembly and sales supported by information technology, resulting in dramatically reduced inventory costs and making Dell the leading seller of PCs. e-Bay redefined the resale market by leveraging information technology and building an online community that supports and facilitates the selling and buying process, with links to invoicing,payment, and shipping. Fedex defined the overnight mail market via new business practices and processes, i.e., central hub with feeder spokes and air delivery, competing at first with fax and more recently with email. Home Depot redefined the hardware store industry via a new business model and practices that emphasize a comprehensive selection of materials and tools, as well as in-store advice on use of these materials and tools. Nucor resuscitated the U.S. steel industry, for a period, via continuous-casting mini-mills and new business practices that dramatically lowered the cost per ton of steel, and also significantly contributed to roughly 90% of automobile bodies, frames, and enginesbeing recycled into new steel. Southwest repositioned discount air travel via new business practices that focused on low costs, timely operations, and upbeat air and cabin crews. AirTran, JetBlue, and other startups copied this model, but the large traditional airlines have had great difficulty transforming themselves to such lean operations. Starbucks repositioned coffee via product quality and the experience of its coffee shops, which are now pervasive on city streets and neighborhood strip malls, resulting in their becoming a meeting place, as well as a place to read and do work on one’s laptop. Wal-Mart redefined the retail industry via new business practices supported by information technology and systematicuse of the immense amounts of data collected. Suppliers were, in effect, forced to respond with greatly improved supply chain performance, vendor managed inventories and, in some cases, vendor owned inventories. Competitors were compelled to adopt similar practices. As noted earlier, these companies built their business models and practices from the ground up. They did not have to transform. However, the successes of their innovations have been a tremendous driving force in other companies’ transformation initiatives and, as such, have played a pervasive role in the global economy.
- 45. Introduction& Overview 9 Summary The three transformationarchetypesoutlined in this sectionprovide a course view of important distinctions among types of transformation initiatives. Transformationof an existing large enterprise is probably the greatest challenge, at least in terms of understanding and implementing fundamental change. Transformationvia acquisitionsand mergersis rife with difficultiesand risks - and many such transformationsfail - but they rarely cause the demise of the acquiring company. Our economy depends on new companies developing and refining new business models and practices. These companiesdo not have to transformbecause there is no status quo to dismantle. However, the innovations these companies bring to the marketplace are very important drivers of transformation in existing companies and, thereby, essentialingredients in economic growth. OVERVIEW OF BOOK Table 1 summarizesthe organizationand topics of the chapters in this book. Note that while chapters are placed in particular sections, their content often also addresses other sections. Thus, for example, every chapter has some case study aspects to its contents. Similarly, many chapters reference methods and tools employedin the areas discussedby the chapters. Introductionto Transformation The purpose of this section is to define transformation and provide in-depth knowledge of the topic from both empirical and theoretical perspectives. This begins, of course, with this first chapter. Chapter 2, “Enterprises As Systems,” considers the fundamental nature of enterprises. This exploration begins with discussion of the work of enterprises, with emphasis on challenges rather than routine operations. This reflects a desire to support enterprises as they address essential challenges. Situations where enterprise transformation is needed to successfully deal with challenges are then discussed. The nature of enterprise transformation is discussed in terms of ends, means, and scope, as well as perspectives,approaches, and solutions. This leads to elaboration of a portfolio of important research issues that suggests a wealth of potential means for supporting people in enterprises to accomplish the work of these enterprises. Chapter 3, “A Theory of Enterprise Transformation,” outlines a theory of enterprise transformationto guide research on the fundamental questionsraised in Chapter 2. The theory focuseson why and how transformationhappens, as well as ways in which transformationis addressed and pursued in terms of work processes
- 46. 10 EnterpriseTransformation and the architecture of these processes. The nature and influence of management decision making - for better or worse -- are considered. A variety of industry and corporate vignettes are used to illustrate the theory. The portfolio of research initiatives presented in Chapter 2 are discussed in terms of how they can advance the proposed theory, while also enhancing practices of enterprise transformation. Chapter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 I5 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Section - rA u 0 .- + I E a rA f d . a v) .- 2 H u Topic _ _ Introduction & Overview Enterprises As Systems A Theory of EnterpriseTransformation Transformational Leadership Organizational Culture and Change Manufacturing and Enterprise Transformation Transformation in the Logistics Industry ServicesManagement Value CenteredR&D ~ Six Sigma Quality EnterpriseComputing Turnaround Planningand Execution Financing in Crises Bankruptcy Tax Issuesin Crises PublicRelationsin Crises Lessons From Practice Newell Rubbermaid The Transformationof Reebok Lockheed Martin Interface Transformationin Academia TABLE 1. Organization and Topicsof Chapters
- 47. Introduction& Overview 11 Elements of Transformation Chapter 4, “TransformationalLeadership,”argues that, for all the promise that new ideas and systems have to transform business, transforming an enterprise comes down to one thing: leadership. This chapter contrasts transactional and transformational leadership. Discussion focuses on mission and values, vision, strategies,organizationalbuilding, systems and processes, and measurement. Chapter 5, “Organizational and Culture Change” presents a framework and approach to organizational change. The importance of culture and leadership in transforming organizations is emphasized. Experiences and practices within the Hay Group that lead to successful organizational transformation are provided as illustrative examples of each of the phases of the change process. The focus is primarily on the “how to” aspects of organizational transformation with examples of specifictools and techniques. Chapter 6, “Manufacturing and Enterprise Transformation,” observes that manufacturing enterprises were dramatically different at the end of the twentieth century than at the opening of the century. Understanding the nature of these changes, and their enablers, provides a basis for anticipating or even planning future transformations. A number of examples of twentieth centurytransformative innovations and changes are described. A framework for describing the manufacturing enterprise is presented and used to generalize the nature of the transformations observed. Some conjectures are given on the future of manufacturingenterprisetransformation. Chapter 7, “Transformation in the Logistics Industry,” notes that the logistics industry has fundamentally changed over several decades. This transformation has, in part, been driven by regulatory changes, including economic, coordinative, and social regulations. Customers have also driven transformation via lean manufacturing, disintermediation, the Internet, outsourcing, expanded services, offshoring, and information technology. Consumers of logistics services have benefited substantially from these changes. In contrast, employees of the companies providing these services have not always benefited from the transformationof this industry. Chapter 8, “Services Management,” describes how marketing, operations management (OM) and human resources management (HR) have confronted issues of managing firms in service industries. This includes discussion of marketing’s conceptualization of service quality (especially the intangible nature of services), how OM has seen the importance of customer contact as a key issue in the design of service delivery processes, and how HR has revealed the linkage between internal organizational processes as experienced by employees and customer experiences and satisfaction. Several contingencies are identified that relate to when service quality is likely to have maximumpayoffs for organizations (high intangibility,high customer contact, servicethat requires people to cooperate
- 48. 12 Enterprise Transformation to get the job done), including a set of issues requiring simultaneous attention by management for organizations wishing to achieve service quality excellence. Chapter 9, “Value-Centered R&D,” observes that the management of R&D organizations has received considerable attention in terms of the nature of the flow from research to development to deployed technology, as well as planning and managing ths flow. R&D strategies, innovation funnels, and multi-stage decision processes, to name just a few constructs, have been articulated and elaborated. This chapter builds on this foundation to consider the nature of the value created by this process. An options-based approach is advocated for economic valuation of the products of R&D. Adoption and implementation of this approach is outlined in terms of ten principles for characterizing, assessing, and managing value. Chapter 10, “Enterprise IT and Transformation,” argues that today’s enterprises are using information technology (IT) in virtually all aspects of their business. IT enables enterprises to provide seamless access to corporate data; streamline existing and create new business processes; design, improve, and deliver new products and services; and communicate and collaborate with customers, suppliers and other organizations across the globe. As enterprises undergo transformationof various kinds, IT can become a driving or inhibiting force to successful change. This chapter highlights some of the current enterprise IT trends, presents the hndamental dnvers of the information economy, and suggests some basic architectural IT principles that can facilitate a smooth transformational process. The successes and failures resulting from appropriately, and lack of, implementing these principles are illustrated in numerous examples and case studies throughout the chapter. The chapter concludes by introducing a novel concept of enterprise IT and transformational maturity and offering some practical guidelines. Chapter 11, “Six Sigma Quality,” notes that the Six Sigma philosophy, pioneered by Motorola and popularized by GE, has spread like a wildfire across the corporate world during the last decade. This chapter discusses what Six Sigma means as a metric, a philosophy and as a company-wide approach for Quality Management. The road map, organizational structure and training necessary for successful deployment of Six Sigma are discussed. A case study based on an Indian manufacturing company illustrates a typical Six Sigma project leading to financial benefits. Transformation Practices Chapter 12, “Turnaround Planning and Execution,” argues that the process of transforming an enterprise can be broken down into clear and logical steps. An honest assessment must be made of the situation and organization. The management team must provide leadership, and focus the organization on the problems at hand. Management must encourage prompt decision-making with the
- 49. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 50. In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage inflicted upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of California were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of these birds and send them to the Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to the fruit-raising sections, who watched the birds in the orchards and collected a number of them. In this way 1,206 stomachs were obtained and carefully examined, and the result shows that animal food (insects) constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 per cent of the stomach contents, not counting gravel. So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, with the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for in this direction. Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does not feed its young upon insects to any great extent. The contents of the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined, and the only animal food was found to consist of woolly plant lice. These also constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults. The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal items—grain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1½ per cent in August, which is the month of greatest consumption, and the average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. Fruit attains its maximum in September, when it amounts to 27 per cent of the whole food, but the average for the year is only 10 per cent. The seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet, and in August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 per cent of the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent. From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet’s sins may be, grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint made against its fruit-eating habit, the small quantity
- 51. found in the stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise. But it must be remembered that the stomach contents do not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a single peck from a cherry or an apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal. It is safe to say that the fruit pulp found in the stomach does not represent more than one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That the linnets are persistent and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially cherries and apricots, every fruit raiser in California will bear testimony. That the damage is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large orchards the damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the whole crop is frequently destroyed.
- 52. THE GRACKLES. The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant of birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms instead of in the natural “timber” which it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently seen in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it is found in immense numbers before moving southward. [35] Quiscalus quiscula. The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of which are injurious. The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birds’ nests to any great extent, as remains of birds and birds’ eggs amount to less than half of 1 per cent. It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and only for a short time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring probably consists of waste kernels from the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August and the corn eaten in fall are probably from
- 53. Fig. 11.—Purple grackle. Length, about 12 inches. fields of standing grain. The total amount of grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per cent of the food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some wild fruit, it apparently does no damage in this way. Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, and there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows the plow in search of large grubworms, of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them.
- 54. BREWER BLACKBIRD. The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of the grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters over most of its breeding range in the United States and south to Guatemala. At home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and weeds, sometimes in trees, and is very gregarious, especially about barnyards and corrals. The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share. During the cherry season in California the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were observed feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly opened ground close after the plowman’s heels in its eagerness to secure the insects turned up. [36] Euphagus cyanocephalus. The laboratory investigation of this bird’s food covered 312 stomachs, collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain sections of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent. Caterpillars and their pupæ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food and were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found pupæ of the codling moth. The animal food also included other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells.
- 55. The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. Fruit was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any other month, and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be such, strawberries, blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins not further identified. However, the amount, a little more than 4 per cent for the year, was too small to make a bad showing, and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it is well worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent of the yearly food and forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats are the favorite and were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but no stomach was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in every month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift. Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were nearly fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent vegetable matter. The largest items in the former were caterpillars, grasshoppers, and spiders. In the latter the largest items were fruit, probably cherries; grain, mostly oats; and rubbish.
- 56. Fig. 12.—Baltimore oriole. Length, about 7½ inches. BALTIMORE ORIOLE. Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the Baltimore oriole[37] (fig. 12). In summer it is found throughout the northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains. Its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements. [37] Icterus galbula. Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs they formed 34 per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this country. The fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit also is taken. The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvæ of which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season.
- 57. During the stay of the oriole in the United States, vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of its food, so that the possibility of its doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird is accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains of such were found in only two cases. One writer says that it damages grapes, but none were found in the stomachs.
- 58. BULLOCK ORIOLE. The Bullock oriole[38] is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore oriole, taking the place of that species west of the Plains and throughout the Pacific coast region. It does not essentially differ in its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative, but it is less beautiful in plumage. The examination of 162 stomachs shows that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few spiders, a lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per cent, and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were found in 19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, etc., were in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants, they amount to nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season. [38] Icterus bullocki. One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary was the black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 per cent of the food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent or more of the contents, and in one, 30 individual scales could be counted. They were evidently a standard article of diet, and were eaten regularly in every month of the oriole’s stay except April. Hemipterous insects other than scales, eaten quite regularly, make up a little more than 5 per cent of the food. They were mostly stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. Plant lice were found in one stomach. Moths, pupæ, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole’s animal food. The average consumption during its summer stay is a little more than 41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting were the pupæ and larvæ of the codling moth. These were found in 23 stomachs, showing that they are not an unusual
- 59. article of diet. No less than 14 of the pupa cases were found in one stomach, and as they are very fragile many others may have been present, but broken beyond recognition. Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole’s way. They were eaten, however, to the extent of a little more than 3 per cent. But in spite of the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, both taken in June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 per cent of them. Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest of the animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not important in the oriole’s food, but are probably eaten whenever found. They were identified in 44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales of a lizard were found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in another. The vegetable contingent of the oriole’s food is mostly fruit, especially in June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots, and sometimes eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share. However, no great complaint is made against the bird, and it is probable that as a rule it does not do serious harm. With such a good record as an insect eater it can well be spared a few cherries.
- 60. THE MEADOWLARKS. The eastern meadowlark[39] (fig. 13) is a common and well- known bird occurring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to the closely related western species,[40] which extends thence westward to the Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north as the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. The western form winters somewhat farther north. Although it is a bird of the plains, and finds its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the West, it is at home wherever there is level or undulating land covered with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand. [39] Sturnella magna. [40] Sturnella neglecta. In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) constituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, and spiders. A number of the stomachs were collected when the ground was covered with snow, but even these contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill in finding proper food under adverse circumstances. Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most important, constituting 26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season. Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 778, or more than half, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of 37 of
- 61. Fig. 13.—Meadowlark. Length, about 10 inches. these insects. This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred, and are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable is the great number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds resort at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year. Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the meadowlark’s food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which are predacious ground beetles. The others are all harmful species. Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in the stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which were past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones belong the numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to many cultivated crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent strawberries and garden vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the roots of these plants, and being large, one individual may destroy several plants. In the adult stage they feed upon the foliage of trees and other plants, and in this way add to the damage which they began in the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not easily destroyed by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes. Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil of Utah. Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing region, and the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern meadowlark and in 16 of the western species. Of the former, one stomach contained 27 individuals. Of 25
- 62. stomachs of western meadowlarks taken in alfalfa fields of Utah, 15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In one stomach 23 adults were found, in another 32 adults and 70 larvæ, still another had 10 adults and 40 larvæ, while a fourth had 4 adults and 100 larvæ. Caterpillars form a very constant element of the food, and in May constitute over 24 per cent of the whole. May is the month when the dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the lark does some of its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders, and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees, but the meadowlark finds and devours them by thousands. The remainder of the insect food is made up of ants, wasps, and spiders, with some bugs, including chinch bugs, and a few scales. The vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds. Grain in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and other seeds to 7 per cent. Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter and early spring and consists, therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprouting grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six stomachs, and but little in each. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barnyard grass, and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during the rest of the year are replaced by insects. Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark’s food consists of harmful insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird’s favor is that, although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable food, and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow.
- 63. THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS. The red-winged or swamp blackbird[41] in its various forms (fig. 14) is found all over the United States and the region immediately to the north. While common in most of its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly on account of its partiality for marshes. It builds its nest over or near standing water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, though single families, consisting of a male and several females, may sometimes be found in a small slough, where each female builds her nest and rears her own little brood, while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most favorable conditions, for the countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes afford nesting sites for thousands of red-wings; and here are bred the immense flocks which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West. After the breeding season the birds congregate preparatory to migration, and remain thus associated throughout the winter. [41] Agelaius phœniceus. Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,[42] but practically no difference exists in the habits of these forms either in nesting or feeding, except such as may result from local conditions. Most of the forms are found on the Pacific side of the continent, and may be considered as included in the following statements as to food and economic status. [42] Agelaius phœniceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius tricolor.
- 64. Fig. 14.—Red-winged blackbird. Length, about 9½ inches. Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great damage to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi Valley, but no complaints come from the northeastern section, where the bird is much less abundant than in the West and South. Examination of 1,083 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms 74 per cent of the food, while animal matter, mainly insects, forms but 20 per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles, mostly harmful species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per cent of the year’s food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are among the most harmful insects known, their destruction should condone some, at least, of the sins of which the bird is accused. Grasshoppers constitute nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of the animal matter is made up of various insects, a few snails, and crustaceans. The few dragon flies found were probably picked up dead, for they are too active to be taken alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher family. So far as the insect food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing may be considered entirely beneficial. The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain. Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs in appreciable quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this amount. In view of the many complaints that the red-wing eats grain, this record is surprisingly small. The purple grackle has been found to eat more than three times as much. In the case of the
- 65. crow, corn forms one-third of the food, so that the red-winged blackbird, whose diet is made up of only a trifle more than one- eighth of grain, is really one of the least destructive species. The most important item of the bird’s food, however, is weed seed, which forms practically all of its food in winter and about 57 per cent of the fare of the whole year. The principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed, barnyard grass, and smartweed. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily obtainable, and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in April. The red-wing eats very little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or orchard. Nearly seven-eighths of its food is made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, indicating unmistakably that the bird should be protected, except, perhaps, in a few places where it is overabundant.
- 66. Fig. 15.—Bobolink, rice bird, or reed bird. Length, about 7 inches. BOBOLINK. The bobolink, rice bird, or reed bird[43] (fig. 15) is a common summer resident of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New England there are few birds about which so much romance clusters as this rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny June meadows; but in the South there are none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped on account of its fondness for rice. During its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects and seeds of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects constitute its chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood. After the young are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists for the most part of weed seeds, since in the North these birds do not appear to attack grain to any great extent. They eat a few oats, but their stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. As the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward, until by the end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds. On their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region and subsist largely upon wild rice. In the Middle States,
- 67. during their southward migration, they are commonly known as reed birds, and becoming very fat are treated as game. [43] Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas and some of the more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks made great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripening grain on their return migration in the fall. With a change in the rice-raising districts, however, this damage is no longer done.
- 68. CROW. In one or another of its geographic races the common crow[44] (fig. 16) breeds in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains and from the Gulf well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is found in California and in the Northwestern States. During the colder months a southern migratory movement brings most of these birds within the borders of the United States, and at about the latitude of Philadelphia and southern Illinois we find them congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts frequently suffer losses to shocked corn. [44] Corvus brachyrhynchos. In fact none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of the Eastern States as the common crow. Many of our present criticisms of this bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ears, damaging fruits of various kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, and disseminating diseases of live stock, were common complaints in the days of the early colonists. Many of the virtues of the crow, now quite generally recognized, also have been matters of record for many years. In recent times, however, scientific study of these problems, including the examination of the stomachs of hundreds of crows secured in every month of the year and under a variety of conditions, has enabled us to render a much fairer verdict than was formerly possible. The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms which contains a morsel of nutriment is overlooked.
- 69. The insect food of the crow, which comprises about a fifth of its yearly sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. Grasshoppers, May beetles and their larvæ (white grubs), caterpillars, weevils, and wireworms stand out prominently. In 1,103 stomachs examined these highly injurious forms comprised over 80 per cent of the insect food. Grasshoppers are naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the season, September being the month of largest consumption, when they form about a fifth of the total food. May beetles and white grubs are eaten in every month except January, but occur most prominently in May. In June caterpillars are a favorite food, and weevils of various kinds are taken in varying quantities throughout summer and fall. About half of the remaining 20 per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial ground beetles, ladybirds, predacious bugs, and parasitic wasps, and related forms, the rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms. Numerous instances are on record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers have been favorite resorts of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material suppression of the pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the individual crow is considered, the work of these birds appears all the more important. Single stomachs containing upward of 50 grasshoppers are not uncommon. Thus in its choice of insect food the crow is rendering an important service to the farmer. In the other animal food of the crow are several items of the utmost economic importance. Spiders are taken in considerable numbers in May and June, but the yearly total is a little over 1 per cent of the food. In early spring crawfish are eagerly sought, and other aquatic food as fish and mollusks lend variety to the crow’s bill of fare the year round. In the consumption of toads, salamanders, frogs, and some snakes, which together compose a little over 2 per cent of the yearly food, the crow is doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the stomachs collected nearly every month, but it is often difficult to determine whether small mammals found in birds’ stomachs were taken alive or found dead.
- 70. Fig. 16.—Crow. Length, about 19 inches. From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as a disseminator of live- stock diseases. While this may be to some extent just, the fact that there are many other important carriers which lie largely beyond our control, shows that we must seek final relief only through the strictest methods of sanitation. The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is verified by stomach analysis. Fifty of the 1,103 crows examined had fed on wild birds or their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found slightly more frequently. The crow’s habit of rummaging about garbage piles may explain much of this latter material. Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most important item and forms about a third of the yearly diet. Much of this, however, must be considered waste. Over 60 per cent is consumed from the first of November to the end of March. During the periods when corn is sprouting and when in the “roasting-ear” stage the crow is eating this grain at a rate considerably less than the yearly average, and the months of smallest consumption are July and August. At times, however, the damage to corn becomes a serious problem, and were it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal tar upon seed corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections of the East. The “pulling” of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only safeguard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the scarecrow.
- 71. Various kinds of cultivated fruits also are eaten, and local damage to such crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is occasionally reported. In long, rigorous winters, the crow, like other birds, resorts to the fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour gum, hackberry, smilax, and the several species of sumac and poison ivy. Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful housing of laying hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain to a large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also to keep the crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public parks where it is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. While legal protection is not needed for so wary an individual as the crow, it seems well, where local conditions have not aggravated some particular shortcomings of the bird, to allow it to continue the good services rendered to man in the destruction of noxious insects.
- 72. Fig. 17.—Blue jay. Length, about 11½ inches. BLUE JAY. The blue jay[45] (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird population east of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage contrasts vividly with the brown foliage. Even in winter he stays with us, though at this time he is less common along our northern border. In spring and summer, while by no means uncommon, the blue jay is not so often noticed, as the retiring disposition which he assumes during the breeding season assists in protecting him from enemies. This also allows him to carry on with considerable impunity that inglorious practice of nest robbing of which, in a measure, he has been rightfully accused. [45] Cyanocitta cristata. Examination of 530 stomachs collected at all times of the year in 30 of our Eastern States and Canada shows that insects comprise about 22 per cent of the yearly sustenance. About three-fourths of these are injurious, the remainder being neutral or beneficial. Of the injurious insects grasshoppers form the largest portion; in August nearly a fifth of the food. Caterpillars are conspicuous in July and August and at this time average about a tenth of the stomach contents. Both laboratory investigations and field observations have established the fact that in winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larvæ of the brown-tail moth in New England are eagerly sought. Scarabæid beetles form about 4 per cent of the yearly food, and click beetles and wireworms about 1 per cent. Of the beneficial
- 73. forms ground beetles (3 per cent) and hymenopterous insects, part of which are parasitic (2.5 percent), are taken most frequently. A few other invertebrates, as spiders, millipedes, mollusks, and crustaceans, also are eaten throughout the year. In the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are confronted with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and their eggs. Special search was made for every possible trace of such material in the stomachs, and in 6 of the 530 were found the remains of wild birds or their eggs. In February two jays had killed a small bird apiece; in May one had robbed a nest of eggs; in June two had taken a small bird and a clutch of eggs, respectively; and in August another had robbed a nest. As this trait of the jay appears to be most pronounced during its own breeding season, it is quite possible for many birds which have suffered from his boldness early in the season to raise another brood unmolested. Thirty-nine of the 530 jays examined had fed on hen’s eggs Much of this food, however, was picked up about rubbish heaps to which the jay, like other members of the crow family, is partial. While the result of stomach analysis would appear to belittle this fault of the blue jay, it is doubtless quite characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions. Complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to corn in the fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach examination. This grain is taken in every month of the year, but in greater quantities during winter and early spring, when much of it is necessarily waste, and it forms about 18 per cent of the yearly food. Cultivated fruits of various kinds are eaten from June to the end of the year, and the To per cent taken in July apparently justifies complaints against the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food of the blue jay is mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but beechnuts, chestnuts, chinquapins, and hazelnuts also are relished. This food is important in every month but July and August, the yearly average being over 43 per cent, and from October to March it constitutes about two-thirds of the diet. Occasionally harm
- 74. is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as pecans. Wild fruits are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute about 7 per cent of the yearly sustenance. The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying grasshoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and their eggs, as they do in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail moth. Such forest insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various kinds also fall as their prey. The blue jay’s vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated fruit and corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism against the species is the destruction of other birds and their eggs. Where we wish to attract the latter in large numbers about our dooryards, in our parks, and in game preserves, it will be well not to allow the jays to become too abundant.
- 75. PACIFIC COAST JAYS. In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in evidence under several more or less well-marked forms. The Steller jay[46] much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch buildings. Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically differ from that of the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that bird, a very considerable part of the food consists of mast, together with a little fruit and some insects. The insects are largely wasps, with some beetles and grasshoppers. The jay also eats some grain, which is probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far as known, are made against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer’s preserve. [46] Cyanocitta stelleri. The California jay,[47] although of a different genus, more nearly resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely visits the stockyards near ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. As a fruit stealer it is notorious. One instance is recorded where seven jays were shot from a prune tree, one after the other, the dead bodies being left under the tree until all were killed. So eager were the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards in canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is done by this bird. In one such case an orchard was under observation at a time when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were seen to come down a small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and return.
- 76. [47] Aphelocoma californica. Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. That it robs hens’ nests is universal testimony. A case is reported of a hen having a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came to a tree a few rods away, and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new egg it flew at once to the nest. At the same time the mistress of the house hastened to the spot to secure the prize, but in most cases the jay won the race. This is only one of many similar cases recounted. The jays have learned just what the cackle of the hen means. Another case more serious is that related by a man engaged in raising white leghorn fowls on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He stated that when the chicks were very young the jays attacked and killed them by a few blows of the beak and then pecked open the skull and ate out the brains. In spite of all efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the losses in this way were serious. Examination of the stomachs of 326 California jays shows that 27 per cent of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 per cent of vegetable. Although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of insects, the remains of eggshells and birds’ bones appear much too often. The insect food is fairly well distributed among the more common orders, but grasshoppers are slightly the most numerous and constitute 4.5 per cent of the year’s food. In July, August, and September, however, the amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent, respectively. Four per cent of the food consists of wasps, bees, etc., but in the three months named they constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, respectively. A worker honeybee found in each of two stomachs is rather surprising, for it is unusual to find a bird like the jay eating many of these active and elusive insects, which enter into the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect food is pretty evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars. Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds’ bones in 5. Six stomachs contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a worse reputation for nest robbing than has the
- 77. eastern jay, and yet of 530 stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the bones of birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest thief the California jay really is. In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, the most remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. With greater opportunities the California bird has developed a greater appetite for fruit and indulges it to the fullest extent. Remains of fruit were found in 220 of the 326 stomachs. The percentage for the year is only 16, but for the four months of June, July, August, and September it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cherries, apricots, and prunes are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elderberries are relished to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs, amounts to 6 per cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it was taken in the four months above mentioned, but it is not probable that much damage is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion of the grain was oats. What was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned after the harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay from September to March, inclusive, and constitutes during most of that period one of the principal elements of its food. In this respect the bird shows a remarkable similarity to the eastern species. A few weed seeds and other miscellaneous items make up the balance of the vegetable food. In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food of the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that could be wished. Its taste for birds’ eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced, and at present the species is superabundant in California. While the natural food supply of the bird has been lessened by bringing the woods and brushy canyons under cultivation, the same areas have been planted to fruit, and naturally the jay takes the fruit as an acceptable substitute. A considerable reduction of the bird’s numbers would appear to be the only effective remedy.
- 78. THE PHŒBES. Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is more welcome than the phœbe (fig. 18). The common phœbe[48] breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the black phœbe,[49] is found from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which it occupies as far north as Washington, replacing through most of this region the common or eastern form. [48] Sayornis phœbe. [49] Sayornis nigricans. Though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, the preference of the eastern species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great distance from a farmhouse, except where a bridge spanning a stream affords a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition renders it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. The phœbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which are caught upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs showed that over 89 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders, while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious species, and include many click beetles, May beetles, and weevils. Other beetles, belonging to 21 families that were identified, make up 10.65 per cent. They appear to be eaten very regularly in every month, but the most are taken in spring and early summer. May is the month of maximum consumption, with 20.43 per cent. Beetles altogether amount to
- 79. 15.3 per cent, which places them second in rank of the items of animal food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs taken in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five individuals of the strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in Texas. Many other beetles contained in the stomachs are equally harmful, but are not so widely known. Such are the corn leaf-beetle, which feeds upon corn; the 12-spotted cucumber beetle and the striped cucumber beetle, both of which seriously injure and sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines; and the locust leaf miner, which is sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are blasted as by fire. In the phœbe’s diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head, as in the case with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month. A few are useful parasitic species, but these are offset by a number of sawfly larvæ, which are very harmful insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. No honeybees were identified. In their season grasshoppers are much relished, while wasps of various forms, many flies of species that annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. It is evident that a pair of phœbes must materially reduce the number of insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young. There is hardly a more useful species, about the farm than the phœbe, and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is helpful, but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and other marauders. The black phœbe has the same habits as its eastern relative, both as to selection of food and nesting sites, preferring for the latter purpose some structure of man, as a shed or, better still, a bridge over a stream of water, and the preference of the black phœbe for the vicinity of water is very pronounced. One may always
- 80. Fig. 18.—Phœbe. Length, about 6½ inches. be found at a stream or pool and often at a watering trough by the roadside. Careful study of the habits of the bird shows that it obtains a large portion of its food about wet places. While camping beside a stream in California the writer took some pains to observe the habits of the black phœbe. The nesting season was over, and the birds had nothing to do but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first observed in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phœbe was always found flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky that the bird could hardly be seen. This activity was kept up all day. Even in the evening, when it was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the camp fire, the phœbe was still engaged in its work of collecting, though it was difficult to understand how it could catch insects when there was scarcely light enough to see the bird. Exploration of the stream showed that every portion of it was patrolled by a phœbe, that each one apparently did not range over more than 12 or 13 rods of water, and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity. The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phœbe is enormous. Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented observation in the field, and we are enabled to give precise details. Of the 333 stomachs examined, every one contained insects as the great bulk of the food. Only 15 contained any vegetable food at all, and in no case was it a considerable part of the contents of the stomach. The insects eaten were mostly wasps, bugs, and flies, but many beetles also were destroyed.
- 81. Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of the food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per cent. Wasps, the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs and were the whole contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 per cent. Parasitic species were noted, but they were very few. Ants were found in 48 stomachs, and for a short time in midsummer they constitute a notable part of the food. Various wild bees and wasps make up the bulk of this item. No honeybees were found. Bugs in various forms constitute 10.56 per cent and are eaten in every month but May. Stinkbugs appear to be the favorites, as they were contained in 10 stomachs. Plant lice were found in one stomach. Flies, forming the second largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and completely filled 3. They constitute the most regular article in the black phœbe’s diet. The maximum consumption occurs in April, 64.3 per cent. The black phœbe well merits its title of flycatcher. Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were found in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the larvæ or caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. This is one of the few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than caterpillars, for as a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess. Flycatchers, taking their food upon the wing, would naturally prove exceptions to the rule. Crickets are evidently not a favorite food of the black phœbe, as they amount to only 2.45 per cent. They were found in 39 stomachs, but usually the amount in each was small, though one stomach was entirely filled with them. Grasshoppers did not appear. Dragon flies were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate the fondness of the species for the neighborhood of water. The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no economic importance.
- 82. Another phœbe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north as Alaska is the Say phœbe.[50] Investigation of its food was based on the examination of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the months when insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of the most exclusively insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few useful insects can not be denied, but these are far outnumbered by the harmful ones it destroys, and the balance is clearly in favor of the bird. Its vegetable food amounts to only 2 per cent and is made up of a little wild fruit, seeds, and rubbish. [50] Sayornis sayus.
- 83. THE KINGBIRDS. The well-known eastern kingbird[51] (fig. 19) is essentially a lover of the orchard, though groves and the edge of forests were probably its original habitat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial, and for this reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was glad to escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are similarly protected. [51] Tyrannus tyrannus. The kingbird is largely insectivorous. It is a true flycatcher and takes on the wing a large part of its food. It does not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against the species by both professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys largely upon honeybees. One bee raiser in Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number near his hives; but when the stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert entomologist, not a trace of honeybees could be found. An examination of 665 stomachs collected in various parts of the country was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were found to contain remains of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 honeybees, of which 51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the remaining 2 were too badly broken to be further identified.
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