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unified communications system. What factors should be considered? What are the key
decisions that have to be made in determining whether to adopt this technology? Use the
Web, if necessary, to find out more about unified communications and its costs.
Because the costs of purchasing and implementing a unified communication system will vary
based on the chosen system, so too will student answers.
(The following information is from www.networkworld.com, November 2009.)
From a broad perspective, Verizon Business suggests that organizations need to evaluate and
measure how UC&C will benefit their organizations, determine whether the enterprise has
adequate in-house technical resources, personnel and network capacity; and define how to
integrate UC&C into business processes to align the deployment with critical business
initiatives.
At a more detailed level, Verizon Business suggested that in preparation for UC&C,
enterprises should:
• Invest in advanced IP networks since “UC&C starts with a capabilities-rich IP
infrastructure. . . [and] flexible and expansive IP networks serve as the foundation of a
successful UC&C deployment.”
• Inventory technology and personnel resources to better understand the technological
scope of UC&C deployments and “help identify potential network, equipment and
application gaps.” Verizon Business also recommends a skills-assessment of technical
staff “to identify possible new hires and individuals requiring additional training.”
• Align technology with business objectives to “make purchasing decisions with a focus on
meeting specific business goals.” Any deployment should be designed to maximize the
impact of UC&C on business processes. The enterprise should also establish benchmarks
for success to better understand its ultimate objectives.
• Create a comprehensive roadmap that is “far reaching and covers areas such as
technology and finances, as well as detailed deployment and implementation plans.”
• Tackle security at the onset, with a design that integrates “seamlessly with a business
current network and leverage existing technology investments.”
• Determine capabilities for ongoing management and decide “whether in-house staff has
the skills and time required to effectively manage and troubleshoot performance issues.”
As needed, enterprise should “select a managed services provider with the people, tools
and processes to help provide consistent performance of UC&C applications.”
• Develop support systems and processes so that the corporate IT staff is prepared to
address end-user performance issues and questions.
• Train and educate end users “to help users adopt and embrace these new tools so they can
work more efficiently and productively.”
• Measure and modify, with built-in milestones planned that “go beyond reliability and
availability measurements to assess the impact of UC&C from a financial, customer
service, business process and end-user satisfaction perspective.”
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- 4. 1 Chapter 6 Telecommunications, the Internet, and Wireless Technology Student Learning Objectives 1. What are the principal components of telecommunications networks and key networking technologies? 2. What are the main telecommunications transmission media and types of networks? 3. How do the Internet and Internet technology work, and how do they support communication and e-business? 4. What are the principal technologies and standards for wireless networking, communication, and Internet access? 5. Why are radio frequency identification (RFID) and wireless sensor networks valuable for business? Chapter Outline 6.1 Telecommunications and Networking in Today’s Business World Networking and Communication Trends What Is a Computer Network? Key Digital Networking Technologies 6.2 Communications Networks Signals: Digital vs. Analog Types of Networks Physical Transmission Media 6.3 The Global Internet What Is the Internet? Internet Addressing and Architecture Internet Services and Communication Tools The Web 6.4 The Wireless Revolution Cellular Systems Wireless Computer Networks and Internet Access RFID and Wireless Sensor Networks Key Terms The following alphabetical list identifies the key terms discussed in this chapter. The page number for each key term is provided.
- 5. 2 3G networks, 207 Peer-to-peer, 187 4G networks, 207 Personal-area networks (PANs), 207 Bandwidth, 190 Protocol, 185 Blog, 204 Radio frequency identification (RFID), 209 Blogosphere, 204 Ring topology, 188 Bluetooth, 207 Router, 183 Broadband, 182 RSS, 205 Bus topology, 187 Search engines, 201 Cable Internet connections, 190 Search engine marketing, 203 Cell phone, 190 Search engine optimization (SEO), 203 Chat, 196 Semantic Web, 206 Coaxial cable, 188 Shopping bots, 204 Digital subscriber line (DSL), 190 Smart phones, 206 Domain name, 191 Social networking, 205 Domain name systems (DNS), 191 Social search, 203 Email, 196 Star topology, 187 Fiber-optic cable, 189 Switch, 183 File transfer protocol (FTP), 195 T1 lines, 191 Hertz, 190 Telnet, 195 Hotspots, 208 Topology, 187 Hubs, 183 Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP), 185 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), 200 Twisted wire, 188 Instant messaging, 196 Unified communications, 199 Internet protocol (IP) address, 191 Uniform resource locator (URL), 201 Internet service provider (ISP), 190 Virtual private network (VPN), 199 Internet2, 195 Voice over IP (VoIP), 198 IPv6, 195 Web 2.0, 204 Local-area network (LAN), 186 Web 3.0, 206 Metropolitan-area network (MAN), 188 Web site, 200 Microblogging, 204 Wide-area networks (WAN), 188 Microwave, 189 Wi-fi, 208 Modem, 186 Wiki, 205 Network operating system (NOS), 182 WiMax, 209 Packet switching, 184 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), 211
- 6. 3 Teaching Suggestions Chapter 6 presents crucial concepts and terminology since telecommunications, networks, and the Internet are now introducing fundamental changes in businesses. The opening case, “Hyundai Heavy Industries Creates a Wireless Shipyard,” illustrates some of the new capabilities and opportunities provided by contemporary networking technology. Perhaps the most important benefit of the company’s new telecommunication system is the increased productivity resulting from faster, better, and more efficient communications between employees. Previously, employees below ground or sea level had to climb all the way to a ship’s topside in order to call someone to discuss a problem. Now the employees convey transmissions across wireless transmitters regardless of their location. Internet phones, Web cams, and PCs all use the wi-fi network in the immediate vicinity or up to a mile away. The new system is expected to save Hyundai Heavy up to $40 million annually. The opening vignette provides an example of how businesses are adapting to new technologies based on the Internet. It shows how companies must continually evolve as technology improves. This chapter can be a lot of fun since most students probably already use many of the technologies discussed like smartphones, wi-fi networks, the Web, and of course, search engines. Knowing how to use the technologies is far different from understanding how they work. The material in this chapter will help students with the latter. Section 6.1, “Telecommunications and Networking in Today’s Business World” Telecommunications and networks are vital to the majority of businesses today, and this section explains why. Because telecommunications technology serves as the foundation for electronic commerce and the digital economy, the concepts and terminology in Chapter 6 are important for both MIS and business majors. This section explains the basic configuration of networks, regardless of their size. A contemporary corporate network infrastructure relies on both public and private infrastructures to support the movement of information across diverse technological platforms. It includes the traditional telephone system, mobile cellular communications, wireless local-area networks, videoconferencing systems, a corporate Web site, intranets, extranets, and an array of local- and wide-area networks, including the Internet. Contemporary networks have been shaped by the rise of client/server computing, the use of packet switching, and the adoption of TCP/IP as a universal communications standard for linking disparate networks and computers. Client/server networks have distributed much of the organization’s computing power to the desktop and factory floor. Packet switching makes more efficient use of network communications capacity by breaking messages into small packets that are sent independently along different paths in a network and then reassembled at their destination. Protocols provide a common set of rules that enable communication among diverse components in a telecommunications network. TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that has become the dominant model of achieving connectivity among different networks and computers. It is the connectivity model used in the Internet.
- 7. 4 One exercise you may try to help show how much we rely on communications today is to ask students to count the number of text messages, phone calls, emails, and IM messages they either sent or received in the last 24 hours or the last week. You could even go so far as to ask them to not send or receive any of these communications for a day—or even a class period—to prove how reliant we’ve become on telecommunications. Section 6.2, “Communications Networks” It may help for you to bring several props to show the different transmission media explained in this section. For example, bring twisted wire, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable to show to the class and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type of media. Students should note the different ranges (frequencies) of wireless media. Also, you should discuss bandwidth and its connection to frequencies, as this is a critical concept today. Table 6.1 compares the range of four different area networks. This section describes the different network topologies and how they pass data across a network. If you have students working in business, ask them to identify the network topologies used in their organizations. Section 6.3, “The Global Internet” Most students are familiar with the Internet and motivated to discuss it. You might begin this section by asking students how they spend their time on the Internet and how their online activities have changed since they started using the Internet. Also, ask them to identify which client platforms they currently use or have used. Ask your students to identify several of the many benefits that the Internet offers to organizations. Ask them to provide specific examples that they have read about in the text or have personally observed. The principal Internet services and communication tools are email, chatting, instant messaging, newsgroups, telnet, file transfer protocol, and the Web. Most students will probably be familiar with these services, having used them in their personal life. What they may not understand or relate to quite yet, is how effective the tools are in a business setting. These tools reduce time and cost when firms must manage organizational activities and communicate with many employees. If you have students working in businesses, ask them to discuss the communications tools their organization uses. This section introduces a fairly new concept of unified communications. It also compares Web 2.0 with Web 3.0 that is now in the conceptual stage. Make students aware that while the new information technology infrastructure provides many benefits and capabilities, it does require careful management and planning. Challenges posed by networking and the Internet include loss of management control over information systems; the need for organizational change; and the difficulty of ensuring infrastructure scalability and reliability. Interactive Session: Organizations: The Battle Over Net Neutrality Case Study Questions: 1. What is network neutrality? Why has the Internet operated under net neutrality up to this point in time?
- 8. 5 Network neutrality is the idea that Internet service providers must allow customers equal access to content and applications regardless of the source or nature of the content. Presently, the Internet is indeed neutral; all Internet traffic is treated equally on a first-come, first-serve basis by Internet backbone owners. The Internet is neutral because it was built on phone lines, which are subject to “common carriage” laws. These laws require phone companies to treat all calls and customers equally. They cannot offer extra benefits to customers willing to pay higher premiums for faster or clearer calls, a model known as tiered service. 2. Who’s in favor of network neutrality? Who’s opposed? Why? Those in favor of network neutrality include organizations like MoveOn.org, the Christian Coalition, the American Library Association, every major consumer group, many bloggers and small businesses, and some large Internet companies like Google and Amazon. Some members of the U.S. Congress also support network neutrality. This group argues that the risk of censorship increases when network operators can selectively block or slow access to certain content. Others are concerned about the effect of slower transmission rates on their business models if users can’t download or access content in a speedy fashion. Those who oppose network neutrality include telecommunications and cable companies who want to be able to charge differentiated prices based on the amount of bandwidth consumed by content being delivered over the Internet. Some companies report that 5 percent of their customers use about half the capacity on local lines without paying any more than low-usage customers. They state that metered pricing is the “fairest way” to finance necessary investments in its network infrastructure. Internet service providers point to the upsurge in piracy of copyrighted materials over the Internet as a reason to oppose network neutrality. Comcast reported that illegal file sharing of copyrighted material was consuming 50 percent of its network capacity. The company posits that if network transmission rates were slower for this type of content, users would be less likely to download or access it. 3. What would be the impact on individual users, businesses, and government if Internet providers switched to a tiered service model? Proponents of net neutrality argue that a neutral Internet encourages everyone to innovate without permission from the phone and cable companies or other authorities. A more level playing field spawns countless new businesses. Allowing unrestricted information flow becomes essential to free markets and democracy as commerce and society increasingly move online. Heavy users of network bandwidth would pay higher prices without necessarily experiencing better service. Even those who use less bandwidth could run into the same situation. Network owners believe regulation like the bills proposed by net neutrality advocates will impede U.S. competitiveness by stifling innovation and hurt customers who will benefit from “discriminatory” network practices. U.S. Internet service already lags behind other nations in overall speed, cost, and quality of service, adding credibility to the providers’ arguments.
- 9. 6 Obviously, by increasing the cost for heavy users of network bandwidth, telecommunication and cable companies and Internet service providers stand to increase their profit margins. 4. Are you in favor of legislation enforcing network neutrality? Why or why not? Student answers will vary. Some components and principles to consider in answering this question include: • Price differentials: How much more would heavy bandwidth users pay than those who consume less bandwidth? • Speed: How much faster would network transmissions be with a tiered service model? • Stifle innovation: Would a tiered service model stifle innovation by charging more for heavy bandwidth use or would it free up bandwidth thus allowing more innovation? • Censorship: Would telecommunication and cable companies and Internet service providers increase censorship of content transmitted over networks? • Discrimination by carriers: Would the end of network neutrality be the beginning of more discrimination? Because the government is now actively exploring the net neutrality issue students should be able to easily find the most current information about it on the Web. The FCC Web site (www.fcc.gov) is probably the best one for the most information. MIS In Action 1. Visit the Web site of the Open Internet Coalition and select five member organizations. Then visit the Web site of each of these organizations or surf the Web to find out more information about each. Write a short essay explaining why each organization is in favor of network neutrality. There are dozens of OIC member organizations ranging from search engines to Iceland Health Inc. to the Association of Research Libraries. It’s apparent that companies like eBay, iwon.com, Match.com, Skype, and Shopping.com rely on unfettered and unrestrained network access for the success of their businesses. 2. Calculate how much bandwidth you consume when using the Internet every day. How many emails do you send daily and what is the size of each? (Your email program may have email file size information.) How many music and video clips do you download daily and what is the size of each? If you view YouTube often, surf the Web to find out the size of a typical YouTube file. Add up the number of email, audio, and video files you transmit or receive on a typical day. Obviously the answer to this question will vary among students. It can be an eye-opener for some to realize just how much bandwidth they use.
- 10. 7 Interactive Session: People: Monitoring Employees on Networks: Unethical or Good Business? Case Study Questions 1. Should managers monitor employee email and Internet usage? Why or why not? Answers will vary on this question. The case study statistics show that corporate misuse and abuse of email for personal reasons is exploding. Simply stated, employees who use company resources for work not related to the company are, in essence, engaged in “service theft.” They are being paid to work for the company, and this does not include abusing corporate resources for personal time. Companies are in business to generate profits for their shareholders. Managers certainly should be concerned with the loss of time and employee productivity, the additional traffic it creates on their networks that inhibits the efficiency for real business purposes, lost revenue or missed opportunities, as well as overcharging clients because of lost employee efficiencies. The company itself is responsible for the use of its resources and what employees do while using them. Adverse publicity can seriously affect a company and could even result in very expensive lawsuits. Companies also fear email leakage of trade secrets. Other legal and regulatory problems involve the safekeeping of all emails that are generated on corporate equipment. This information must be retained for specific time periods and may be requested as evidence in a lawsuit. 2. Describe an effective email and Web use policy for a company. Like all policies an effective email and Web use policy must be carefully designed and clearly communicated to all persons who use these corporate resources. There are a number of different policies in existence. Some companies do not allow any personal use of corporate networks whereas others allow some degree of activity that is easily monitored. A good policy will detail exactly what type of activity is acceptable and what is not allowed. The policy should clearly articulate sanctions that will be followed for any and all offenses in relation to the policy. Most of all, rules for Internet usage should be tailored to specific business needs and organizational cultures. As an instructor you might wish to show students an example of an Internet usage policy stored on this Web site: http://articles.techrepublic.com.com/5100-10878_11-6146841.html. IBM offers extensive social computing guidelines as mentioned in the article at this URL: www.ibm.com/blogs/zz/en/guidelines.html. 3. Should managers inform employees that their Web behavior is being monitored? Or should managers monitor secretly? Why or why not? Opinions will vary according to personal values and workplace experiences. However, most students will probably answer that managers should inform employees that their Web behavior is being monitored as a way to foster open communications and trust between both sides. Many consultants believe companies should write corporate policies on employee
- 11. 8 email and Internet use. The policies should include explicit ground rules that state, by position or level, under what circumstances employees can use company facilities for email, blogging, or Web surfing. The policies should also inform employees whether these activities are monitored and explain why. MIS In Action Explore the Web site of online employee monitoring software such as Websense, Barracuda Networks, Message Labs, or SpectorSoft and answer the following questions. 1. What employee activities does this software track? What can an employer learn about an employee by using this software? From SpectorSoft Web site: The Spector Pro keylogger will instantly inform you whenever employees type, or even simply view, any “alert words” or phrases that you specify. Spector Pro continuously looks for alert words in everything they type, every Web site they visit, all chats/instant messages and in each email sent or received. Every time a keyword is detected, Spector Pro will immediately email you a detailed report of when, where and how the keyword was used. 2. How can businesses benefit from using this software? A testimonial from the SpectorSoft Web site: “With Spector Pro, we were immediately able to discover which employees were non-productive. Not only has Spector Pro helped us weed out lazy workers, it also helped to uncover fraud in some of our departments. In addition, this program has also allowed us to realize and resolve training issues we’ve experienced with our internal software. Spector Pro is very stealthy, has no noticeable effect on system performance and provides excellent return on investment.” 3. How would you feel if your employer used this software where you work to monitor what you are doing on the job? Explain your answer. Answers will vary based on student experiences and beliefs. Students should consider the issue from a management standpoint and not just a personal point of view. Would they want to know upfront if their Internet communications are monitored? How would they feel about the issue if they had to carry the extra workload from an employee abusing company Internet access? Section 6.4, “The Wireless Revolution” Ask your students how many of them use cellular phones, personal communication services (PCS), or personal digital assistants (PDA). If you have the class time, you can ask the campus IT director to discuss the telecommunications technology used on your campus, take a tour of the campus facilities, or invite an IT director from a local company to discuss his company’s telecommunications technology. Ask your students to find out what their university does in order to support mobile wireless communications. Have them investigate applications where Bluetooth, wi-fi, or hotspot
- 12. 9 technology is used and how it benefits them. Are they able to use their own personal appliances to connect and utilize these technologies on their campus? Most students are excited to demonstrate their “latest devices,” and you may wish to ask one of them to discuss the capabilities of theirs. Ask them to discuss what they like or dislike about the features found on their appliance. Review Questions 1. What are the principal components of telecommunications networks and key networking technologies? Describe the features of a simple network and the network infrastructure for a large company. A simple network consists of two or more connected computers. Basic network components include computers, network interfaces, a connection medium, network operating system software, and either a hub or a switch. The networking infrastructure for a large company relies on both public and private infrastructures to support the movement of information across diverse technological platforms. It includes the traditional telephone system, mobile cellular communication, wireless local-area networks, videoconferencing systems, a corporate Web site, intranets, extranets, and an array of local- and wide-area networks, including the Internet. This collection of networks evolved from two fundamentally different types of networks: telephone networks and computer networks. Name and describe the principal technologies and trends that have shaped contemporary telecommunications systems. Client/server computing, the use of packet switching, and the development of widely used communications standards such as TCP/IP are the three technologies that have shaped contemporary telecommunications systems. Client/server computing has extended to networking departments, workgroups, factory floors, and other parts of the business that could not be served by a centralized architecture. The Internet is based on client/server computing. Packet switching technology allows nearly full use of almost all available lines and capacity. This was not possible with the traditional dedicated circuit-switching techniques that were used in the past. Having a set of protocols for connecting diverse hardware and software components has provided a universally agreed upon method for data transmission. TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that has become the dominant. 2. What are the main telecommunications transmission media and types of networks? Name the different types of physical transmission media and compare them in terms of speed and cost.
- 13. 10 Typical speeds and costs for several of the transmission media are provided below. Medium Speed Cost Twisted wire up to 1 Gbps Low Microwave up to 10 Mbps Satellite up to 10 Mbps Coaxial cable up to 1 Gbps Fiber-optic cable up to 6+ Tbps High Define a LAN, and describe its components and the functions of each component? A LAN is a telecommunications network that is designed to connect personal computers and other digital devices within a half-mile or 500-meter radius. LANs typically connect a few computers in a small office, all the computers in one building, or all the computers in several buildings in close proximity. LANs require their own dedicated channels. Components of a typical LAN consists of: computers (dedicated server and clients), a network operating system (NOS) residing on a dedicated server computer, cable (wiring) connecting the devices, network interface cards (NIC), switches or a hub, and a router. • NIC each computer on the network contains a network interface device. • Connection medium for linking network components; can be a telephone wire, coaxial cable, or radio signal in the case of cell phone and wireless local-area networks (wi-fi networks). • NOS routes and manages communications on the network and coordinates network resources. • Dedicated server provides users with access to shared computing resources in the network. The server determines who gets access to data and in what sequence. • Client computers are connected to one another. • Switches or hubs act as a connection point between the computers. Hubs are very simple devices that connect network components and send data packets to other connected devices. A switch has more intelligence than a hub and can filter and forward data to a specified destination. • Router a special communications processor used to route data packets through different networks, ensuring messages are sent to the correct address. Name and describe the principal network topologies. The principal network topologies include: • Star topology: All devices on the network connect to a single hub and all network traffic flows through the hub. • Bus topology: One station transmits signals, which travel in both directions along a single transmission segment. All of the signals are broadcast in both directions to the entire network, with special software to identify which components receive each message. • Ring topology: Connects network components in a closed loop. Messages pass from
- 14. 11 computer to computer in only one direction around the loop and only one station at a time may transmit. 3. How do the Internet and Internet technology work and how do they support communication and e-business? Define the Internet, describe how it works, and explain how it provides business value. The Internet is a vast network of computers that connects millions of people all over the world. The Internet uses the client/server model of computing and the TCP/IP network reference model. Every computer on the Internet is assigned a unique numeric IP address. No one owns the Internet, and it has no formal management organization. However, worldwide Internet policies are established by organizations and government bodies, such as the Internet Architecture Board and the World Wide Web Consortium. The Internet must also conform to the laws of the sovereign nation-states in which it operates, as well as the technical infrastructure that exist within the nation-state. The Internet enables employees to gain remote access to their company’s internal systems through its Web site. They are able to better service customers and suppliers, improve operational efficiency, increase productivity, lower operational costs, have a broader market base, and reach more individual customers on a global scale by establishing a Web presence. The cost of email and other Internet services tend to be far lower than equivalent voice, postal, or over night delivery costs, making the Internet a very inexpensive communication medium. It is also a very fast method of communication, with messages arriving anywhere in the world in a matter of seconds or minutes. Explain how the domain name and IP addressing system work. A domain name is the English-like name that corresponds to the unique 32-bit numeric IP address for each computer connected to the Internet. The Domain Name System (DNS) converts IP addresses to domain names so that users only need to specify a domain name to access a computer on the Internet instead of typing the numeric IP address. DNS servers maintain a database containing IP addresses mapped to their corresponding domain names. The Internet is based on the TCP/IP networking protocol suite. Every computer on the Internet is assigned a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address, which currently is a 32-bit number represented by four strings of numbers ranging from 0 to 255 separated by periods. When a user sends a message to another user on the Internet, the message is first decomposed into packets using the TCP protocol. Each packet contains its destination address. The packets are then sent from the client to the network server and from there on to as many other servers as necessary to arrive at a specific computer with a known address. At the destination address, the packets are reassembled into the orginal message. List and describe the principal Internet services.
- 15. 12 Table 6.2 lists and describes the major Internet services. • Email: person-to-person messaging; document sharing • Newsgroups: discussion groups on electronic bulletin boards • Chatting and instant messaging: interactive conversations • Telnet: logging on to one computer system and doing work on another • File transfer protocol (FTP): transferring files from computer to computer • The Web: retrieving, formatting, and displaying information (including text, audio, graphics, and video) using hypertext links Define and describe VoIP and virtual private networks and explain how they provide value to businesses. • Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) enables Internet technology to be used for telephone voice transmission over the Internet or private networks. VoIP offers the advantage of avoiding tolls charged by local and long-distance telephone networks. VoIP provides businesses an opportunity to reduce costs because they no longer have to maintain separate networks or provide support services and personnel for each different type of network. It gives organizations flexibility because phones can be added or moved to different offices without rewiring or reconfiguring networks. • Virtual private networks are secure, encrypted, private networks that have been configured within a public network to take advantage of the economies of scale and management facilities of large networks, such as the Internet. VPNs are low-cost alternatives to private WANs. VPNs give businesses a more efficient network infrastructure for combining voice and data networks. List and describe alternative ways of locating information on the Web. • Search engines are a facility on the Web that helps you find sites with the information and/or services you want. Examples: Google, Yahoo!, and MSN. • Mobile Search is available on smartphones and tablet computers, providing users a way to find what they want while on the go. • Intelligent agent shopping bots use intelligent agent software for searching the Internet for shopping information. Examples: MySimon and Froogle • Web 2.0 provides second-generation interactive Internet-based services that enable people to collaborate, share information, and create new services online. Web 2.0 software applications run on the Web itself instead of the desktop and bring the vision of Web-based computing closer to realization. • Blogs are informal yet structured Web sites where subscribing individuals can publish stories, opinions, and links to other Web sites of interest. • Microblogging is primarily a function of Twitter.com, using 140 character messages. • Rich Site Summary or Really Simple Syndication (RSS) is a simple way for people to have content they want pulled from Web sites and fed automatically to their computers, where it can be stored for later viewing. It’s commonly used with blogs.
- 16. 13 • Wikis are collaborative Web sites where visitors can add, delete, or modify content on the site, including the work of previous authors. • Web 3.0 (semantic Web) reduces the amount of human involvement in searching for and processing Web information. It’s still in its infancy but promises to establish specific meanings for data on the Web, categories for classifying the data, and relationships between classification categories. Compare Web 2.0 and Web 3.0. Web 2.0 refers to second-generation interactive Internet-based services that enable people to collaborate, share information, and create new services online. Web 2.0 is distinguished by technologies and services like cloud computing, software mashups and widgets, blogs, RSS, and wikis. These software applications run on the Web itself instead of the desktop and bring the vision of Web-based computing closer to realization. Web 2.0 tools and services have fueled the creation of social networks and other online communities where people can interact with one another in the manner of their choosing. Web 3.0 focuses on developing techniques to make searching Web pages more productive and meaningful for ordinary people. Web 3.0 is the promise of a future Web where all digital information and all contacts can be woven together into a single meaningful experience. Sometimes referred to as the semantic Web, Web 3.0 intends to add a layer of meaning atop the existing Web to reduce the amount of human involvement in searching for and processing Web information. It also focuses on ways to make the Web more “intelligent,” with machine- facilitated understanding of information promoting a more intuitive and effective user experience. Web 3.0 will use cloud computing, software-as-a-service, ubiquitous connectivity among mobile platforms and Internet access devices, and transformation of the Web into a more seamless and interoperable whole. 4. What are the principal technologies and standards for wireless networking, communications, and Internet access? Define Bluetooth, wi-fi, WiMax, 3G, and 4G networks. Standards for wireless computer networks include Bluetooth (802.15) for small personal-area networks (PANs), wi-fi (802.11) for local-area networks (LANs), and WiMax (802.16) for metropolitan-area networks (MANs). Bluetooth can link up to eight devices within a 10-meter area using low-power, radio-based communication and can transmit up to 722 Kbps in the 2.4 GHz band. Wireless phones, keyboards, computers, printers, and PDAs using Bluetooth can communicate with each other and even operate each other without direct user intervention. Wi-fi is useful for creating wireless LANs and for providing wireless Internet access. Its access range is limited to anywhere between 300 feet and three miles. Hotspots are public access points individuals use to obtain high speed Internet access.
- 17. 14 WiMax has a wireless access range of up to 31 miles and a data transfer rate of up to 75 Mbps, making it suitable for providing broadband Internet access in areas lacking DSL and cable lines. The 802.16 specification also has robust security and quality-of-service features to support voice and video. 3G is a short term for third-generation wireless technology, especially mobile communications. Cellular networks have evolved from slow-speed (1G) analog networks to high-speed, high-bandwidth, digital packet-switched, third-generation (3G) networks with speeds ranging from 144 Kbps to more than 2 Mbps for data transmission. 4G is short term for fourth-generation wireless technology. It is entirely packet switched and capable of 100 Mbps transmission speed (which can reach 1 Gbps under optimal conditions), with premium quality and high security. Voice, data, and high-quality streaming video will be available to users anywhere, anytime. Describe the capabilities of each and for which types of applications each is best suited. • Bluetooth: access very limited; useful for creating small personal-area networks • Wi-fi: access is limited to 10 to 30 meters; useful for creating small local-area networks • WiMax: access is limited to a range up to 31 miles: useful for creating wide-area networks • 3G networks: access is available on major cellular telephone carriers that have configured their networks for 3G services. • 4G networks: provides premium quality for voice, data, and streaming video from cellular telephone carriers 5. Why are RFID and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) valuable for business? Define RFID, explain how it works and how it provides value to businesses. Mobile wireless technology facilitates supply chain management by capturing data on the movement of goods as these events take place and by providing detailed, immediate information as goods move among supply chain partners. Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems provide a microchip that contains data about an item and its location. The tags transmit radio signals over a short distance to special RFID readers. The RFID readers then pass the data over a network to a computer for processing. RFID gives businesses an opportunity to further automate their supply chain networks. The technology allows more data on an RFID chip than typical barcodes. RFID systems track each pallet, lot, or unit item in a shipment. The technology helps companies improve receiving and storage operations by improving their ability to “see” exactly what stock is stored in warehouses or on retail store shelves. Define WSNs, explain how they work and describe the kinds of applications that use them.
- 18. 15 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are networks of interconnected wireless devices with some processing and radio-transmitting capability that are embedded into the physical environment to provide measurements of many points over large spaces. Wireless sensor networks are valuable for monitoring environmental changes, traffic patterns, security incidents, or supply chain events. Wireless sensor networks can be placed in the field for years without any maintenance or human intervention. That reduces costs to businesses using them. Discussion Questions 1. It has been said that within the next few years, smartphones will become the single most important digital device we own. Discuss the implications of this statement. Cell phones and smartphones are morphing into portable computing platforms that allow users to perform some computing tasks that previously could only be accomplished on a desktop computer. Smartphones enable digital capabilities like email, messaging, wireless access to the Internet, voice communication, and digital cameras. They also allow users to view short video clips, play music and games, surf the Web and transmit and receive corporate data. New generations of mobile processors and faster mobile networks enable these devices to function as digital computing platforms allowing users to perform many of the tasks of today’s PCs on smartphones. Storage and processing power continue to increase thereby rivaling those of the typical PC. That allows users to run key applications and access digital content through smartphone technologies. Managers and employees will be able to break the tether to the desk and desktop computer because of smartphones. Users can more easily stay in touch with customers, suppliers, employees, and business partners and provide more flexible arrangements for organizing work. On the downside, smartphones can potentially increase the amount of time workers spend “on the job” by making communication and computing possible anytime, anywhere. That may increase the amount of techno-stress employees and managers experience by not allowing them any free time or claim to their own personal space. 2. Should all major retailing and manufacturing companies switch to RFID? Why or why not? RFID systems are complex and, in the past, expensive to implement. Now the cost of RFID tags is approaching 10 cents per passive tag in the United States. As the price decreases, RFID is starting to become cost-effective for some applications. Businesses that will most likely benefit from RFID technology are those that frequently track the movement of goods through supply chains. In inventory control and supply chain management, RFID systems capture and manage more detailed information about items in warehouses or in production than bar coding systems.
- 19. 16 Major retailing and manufacturing companies will no doubt switch to RFID technology as costs continue to fall and applications increase. Whether or not all major retailing and manufacturing companies should switch to RFID is a matter of choice. They will no doubt go this way in the near future. By doing so, they will increase their operational efficiencies thereby increasing profits or gaining a competitive advantage by lowering overall costs to consumers. Ask your students to review the information in the following Web site: www.epic.org/privacy/rfid/ and develop some ideas from there. 3. Compare wi-fi and high-speed cellular systems for accessing the Internet. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Wi-fi allows users to access the Internet from numerous locations that could not be covered by traditional wired Internet services. The technology reduces costs for both personal users and businesses by providing a way to share peripheral devices like printers and servers among many computing devices. There’s no need for separate printers for each computer or hard-wiring each computer to peripheral devices. Bluetooth-enabled wireless technology provides an easy way to connect devices. Wi-fi speeds and transmission capacity continue to improve and expand enabling users to access videos, audio files, Web sites, and even video- conferencing through hotspots located in public and private areas. Security continues to improve for wi-fi access points protecting users from unauthorized access although the technology still poses threats from intruders. High-speed cellular systems provide a way for users to access the Internet from virtually anywhere at any time. More powerful cellular networks based on 3G, and now 4G, technology are expanding the amount and types of data users can access. The continued expansion of cellular systems enables a broadband Internet access. Voice, data, and high- quality streaming video opens up a wider range of services for users. Cellular systems supporting smartphones, tablet computers, and mobile computing devices break the tether formerly holding users to desktop and laptop computers. Security issues exist for cellular systems similar to wi-fi systems. Hands-On MIS Projects Management Decision Problems 1. Floor tile company: asked by major retailing customers to begin using RFID to improve management of products. Use the Web to identify the cost of hardware, software, and networking components for an RFID system for your company. What factors should be considered? What are the key decisions that have to be made in determining whether your firm should adopt this technology? (The following information is from www.zebra.com, November 2009.) “What is the estimated incremental cost for adopting RFID?
- 20. 17 If one is discussing incremental costs over and above what was invested in your bar code infrastructure, then you can say that you will be making an investment in tags, printer/encoders, readers, middleware, and professional services to integrate these components into your bar code legacy environment. If you are not working with bar codes already, obviously you will need to make an investment in back-office, manufacturing, or WMS systems to use RFID data. What is a ballpark figure for implementing RFID in a warehouse and distribution process? According to Forrester Research, a typical supplier that attempts to comply with a mandate can expect to spend as much as $9 million on RFID—depending on the size of its distribution network and Walmart volume. According to this research, the largest expenditures are tag costs and additional warehouse labor. Again, it is stressed that this figure is derived from studying one company seeking compliance with the Walmart mandate. However, this study provides a good perspective on the areas from which costs will derive. How do smart label costs compare to conventional thermal/thermal-transfer printed labels? A smart label runs in the vicinity of about 50 cents per label versus about one cent for a conventional label. This is mainly due to the addition of the tag. This cost is also variable based on the total volume printed and the economies of scale associated with large quantities. What companies are currently developing RFID software? Is it all customized or are there off- the-shelf solutions? Numerous start-up and established software providers—including those who provide ERP software—have developed applications to deal with RFID reader and printer/encoder management, plus “tag data capture event” management. As with most business applications software, packages are typically customized to meet customers’ requirements rather than being ready to go “off the shelf.” How will RFID integrate with EDI software? EDI messages contain data about business transactions. While the format of an EDI message may change to accommodate “new data” (such as an EPC by comparison with a GTIN), fundamentally EDI message processors are unaware of the source of the data contained in messages. So there should be no reason that RFID cannot integrate with EDI software, provided the data structures are fundamentally the same. However, one area of difference is that many EDI systems typically deliver data in periodic batch mode; in contrast, the strength of RFID is its ability to deliver real-time data, so systems are up-to-the-minute.” Key decisions that a company needs to make when considering adopting RFID include: • Hardware and software costs • Implementation costs • Return on investments • How technology fits into overall business strategy 2. BestMed Medical Supplies Corporation: sells products and equipment from over 700 different manufacturers to hospitals, health clinics, and medical offices. The company employs 500 people at seven different locations. Management is considering adopting a
- 21. 18 unified communications system. What factors should be considered? What are the key decisions that have to be made in determining whether to adopt this technology? Use the Web, if necessary, to find out more about unified communications and its costs. Because the costs of purchasing and implementing a unified communication system will vary based on the chosen system, so too will student answers. (The following information is from www.networkworld.com, November 2009.) From a broad perspective, Verizon Business suggests that organizations need to evaluate and measure how UC&C will benefit their organizations, determine whether the enterprise has adequate in-house technical resources, personnel and network capacity; and define how to integrate UC&C into business processes to align the deployment with critical business initiatives. At a more detailed level, Verizon Business suggested that in preparation for UC&C, enterprises should: • Invest in advanced IP networks since “UC&C starts with a capabilities-rich IP infrastructure. . . [and] flexible and expansive IP networks serve as the foundation of a successful UC&C deployment.” • Inventory technology and personnel resources to better understand the technological scope of UC&C deployments and “help identify potential network, equipment and application gaps.” Verizon Business also recommends a skills-assessment of technical staff “to identify possible new hires and individuals requiring additional training.” • Align technology with business objectives to “make purchasing decisions with a focus on meeting specific business goals.” Any deployment should be designed to maximize the impact of UC&C on business processes. The enterprise should also establish benchmarks for success to better understand its ultimate objectives. • Create a comprehensive roadmap that is “far reaching and covers areas such as technology and finances, as well as detailed deployment and implementation plans.” • Tackle security at the onset, with a design that integrates “seamlessly with a business current network and leverage existing technology investments.” • Determine capabilities for ongoing management and decide “whether in-house staff has the skills and time required to effectively manage and troubleshoot performance issues.” As needed, enterprise should “select a managed services provider with the people, tools and processes to help provide consistent performance of UC&C applications.” • Develop support systems and processes so that the corporate IT staff is prepared to address end-user performance issues and questions. • Train and educate end users “to help users adopt and embrace these new tools so they can work more efficiently and productively.” • Measure and modify, with built-in milestones planned that “go beyond reliability and availability measurements to assess the impact of UC&C from a financial, customer service, business process and end-user satisfaction perspective.” Improving Decision Making: Using Spreadsheet Software to Evaluate Wireless Services
- 22. 19 Software skills: Spreadsheet formulas, formatting Business skills: Analyzing telecommunications services and costs You would like to equip your sales force of 35 based in Cincinnati, Ohio, with mobile phones that have capabilities for voice transmission, text messaging, and taking and sending photos. Use the Web to select a wireless service provider that provides nationwide service as well as good service in your home area. Examine the features of the mobile handsets offered by each of these vendors. Assume that each of the 35 salespeople will need to spend three hours per day during business hours (8 A.M. to 6 P.M.) on mobile voice communications, send 30 text messages per day, and five photos per week. Use your spreadsheet software to determine the wireless service and handset that will offer both the best pricing per user over a two-year period. For the purposes of this exercise, you do not need to consider corporate discounts. Answers will vary, because plan rates and costs of mobile phones are constantly changing. The answer to the following question can be found in the sample solution found in the Microsoft Excel file named: ess10ch06solutionfile.xls. Achieving Operational Excellence: Using Web Search Engines for Business Research Software Skills: Web search tools Business skills: Researching new technologies Use Google and Bing to obtain information about ethanol as an alternative fuel for motor vehicles. If you wish, try some other search engines as well. Compare the volume and quality of information you find with each search tool. Which tool is the easiest to use? Which produced the best results for your research? Why? Answers will vary according to the search phrases students enter in the search engines. The object of this question should be for students to explore new search engines and Web services and not stick with what they already know. To that end, encourage students to use a different search engine other than what they normally use and explore how their search results are framed—sponsored links or organic listings. Also encourage them to search for audio and video files, blogs, wikis, and Web 2.0 services about the subject. Is the information more useful, less useful, pertinent, or trustworthy? Do they prefer simple text documents or do they find the newer Web services more helpful? Video Case You will find a video case illustrating some of the concepts in this chapter on the Laudon Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/laudon along with questions to help you analyze the case.
- 23. 20 Collaboration and Teamwork: Evaluating Smart phones Form a group with three or four of your classmates. Compare the capabilities of Apple’s iPhone with a smartphone handset from another vendor with similar features. Your analysis should consider the purchase cost of each device, the wireless networks where each device can operate, service plan and handset costs, and the services available for each device. You should also consider other capabilities of each device, including the ability to integrate with existing corporate or PC applications. Which device would you select? What criteria would you use to guide your selection? If possible, use Google Sites to post links to Web pages, team communication announcements, and work assignments; to brainstorm; and to work collaboratively on project documents. Try to use Google Docs to develop a presentation of your findings for the class. In their analysis, students should set up a table for each of the two devices that they selected and demonstrate how they made their comparision. What features did they consider the most valuable. They may use a weighted factor scale and assign weights to each capability to determine which product best fits their needs. Ensure students explore not just the phones themselves, but also the support networks. That may be a bigger satisfaction factor than the phone. Direct your students to conduct their search on the Internet for the Web sites listed below. • www.verizon.com • www.apple.com • www.nokia.com • www.samsung.com • www.motorola.com Business Problem-Solving Case: Apple, Google, and Microsoft Battle for Your Internet Experience 1. Compare the business models and areas of strength of Apple, Google, and Microsoft. Apple: Its business model focuses on centralized control of almost all aspects of its hardware and software. It believes smartphones and tablets should have proprietary standards and be tightly controlled. It only allows apps from its App store, that have been vetted by the company, to be loaded to its products. Apple has a very loyal user base that has steadily grown and most likely will stay with Apple products in the future. Google: Its business model has always focused on the Internet and the Web. It began as one of many search engines. It quickly ran away from the pack with its copyrighted PageRank search algorithm which returns superior search results for Web users. It also has developed extensive online advertising services for businesses of all sizes. Google provides value to the
- 24. 21 user by using an inexpensive, flexible infrastructure to speed up Web searches and provide its users with a vast array of Web-based services and software tools. Microsoft: Its business model originally focused on the desktop computer running the Windows operating system and Office desktop productivity applications. The company and its products are staples for businesses and consumers looking to improve their productivity with computer-based tasks. While it is trying to expand its presence on the Internet, it still must try to keep customers bound to the desktop computer. 2. Why is mobile computing so important to these three firms? Evaluate the mobile platform offerings of each firm. This case demonstrates the fundamental paradigm shift from primarily desktop PC computing to mobile computing devices accessing services through the Internet that is currently taking place. This environment is projected to be a $400 billion e-commerce marketplace where the major acesss device will be a mobile smartphone or tablet computer. Each company is vying for the lead in a world of ubiquitous computing based on Internet access. The leader stands to make untold profits from advertising but in order to do that, the leader needs to claim the largest user base. Apps greatly enrich the experience of using a mobile device. Whoever creates the most appealing set of devices and applications will derive a significant competitive advantage over rival companies. Apple: by far the current leader in the number of apps users can download over 500,000. Apple takes a 30 percent cut of every app purchased. Uses a closed proprietary system and apps that only provide “one way in.” Google: aggressively following the eyeballs. It has introduced the Android mobile operating system for a host of non-Apple devices. The Droid system adds features that Apple devices don’t have—the ability to run multiple apps at the same time. Uses an open nonproprietary system that allows users to grab apps from any source. Purchased Motorola Mobility Holdings that gives them 17,000 patents and another 7,000 more in the pipeline. Microsoft: trying to partner with Apple and make Bing the default search engine on both the iPhone and Apple’s Web browser. That would provide Microsoft with a much needed boost to its fledgling search service. Otherwise, Microsoft doesn’t bring much to the table in mobile computing. 3. What is the significance of mobile applications, app stores, and closed versus open app standards to the success or failure of mobile computing? Apps greatly enrich the experience of using a mobile device, and without them, the predictions for the future of mobile Internet would not be nearly as bright. Whoever creates the most appealing set of devices and applications will derive a significant competitive advantage over rival companies.
- 25. 22 Apple makes money on each app sold through its App store. That’s worth billions of dollars to the company. Even if an app is free, Apple still has an advantage because users must visit Apple’s App Store and the company is betting consumers will buy something else, other apps or entertainment services, while visiting the store. However, app developers have complained that making money is too difficult. Apple has blocked some apps from its mobile devices. Apps for the Android system used on non-Apple devices are available from many different sources. Google has worked very hard to increase the number of apps available for Droid- based mobile devices by encouraging developers to increase the number of apps. Google also makes money by embedding advertising in some of the apps used on Droid-based devices. 4. Which company and business model do you believe will prevail in this epic struggle? Explain your answer. Students should consider these principles in their answers: • The size, complexity, and bureaucracy of organizations affect the ability of any company to continue to innovate, grow, and expand its reach. As all three companies try to expand into mobile computing, their ability to “turn on a dime” in the face of other competitors may be in serious jeopardy. • Google currently has the major share of the Web-based advertising market, however Microsoft and other market entrants will be a major threat to them. The Microsoft corporation have very “deep pockets” and will stop at nothing to overturn and destroy Google’s competitive advantage. Apple has had a significant lead in mobile computing for several years. However, as more companies, Google, Microsoft, and others, continue to expand into the arena, its lead will be threatened. Legal and regulatory compliance will be a major issue as this market grows and more concerns are expressed from external environments. • History is not on anyone’s side. Every major company that’s been a force in technology in one era has lost its lead in the next era. For example, IBM was king of mainframe computing in the 1940s and 1950s. DEC was king in the mini-computer era during the 1970s. Microsoft was king in the 1980s and 1990s during the reign of desktop computers. Google reigns in the 2000s with its Web-based services. Apple began as king of mobile computing devices. Will it remain on top as technology continues to evolve? 5. What difference would it make to a business or to an individual consumer if Apple, Google, or Microsoft dominated the Internet experience? Explain your answer. Right now Apple leads Google in the number of apps available to users. That gap is closing quickly thanks to Google’s improvements of the Android operating system and its encouragement to app developers. Open, nonproprietary systems historically have beat closed, proprietary systems because developers and users have a wider range of choices. Business managers must try to forecast which platform will provide the right choices for employees. Consumers must choose which platform will best fulfill their personal needs for the next two to three years. Switching costs play into both scenarios, not just in terms of phone purchases but the
- 26. 23 price of apps. Once a user purchases and adjusts to using a certain platform it’s difficult and expensive to switch to a whole different system.
- 27. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 28. the colony 3000 felt hats, cloth of check Flannel or some linen if that can't be obtained sufficient for six thousand shirts and also six thousand pairs of shoes"74 or as in Massachusetts a committee was appointed to collect four thousand pairs of stockings. The material after being collected was made up by regimental tailors, the commanding officer was to make a report as to the number of tailors employed in the regiment and also whether there were not more tailors in the regiment than were employed in making clothing.75 The women at home aided very materially in the clothing problem by their spinning, knitting and collecting of linen.76 When persons called on Mrs. Washington, whether she was at home or in camp, they usually found her knitting and she had sixteen spinning wheels running at one time.77 Other women all over the country followed her example. Instances, almost without number, are mentioned in diaries and journals of the nakedness of the army, some without shoes, with only pieces of blankets wrapped around their feet,78 thousands without blankets,79 others with their shirts in strings,80 and added to all that the paymaster without a dollar and the quartermaster in almost the same situation.81 Even the soldiers had to suffer from the want of clothing yet they were able to see the funny side of the situation. The story is told in one diary of a party that was given by an officer for which invitations were extended to all, the only restriction being that no one with a whole pair of breeches could be admitted.82 37. Chastellux, Travels in America, p. 58. 38. Journals of Congress, Vol. II, p. 190. 39. Journals of Congress, Vol. III, p. 322.
- 29. 40. See, Lyman, Journal, App. and Thacher, Military Journal, p. 62. 41. See, Thacher, Military Journal, p. 62. 42. Meigs, Journal, (Oct. 15, 1775) p. 233. 43. Thayer, Journal, (Oct. 28, 1775) p. 12. 44. Ibid. 45. Headley, Chaplains and Clergy of the Revolution, p. 100, and Thayer, Journal, Nov. 1, 1775. 46. Thayer, Journal, (Nov. 1, 1775) p. 14. 47. Headley, Chaplains and Clergy of the Revolution, p. 100. 48. Barton, Journal, (Aug. 27, 1779) p. 7; Burrows, Journal, (Aug. 27, 1779) p. 43. 49. Burrows, Journal, (Aug. 30, 1779) p. 44; Hubley, Journal, (Oct. 1, 1779), p. 166. 50. Barton, Journal, (Aug. 27, 1779), p. 7. 51. Burrows, Journal, (Aug. 27, 1779) p. 43; Fogg, Journal (Aug. 29, 1779) p. 94. 52. Davis, Journal, Hist. Mag. Ser. 2, Vol. III, p. 203. 53. Dearborn, Journal, (July 7, 1779) p. 74. 54. Trevelyan, American Revolution, Vol. I, p. 327. 55. Waldo, Journal (Dec. 21, 1777) p. 132. 56. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 180. 57. Ibid., p. 80. 58. Hubley, Journal, (Oct. 1, 1779) p. 166.
- 30. 59. Roger, Journal, (June 24, 1779) p. 248. 60. Coits, Orderly Book, (July 7, 1770) p. 36. 61. Lyman, Journal, (Nov. 21) p. 127, and (Dec. 3, 1775) p. 131. 62. Greene, Life of Greene, Vol. I, p. 141. 63. Greene, Life of Greene, Vol. I, p. 141. 64. Lossing, Life of Washington, Vol. VI, p. 572. 65. Kapp, Life of Steuben, pp. 116–117. 66. Henry, Journal, in Penn. Ar. Ser. 2, Vol. XV, p. 59. 67. Ford, Washington Writings, Vol. III, p. 13. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. and "Uniforms of the American Army" in Mag. of Am. Hist., Vol. I, p. 476. 70. Elbert, Orderly Book, p. 7. 71. Lewis, Orderly Book, (Aug. 18, 1776), p. 77. 72. Lewis, Orderly Book, (April 3, 1776), p. 13. 73. Lewis, Orderly Book, (April 3, 1776), p. 13. 74. Elbert, Orderly Book, (Mar. 16, 1708) p. 8. 75. American Archives, Ser. 5, Vol. I., pp. 302, 456. 76. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 234. 77. Humphreys, Catherine Schuyler, p. 171. 78. Shreve, Journal, Am. Hist., Mag. Vol. III, p. 568.
- 31. 79. Thacher, Journal, May 26, 1775. 80. Waldo, Diary, (Dec. 14, 1777) p. 130. 81. Ford, Washington Writings, Vol. III, p. 146. 82. Kapp, Life of Steuben, p. 119.
- 32. Chapter III HEALTH AND SANITATION The health of the soldier was not entirely forgotten. Those in authority made an attempt to prevent or at least to lessen the pain and suffering of those who were taken sick or were wounded in army service, but often the measures of prevention instituted, the methods of checking contagion and the means of allienating pain were of the crudest sort and to us of the twentieth century they seem almost inhuman. It must be remembered that not even our simple remedies of today were known then, not to mention our modern methods of combating disease. The continental congress thought of that phase of army conditions and on July 25, 1775, the following provisions were made. For an army of twenty thousand men a hospital was to be established under the direction of a Director General, his salary was to be four dollars per day. He was to superintend the whole, furnish the medicines and bedding and make a report to and receive orders from the commander-in-chief. Under the director there were to be four surgeons, one apothecary and twenty surgeons' mates, each receiving two-thirds of a dollar per day, whose duty it was to visit and attend the sick. There was also to be a matron who had under her direction the nurses, one for every ten sick soldiers.83 Then in July 1776, the resolution was passed that the number of hospital surgeons and mates was to be increased in proportion to the increase in size of the army not to exceed one surgeon and five mates to every five thousand men and to be reduced as the army was reduced. Dr. Church was appointed by congress as director, but before October 14, 1775, he had been taken into custody for holding
- 33. correspondence with the enemy84, and on October 17, 1775, Dr. Morgan was elected in his stead.85 But even after the new director was appointed there was still room for complaint for Washington wrote to Congress "I am amazed to hear the complaints of the hospital on the east side of Hudson's river. * * * I will not pretend to point out the causes; but I know matters have been strangely conducted in the medical line. I hope your new appointment when it is made, will make the necessary reform in the hospital, and that I shall not, be shocked with the complaints and looks of poor creatures perishing for want of proper care, either in the regimental or hospital surgeons".86 Congress had made several attempts to organize the hospitals and in July 1776, resolutions had been passed which defined more fully the duties of the various officials both of the departmental and the regimental hospitals.87 There was to be a director and under him the directors of the various departmental hospitals.88 But since there were only a few departmental hospitals and those few often a long distance from the scene of battle it became necessary to have branch hospitals or regimental hospitals. At the head of those were persons known as regimental surgeons, who were to make reports of expenses, and lists of the sick to the director of the departmental hospital and receive supplies from him. The plan was then that the soldiers were to be cared for by the regimental surgeon as long as it was possible and then they were to be sent to the departmental hospital for further care.89 These two systems seemed to interfere with each others work and there was always jealousy existing between the director of the general hospital and the surgeons of the regiment. "There will be nothing but continued complaints of each other; the director of the hospital charging them with enormity in their drafts for the sick and they him with the same for denying such things as are necessary. In short there is a constant bickering among them which tends greatly to the injury of the sick * * * The regimental surgeons are aiming, I am persuaded, to break up the general hospital."
- 34. The two most representative departmental hospitals were, it might be said at Bethlehem and Sunbury, but there were others at Reading, Lititz and Ephrata. Bethlehem was a Moravian village and was in the midst of military affairs almost continually from 1775 to 1781; in fact it was twice the seat of a hospital. On December 3, 1776, an order was sent to the committee of the town of Bethlehem as follows: "Gentlemen,—According to his excellency General Washington's Orders, the General Hospital of the Army is removed to Bethlehem and you will do the greatest Act of humanity by immediately providing proper buildings for their reception the largest and most capacious will be the most convenient. I doubt not, Gentlemen but you will act upon this occasion as becomes men and christians * * * "90 It was by the above process that the little peace loving village of Bethlehem and many others like it were thrown into confusion and dwelling houses or other buildings were turned into hospitals, the men began to play the part of nurses, to help care for the sick and dying sent from camp, and the women prepared lint and bandages. The buildings which under ordinary circumstances could accommodate about two hundred were made to accommodate five or six hundred.91 The housing accommodations of the regimental hospitals were even more varied, for they were housed in any thing from a capital building92 to a log hut,93 including private homes,94 church,95 barns, and court house,96 depending upon what happened to be near the camp. A hut or group of huts were sometimes built for the purpose in or near the camp. They were built in a manner similar to the dwelling huts97 only larger with furnishings as meagre, straw for the bed98 tells the tale of equipment. But the hospitals were of little value if there were not able physicians99 and antiseptics and anaesthetics were almost unknown. Besides the lack of skill and proper medicine and instruments, for
- 35. some of the instruments described are almost unconceivable, there was a lack of cleanliness in conducting the operations for that was not insisted upon then as it is today.100 Of hospital methods Dr. Waldo wrote December 25, 1777, "But we treat them differently from what they used to be at home under the inspection of old women and Doct ——, We give them mutton and Grogg and avoid pudding, pills, and powders."101 This perhaps was a little extreme, but it at least reflects the conditions. Thacher described the awful condition in which soldiers came to the hospital with wounds covered with putrified blood and full of magots which were destroyed by the application of tincture of myrrh.102 Director-General Shippen, in explaining the causes of the mortality among the soldiers attributed it to; "The want of clothing and covering necessary to keep the soldiers clean and warm, articles at that time not procurable in the country;—partly from an army being composed of raw men, unused to camp life and undisciplined; exposed to great hardships and from the sick and wounded being removed great distances in open wagons."103 As to the kind of disease most prevalent and the number in the hospitals because of sickness in proportion to those there because of injuries, some idea can be formed from the hospital reports sent in weekly from the departmental hospitals. Although some of the diseases listed in the reports are unknown to us now and there is no way of knowing what the proportion the sick was of the entire army in that section. However, the returns do state the number sick during the various seasons, and show in which season of the year there was the most sickness. The following are the returns from the Sunbury hospital for the four seasons of the year, spring, summer, fall and winter. March 6 to 13, 1780 "Wounded 4
- 36. Dysenteria 1 Diorrhoea 0 Rheumatism 2 Ophthalmia 1 Asthma 1 Ulcers 1 — Total 10"104 July 13 to September 22 1779 "Pleurisy 0 Peripneumony 2 Angina 1 Rheumatism 14 Bilious fever 8 Intermitting fever 0 Putrid fever 0 Dysentery 19 Dyarrhea 11 Gravel 12 Cough and Consumpt. 4
- 37. Hernia 5 Lues 14 Epilepsy 2 Itch 2 Ulcers 9 Wounded 33 — Total 126"105 November 1 to 7 1779 "Dysentery 5 Diorrhoea 2 Rheumatis 2 Intermit. 2 B. Remit. 5 Asthma 1 Ophthalnia 2 Ulcers 2 Wounded 11 — Total 30"106
- 38. January 24 to 31 1980 "Wounded 6 Intermitting fever 0 Dysenteria 1 Diarrhoea 1 Asthma 1 Ophthalnia 1 Rheumatism 3 Ulcers 2 — Total 15"107 If the above tables are any index at all the most dangerous season was summer in spite of the crowded unsanitary conditions of the winter quarters. They also show that the number in hospitals due to sickness was larger that the number due to injuries received in battle. Smallpox was one of the most dreaded of all the diseases, mostly because there were few ways of combating the disease. Inoculation was only slightly known and there was much opposition to it, even sermons were preached on the question it was so much discussed.108 The British knew the New England people were especially opposed to it and were known to send out spies to spread the disease in the American camp which Shreve wrote "killed more Yankees than they did".109 The disease was especially serious in the Northern army causing greater dread than the enemy.110
- 39. Thacher in his Military Journal emphasizes another disease which caused a great deal of suffering but strange to say there was only one remedy for it and that was a furlough for the disease was home- sickness. In reality that was a fact which caused anxious moments for General Washington for the men were continually trying to bribe the physicians to declare that they were unfit for duty.111 Other provisions were made for the health of the soldiers besides the establishment of hospitals. The others were along the line of prevention, such as keeping the tents and huts clean and dry, the careful preparation of food, the washing of clothes, caring for refuse,112 and the soldiers own personal cleanliness.113 83. Journals of Congress, Vol. II, pp. 209, 210, 211. 84. Journals of Congress, Vol. III, p. 294. 85. Ibid., p. 296. 86. Ford, Writings of Washington, Vol. V, p. 204. 87. Journals of Congress, Vol. II, p. 568. 88. The country was divided into departments or divisions and in each department there was what was called a general departmental hospital, in distinction to the regimental hospitals where the soldier received immediate care, before being sent to the general hospital. 89. Coit, Orderly Book, (June 7, 1775) p. 36. 90. Jordon, "Military Hospitals at Bethlehem and Lititz during the Revolution" in Penn. Mag. Vol. XV, p. 137.
- 40. 91. Jordon, "Military Hospitals at Bethlehem and Lititz during the Revolution" in Penn. Mag. Vol. XX, p. 137. 92. Lewis, Orderly Book, (June 11, 1776) p. 49. 93. Chastellux, Travels in America, p. 70. 94. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 31. 95. Ibid., p. 112. 96. Jordon, "Continental Hospital Returns, 1777–1780," Penn. Mag. Vol. XXIII, p. 38. 97. Chastellux, Travels in America, p. 70. 98. Elbert, Orderly Book, (Feb., 11, 1778) p. 101. 99. American Archives, Ser. V, Vol. III, Col. 1584. 100. Goodale, British and Colonial Army Surgeon, p. 10. 101. Dr. Waldo, Diary (Dec. 25, 1777) p. 31. 102. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 112. 103. Jordon, "Military Hospitals at Bethlehem and Lititz during the Revolution" Penn. Mag. Vol. XV, p. 137. 104. Jordon, "Continental Hospital Returns 1777–1780", Penn. Mag. Vol. XXIII, p. 219. 105. Jordon, "Continental Hospital Returns 1777–1780". Penn. Mag., Vol. XXIII, p. 211. 106. Jordon, "Continental Hospitals Returns, 1777–1780", Penn. Mag. Vol. XXIII, p. 216. 107. Ibid., p. 217.
- 41. 108. Sermon quoted in Mass. Hist. Soc. Pro. Ser. 1, Vol. IX, p. 275. 109. Shreve, Journal In Am. Hist. Mag., Vol. III, p. 565. 110. American Archives, Ser. 5, Vol. I, p. 145. 111. Ford, Writings of Washington, Vol. III, p. 447. 112. Ford, Writings of Washington, Vol. III, p. 5. 113. Coit, Orderly Book, (June 1, 1775.), p. 15.
- 42. Chapter IV RECREATION IN CAMP If there must be a certain proportion of work and play in every one's life to make for efficiency, then the soldier of the Revolutionary War was far below normal in the scale of efficiency for recreation in any organized form is found to have been entirely lacking. But before too severe a judgment is placed upon this lack of recreation the conditions the soldier left at home must be studied. Recreation as such had not been a part of his daily routine. It has been estimated that nine-tenths of the people lived in rural districts leaving only one-tenth for the cities,114 an estimate which no doubt is true. The people had never thought of the problems of bad housing, congestion, or recreation. They had had the whole of nature for their home and the whole of the frontier to wrestle with. Speaking of the people a generation or two later, Dr. F. L. Paxson says in The Rise of Sport, "The fathers of this generation had been sober lot unable to bend without breaking, living a life of rigid and puritanical decorum interspersed perhaps with disease and drunkedness, but unenlivened for most of them by spontaneous play."115 Thus in studying the life of the soldier at home before he went into the army camp, even the slightest traces of twentieth century recreation are found to have been lacking, but that does not mean that those people never forgot their work. It would be hard to find a more hospitable group. They were never too busy to entertain. There was the occasional jollification with rum or beer, the card party, the ball, the concert, the theater, and of a more rural type the picnic and the "corn husking".116
- 43. The conditions in camp were different than those at home. The problems of bad housing, congestion and recreation were then factors to be considered. There was the small unsanitary and poorly ventilated hut with twelve to sixteen men and sometimes even more crowded into it. When the troops first went into winter quarters there was plenty to do in the way of exercise for there were logs to cut and huts to build, but those were soon completed and the men were crowded together with nothing to do. Something had to happen, the monotony of the dreary days had to be broken. This was brought about in several ways. Often the punishments ordered by the court martial were administered publicly in camp just to enliven the common routine. When a man was sentenced to death, but had been pardoned by those in charge, the force of going through the punishment was carried out. The condemned man was brought to the side of his newly dug grave, he was bound and blind-folded, the firing party got in position, the fire lock even snapped, and as might have been expected, the culprit sometimes died of the shock.117 The hanging of a man was a gala day in camp and the place of hanging was almost as popular as an amusement park of today; "Five soldiers were conducted to the gallows according to their sentences. For the crimes of desertion and robbing the inhabitants, a detachment of troops and a concourse of people formed a circle around the gallows and the criminal were brought in on a cart sitting on their coffins and halters about their necks"118 It was frequently stated in the sentence given by court martial that the punishment whatever it was, riding the wooden horse, riding the rail, receiving the biblical "Thirty-nine" lashes, or running the gauntlet,119 was to take place at some time when all the soldiers were together as at the beating120 of the retreat or at the head of the regiment.121 Punishments ordered by court martial in that way served two purposes. They furnished amusement for the soldiers at
- 44. the same time the purpose for which they were intended, that of making an example of the misbehavior of one of the soldiers. While the Virginia riflemen were in camp at the siege of Boston there was a practice which served both as a source of amusement and as a display of marksmanship. There were two brothers, one of whom would place a board five inches wide and seven inches long with a bit of white paper in the middle of it about the size of a dollar, between his knees while the other at about sixty yards distance would shoot eight bullets through it without injuring the brother.122 The duel was another common practice which seemed to furnish amusement besides deciding the honor of some individual.123 Hunting, too, was a means of cheering the dreary days, but this too was often "Killing two birds with one stone", for often the soldiers went hunting to provide the regular rations, but at other times it was done just for the sake of the sport to be found in it. The following is taken from a New York paper of December 12, 1785. "A Fox hunt. The Gentlemen of the army with a number of the most respectable inhabitants of Ulsler and Orange purpose a Fox Hunt on the twenty third day of this instant to which all Gentlemen are invited with their hounds and their horses. The game is plenty and it is hoped the sport will be pleasant * * * "124. Along with the hunting frays went fishing125 and nutting126 trips which added a little variety to the ordinary camp scenes. There were several days celebrated by the Americans at that time which meant a holiday for the soldier with perhaps an extra allowance of rum127 or meat. Some of those days were Christmas, Thanksgiving, Fourth of July, May day, Commemoration of the French Alliance, or a celebration following a victory. The celebration usually consisted of a parade, a sermon by the chaplain followed by a banquet and perhaps a dance for the officers, and extra rations for the privates.128 Another celebration mentioned by several diaries and one which seemed to be a joyful occasion was as one writer said "and (we)
- 45. convert(ed) the evening to celebrate as usual wives and sweethearts which we do in plenty of grog".129 There were a few games which served to shorten some of the long dreary days for the soldier, some of them were; fives,130 shinny,131 goal,132 ball133 and a kind of football.134 No description of the above games has been found, but to judge by the context they were all outdoor games. The diversions discussed so far in this chapter have all been outdoor games, but the real test came when the soldiers were crowded into the huts during the winter months with nothing to think of but their own miserable conditions. Since no one had thought of organizing the soldier's leisure time he had to invent something for himself. The first things thought of, naturally, were the amusements which had existed at home. Card playing came to his mind, but in the army the game of cards or any other game of chance was absolutely forbidden by order of congress and the commander-in-chief. "Any officer, non-commissioned officers, or soldier who shall hereafter be detected playing at toss up, pitch and hustle or any other games of chance in or near the camp or villages bording on the encampments shall with out delay be confined and punished for disobedience of orders * * * The general does not mean by the above order to discourage sports of exercise and recreation, he only means to discontinuance and punish gaming".135 In another order Washington said, "Men may find enough to do in the service of their God and their country without abandoning themselves to vice and immorality".136 Dancing had been another form of entertainment at home but that too was usually impossible because of the lack of room. That was especially true at Valley Forge and other camps, but at Morristown, however, a large room in the commissariat store house was reserved for dancing,137 lodge meetings, and the like for the masons had chapters in the army camps.138
- 46. At home the soldier had also had his friends and dinner parties, now he had soldier friends, but the only way for him to keep in touch with former friends was by letters and that was a very irregular and uncertain way for mail could only be sent from camp or brought to camp when some one was going home on a furlough or new recruits were coming into camp.139 The nearest the soldier came to his social dinner and evening at home was the rallies from barracks to barracks when every body who could sing sang.140 As for the officers in camp, their leisure time was better provided for. They lived in better quarters, generally, at least larger ones. They, too, had the advantage of being entertained at the homes of the people living in the vicinity of the camp. Even if one's imagination must be drawn upon in order to make the recreation of the private seem recreational, at least, there was a side of camp life which presented a more pleasant picture "If our forefathers bled and suffered they also danced and feasted."141 The letters and diaries of the young officers tell of the gaiety of the war. Even in midst of the gloom at Valley Forge there was drinking from cabin to cabin and dinners in honor of visiting foreigners. No sooner was the army in winter quarters than the ladies began to appear, for Mrs. Washington, Mrs. Greene, and Mrs. Knox made it a practice to spend the winters with their husbands. Mrs. Washington was in the habit of saying that she always heard the last cannon fired in the fall and the first one in the spring.142 As soon as the wives appeared, the gaiety began among the families of the officers, the dinner was the favorite method of bringing the families together. "General Greene and his lady present their compliments to Colonel Knox and his lady and should be glad for their company tomorrow at dinner at two o'clock".143 Often the dinners were in name rather than in reality, for officers and privates suffered alike when food was scarce, but the social time did not depend entirely upon the supply of food. One such dinner is described as having been potatoes with beech-nuts for dessert.
- 47. The usual round of pleasure for the officers was dancing, dinners, teas, sleighing parties, horse-back parties, or the celebration of some day or event. Of the dance General Greene wrote on March 19, 1779, "We had a little dance at my quarters a few evenings past. His excellency and Mrs. Greene danced three hours without one sitting down upon the whole we had a pretty little frisk".144 Another such affair is described as follows: "There were subscription balls in the commissary store house at which Washington in black velvet, the foreign commanders in all their gold lace, General Steuben being particularly replendent and the ladies in powdered hair, stiff brocades and high heels made a brilliant company."145 In the large it can be said that, the recreation of the American soldier during the Revolutionary War, was invented to supply the need felt rather than an institution thought out before. Some of the practices would hardly be classed as recreation, but they helped to break the monotony and that was the object desired whether it was by enjoying a fellow soldier's punishment or playing an innocent game of ball. 114. Sherrill, French Memories of 18th Century America, p. 181. 115. Paxson, F. L., "The Rise of Sports." Miss. Valley Hist. Review Vol. IV. p. 143. 116. The facts pertaining to society at home has been collected from books of travel of the period just previous to the war; Chastellux, Travels In America; Sherrill, French Memories of 18th Century America and others. 117. Belcher, The First American Civil War, Vol. II, p. 83.
- 48. 118. Thacher, Military Journal, (April 20, 1779) p. 158. 119. Barton, Journal (Aug. 22, 1779) p. 7., Hearts, Journal Sept. 9, 1785. 120. Hearts, Journal (Sept. 9, 1785) p. 68. 121. Coits, Orderly Book, (July 10, 1775), p. 43. 122. Virginia Gazetta, 1775 quoted Hart & Hill, p. 229. 123. Thacher, Military Journal (Feb. 1779) 155. 124. New York Packet, Dec. 12, 1782, quoted in Am. Hist. Mag. Vol. III p. 389. 125. Elmer, Journal (June 24, 1779) p. 81, Livermore, Journal (May 27, 1779) p. 180. 126. Military Journal of Two Private Soldiers, p. 77. 127. Clinton, Order Book quoted by Headley, p. 265. 128. McHendry, Journal, (Dec. 9) p. 211, and (Sept. 25, 1779) p. 207. Blake, Journal, (July 5, 1779) p. 39; Linermore, Journal, (July 5), p. 182; and (Sept. 25, 1779), p. 188; Norris, Journal, (July 5, 1779), p. 225., Hardenberger, Journal (Sept. 25, 1779) p. 184. 129. Burrows, Journal, (Oct., 2, 1779) p. 50, Elmer, Journal, (July 3, 1779) p. 84. 130. Shute, Journal, (June 13 and 14, 1779) p. 268. 131. Ibid., (July 23, 1779) p. 264. 132. Lyman, Journal, p. 118.
- 49. 133. Ibid. and Military Journal of Two Private Soldiers, p. 70. 134. Fitch, Journal, (Sept. 14, 1775) p. 57. 135. Washington, Orderly Book, quoted by Ford, Writings of Washington, Vol. III, p. 155. 136. Washington, Orderly Book, quoted by Ford, Writings of Washington, Vol. III, p. 429. 137. Trevelyan, American Revolution, Vol. IV, p. 54. 138. Penn. Archives, Vol. II, p. 18. 139. Fitch, Journal, (Dec, 5, 1775), p. 88. 140. Humphreys, Catherine Schuyler, p. 177. 141. Humphreys, Catherine Schuyler, p. 167. 142. Ellet, Domestic History of the Am. Rev., p. 40. 143. Greene, Life of Greene, Vol. I, p. 193. 144. Greene, Life of Greene, Vol. II, p. 161. 145. Humphrey, Catherine Schuyler, p. 176.