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Chapter 8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications Page
Copyright ©2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
93
Chapter 8
Motivation: From Concepts
to Applications
Chapter Overview
This chapter builds on the last chapter and focuses on applying
motivational concepts in the workplace.
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Describe how the job characteristics model (JCM) motivates by
changing the work environment.
2. Compare the main ways that jobs can be redesigned.
3. Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees.
4. Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate employees.
5. Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase
employee motivation.
6. Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators.
7. Identify the intrinsic motivational benefits of employee recognition programs.
Suggested Lecture Outline
I. INTRODUCTION
Simply knowing about motivational theories is not enough to make managers effective.
Managers must be able to apply these theories in the workplace to increase worker
motivation. This chapter will review the job characteristics model, discuss some ways
jobs can be redesigned, and then explore some alternative work arrangements.
II. MOTIVATING BY JOB DESIGN: THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
A. Job design suggests that the way elements in a job are
organized can influence employee effort, and the model
discussed next can serve as a framework to identify opportunities for changes to
those elements.
1. Designed by Hackman and Oldham, the job characteristics model (JCM)
proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions:
a. Skill Variety: described as the degree to which the job requires a variety of
different activities, so the worker can use a number of different skills and
talents.
b. Task Identity: this is the degree to which the job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work.
c. Task Significance: the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives or work of other people.
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94
d. Autonomy: the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Jobs that possess
autonomy give employees a feeling of personal responsibility for the results.
e. Feedback: the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by
the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of his or her performance. Jobs that provide feedback lets
employees know how effectively they are performing.
2. Elements of the JCM.
a. Exhibit 8-1 presents the job characteristics model.
b. The first three dimensions—skill variety, task identity, and task
significance—combine to create meaningful work the
incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile.
c. Jobs with high autonomy give incumbents a feeling of personal
responsibility for the results and that, if a job provides feedback, employees
will know how effectively they are performing.
d. From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain
internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they
personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on
a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness).
1) The more these three psychological states are present, the
greater will be employees’ motivation, performance, and satisfaction,
and the lower their absenteeism and likelihood of leaving.
e. As Exhibit 8-1 shows, individuals with a high growth need are more likely to
experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched—
and respond to them more positively.
3. Efficacy of the JCM.
a. Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job
characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—
does generate higher and more satisfying job performance.
4. Motivating Potential Score (MPS).
a. We can combine the core dimensions of the JCM into a single predictive
index, called the motivating potential score (MPS) and calculated as
follows:
b. MPS = Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance/ 3 * Autonomy *
Feedback
5. Cultural Generalizability of the JCM.
a. A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures, but the results are
not consistent. The fact that the JCM is relatively individualistic suggests job
enrichment strategies may not have the same effects in collectivistic cultures
as in individualistic cultures.
B. USING JOB DESIGN TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES
1. Redesigning jobs has important practical implications—
reduced turnover and increased job satisfaction among
them. Let’s look at some ways to put the JCM into practice to make jobs more
motivating.
2. Job Rotation.
PPT 8.5
PPT 8.7
PPT 8.6
Exhibit 8-1

95
a. Helpful when employees suffer from excessively routine work. Job rotation
is the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.
1) The strengths of job rotation are:
a) it reduces boredom,
b) it increases motivation through diversifying the employee's
activities, and
c) it helps employees understand how their work contributes to the
organization.
d) International evidence from Britain, Italy, and Turkey shows that job
rotation is associated with higher levels of organizational
performance in manufacturing settings.
3. The drawbacks of job rotation:
a. work that is done repeatedly may become habitual and routine, which does
make decision making more automatic and efficient, but less thoughtfully
considered.
b. training costs increase when each rotation necessitates that an employee
learn new skills.
c. moving a worker into a new position reduces overall productivity for that
role.
d. it creates disruptions when members of the work group have to adjust to
new employees.
e. supervisors may have to spend more time answering questions and
monitoring the work of recently rotated employees.
4. Relational Job Design.
a. While redesigning jobs on the basis of jobs characteristics theory is likely to
make work more intrinsically motivating, contemporary research is focusing
on how to make jobs more prosocially motivating to people.
1) In other words, how can managers design work so
employees are motivated to promote the well-being of the
organization’s beneficiaries (customers, clients, patients,
and employees)?
2) This view, relational job design, shifts the spotlight from the employee
to those whose lives are affected by the job that employee performs.
b. One way to make jobs mores prosocially motivating is to better connect
employees with the beneficiaries of their work by relating stories from
customers who have found the company’s products or services to be helpful.
1) In some cases, managers may be able to connect employees directly with
beneficiaries.
5. Using Alternative Work Arrangements to Motivate Employees.
a. Another means of increasing motivation in the
workplace is to alter the typical work arrangements.
There are three major ways to accomplish this.
b. Flextime.
1) Flextime refers to the use of "flexible work time."
2) Flextime allows employees some discretion over when they arrive at
work and when they can leave.
3) Employees have to work a specific number of hours per week, but they
are free to vary the hours of work within certain limits.
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96
4) Flextime has become popular outside the United States in countries such
as Germany where 73 percent of businesses offer flextime, and Japan.
c. Core Period.
1) Typically, all workers must be in the office during a core period.
2) This core period may be as long as six hours, with the remaining two
work hours scheduled at the employee's convenience.
d. Benefits. They include:
1) reduced absenteeism,
2) increased productivity,
3) reduced overtime expenses,
4) reduced hostility toward management,
5) reduced traffic congestion around work sites, elimination of tardiness,
and
6) increased autonomy and responsibility for employees, any of which may
increase employee job satisfaction.
e. Research Results.
1) Most evidence seems to back up the listed benefits of flextime.
2) The use of this technique is not applicable to every job.
a) It does work well for clerical tasks, where interaction with outside
individuals is limited, but
b) It is inappropriate for jobs with comprehensive service demands
during predetermined hours.
6. Job Sharing.
a. This scheduling innovation allows two or more individuals to split a single
traditional 40-hour-a-week job among them.
b. Only 18 percent of U.S. organizations offered job sharing in 2014, a 29
percent decrease since 2008.
c. Reasons it is not more widely adopted include the difficulty of finding
compatible pairs of employees to job share and the historically negative
perceptions of individuals not completely committed to their jobs and
employers.
d. However, decreasing job sharing for these reasons may be short sighted.
1) Job sharing allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than
one individual for a given job. It opens the opportunity to acquire skilled
workers — for instance, women with young children and retirees —
who might not be available on a full-time basis.
2) From the employee’s perspective, job sharing can increase satisfaction
and motivation.
e. An employer’s decision to use job sharing is sometimes based on economics
and national policy.
1) Two part-time employees sharing a job can be less expensive than one
full-time employee, but experts suggest this is not the case because
training, coordination, and administrative costs can be high.
2) In the United States, the national Affordable Care Act may create an
incentive for companies to increase job sharing arrangements in order to
avoid the fees employers must pay the government for full-time
employees.

97
3) Many German and Japanese firms have been using job sharing – but for a
different reason. Germany’s Kurzarbeit program has kept employment
levels from plummeting through economic crises by switching full-time
workers to part-time job sharing workers.
f. Ideally, employers should consider each employee and job separately,
seeking to match up the skills, personalities, and needs of each employee
with the tasks required for the job to look for potential job sharing matches.
7. Telecommuting (or Working from the Virtual Office).
a. This refers to employees who do their work remotely for at least two days a
week using a computer linked to their office. A closely related term — the
virtual office — describes working from home on a relatively permanent
basis.
1) While telecommuting would seem to mesh with a transition to
knowledge work, it has been a popular topic lately not for its potential,
but rather for reconsideration.
2) While the movement away from telecommuting by some companies
makes headlines, it appears that for most organizations, it remains
popular.
a) For example, almost 50 percent of managers in Germany, the United
Kingdom, and the United States are permitted telecommuting
options.
b) Telecommuting is less of a practice in China, but there, too, it is
growing.
(1) In developing countries, the telecommuting percentage is
between 10 and 20 percent.
(2) Organizations that actively encourage telecommuting include
Amazon, IBM, American Express, Intel, Cisco Systems, and a
number of U.S. government agencies.
c) From the employee’s standpoint, telecommuting can increase
feelings of isolation and reduce job satisfaction.
(1) Research indicates it does not reduce work–family conflicts,
though perhaps it is because telecommuting often increases
work hours beyond the contracted workweek.
(2) Telecommuters are also vulnerable to the “out of sight, out of
mind” effect: Employees who aren’t at their desks, miss
impromptu meetings in the office, and don’t share in day-to-day
informal workplace interactions may be at a disadvantage when
it comes to raises and promotions because they’re perceived as
not putting in the requisite “face time.”
(3) As for a corporate social responsibility (CSR) benefit of reducing
car emissions by allowing telecommuting, research indicates that
employees actually drive over 45 miles more per day, due to
increased personal trips, when they telecommute!
III. EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
A. Employee involvement and participation is a participative
process that uses the input of employees to increase their
commitment to the organization's success.
B. The logic behind employee involvement is that by involving workers in decisions
that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives,
PPT 8.10

98
employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more
productive, and more satisfied with their jobs.
C. Cultural Employee Involvement Programs (EIPs).
1. Employee involvement programs (EIPs) differ among countries. Research
shows that it is important to modify practices to reflect culture.
a. Employees in many traditional cultures that value formal hierarchies do not
especially value EIPs , but this is changing.
1) In China, for instance, some employees are becoming less high power–
distance oriented.
D. Forms of EIPs.
1. Participative Management. Participative management is
the use of joint decision making in an organization.
a. This sharing can occur either formally through, say,
briefings or surveys, or informally through daily consultations, as a way to
enhance motivation through trust and commitment.
b. In order for this type of decision making to be effective, followers must have
trust and confidence in their leaders.
1) Leaders should refrain from coercive techniques and instead stress the
organizational consequences of decisions to their followers.
2) Research findings on the use of this technique have been mixed.
a) It appears that participation in decision making only has a modest
influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction.
2. Representative Participation.
a. Representative participation from Western Europe is
a legislated form of participation.
b. Representatives of employees are legally mandated to
be placed on an organization's board (or on works councils who must be
consulted regarding management’s personnel decisions) to represent the
interests of the workers.
c. Purpose is the desire to redistribute power within an organization by giving
the interests of labor more of an equal footing with those of management
and stockholders.
d. Research.
1) From results thus far, it appears that this mandatory form of employee
involvement has minimal impact on the employees.
2) It may be motivational for those employees selected to represent the
other workers, but it does not appear to motivate workers in general.
IV. USING EXTRINSIC REWARDS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES
1. Pay is not the only factor driving job satisfaction. However, it does
motivate people, and companies often underestimate its
importance.
2. What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure.
a. The process of initially setting pay levels entails balancing internal equity—
the worth of the job to the organization (usually established
through a technical process called job evaluation), and external
equity—the competitiveness of an organization’s pay relative to
pay in its industry (usually established through pay surveys).
PPT 8.11
PPT 8.12
PPT 8.13
PPT 8.14

99
b. Pay more, and you may get better-qualified, more highly motivated
employees who will stay with the organization longer.
1) A study covering 126 large organizations found employees who believed
they were receiving a competitive pay level had higher morale and were
more productive, and customers were more satisfied as well.
c. But pay is often the highest single operating cost for an organization, which
means paying too much can make the organization’s products or services
too expensive.
d. It’s a strategic decision an organization must make, with clear trade-offs.
3. How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees Through Variable-Pay Programs.
a. Piece rate, merit based, bonus, profit sharing, and employee stock ownership
plans are all forms of a variable-pay program (also known as pay-
for-performance), which bases a portion of an employee’s pay on
some individual and/or organizational measure of performance.
b. Variable-pay plans have long been used to compensate salespeople and
executives, but the scope of variable-pay jobs has broadened as the
motivational potential has been realized.
c. Globally, around 80 percent of companies offer some form of variable-pay
plan.
1) In the United States, 91 percent of companies offer a variable-pay
program.
2) In Latin America, more than 90 percent of companies offer some form of
variable-pay plan.
3) European and U.S. companies are lower, at about 12 percent.
4) When it comes to executive compensation, Asian companies are
outpacing western companies in their use of variable pay.
d. Unfortunately, not all employees see a strong connection between pay and
performance. The results of pay-for-performance plans vary.
e. Secrecy also pays a role in the motivational success of variable-pay plans.
Although in some government and not-for-profit agencies pay amounts are
either specifically or generally made public, most U.S. organizations
encourage or require pay secrecy.
f. Is this good or bad? Unfortunately, it’s bad: pay secrecy has a detrimental
effect on job performance.
1) Even worse, it adversely affects high performers more than other
employees. It very likely increases employees’ perception that pay is
subjective, which can be demotivating.
2) Do variable-pay programs increase motivation and productivity?
Generally, yes, but that doesn’t mean everyone is equally motivated by
them.
a) Many organizations have more than one variable pay element in
operation, such as an Employee Stock Option Plan (ESOP) and
bonuses, so managers should evaluate the effectiveness of the
overall plan in terms of the employee motivation gained from each
element separately and from all elements together.
b) Managers should monitor their employees’ performance–reward
expectancy, since a combination of elements that makes employees
feel that their greater performance will yield them greater rewards
will be the most motivating.
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100
g. Piece-Rate Pay.
1) In piece-rate pay plans workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of
production completed.
2) These plans may or may not have a base salary attached to
them.
a) Piece-rate plans are known to produce higher productivity
and wages, so they can be attractive to organizations and motivating
for workers.
h. Merit-Based Pay.
1) These individual plans modify pay based on performance appraisal
ratings.
a) The advantage of merit-based pay plans is that employers can
differentiate pay based on performance, so that high performers are
given bigger raises.
b) However, it should be noted that these plans are only as valid as the
appraisals they are based on.
c) Additionally, the pay raise pool from which the merit pay monies are
taken may be too low to provide a sufficient level of incentive pay.
i. Bonuses.
1) Bonuses, extra money paid for a specific event or organizational
achievement, are becoming more common even in the lower levels of
organizations.
2) One advantage of using bonuses is that they reward employees for
recent performance rather than historical performance.
3) However, employees may prefer base pay increases to the variable
bonuses.
j. Profit-Sharing Plans.
1) Profit-sharing plans are organization-wide programs to distribute
compensation based on some established formula designed around a
company's profitability. Rewards can be given in the form of cash, or for
top management, allocations of stock options.
k. Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs).
1) Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) are company-established
benefit plans in which employees can acquire stock, often at below-
market prices, as part of their benefits.
2) Research has shown that these plans do increase employee satisfaction,
but their impact on performance is less clear.
3) In situations where the employees do feel like owners, the impact on
organizational performance can be quite dramatic.
V. USING BENEFITS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES
A. As with pay, benefits are both an employee provision and an employee motivator.
1. A flexible benefits program turns the benefits package
into a motivational tool.
2. Flexible benefits individualize rewards by allowing each
employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his or her
current needs and situation.
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101
3. These plans replace the “one-benefit-plan-fits-all” programs designed for a male
with a wife and two children at home that dominated organizations for more
than 50 years.
4. But are flexible benefits more motivating than traditional plans? It’s difficult to
tell. Some organizations that have moved to flexible plans report increased
employee retention, job satisfaction, and productivity.
a. Given the intuitive motivational appeal of flexible benefits, however, it may
be surprising that their usage is not yet global.
VI. USING INRINSIC REWARDS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES
A. We have discussed motivating employees through job design and by the
extrinsic rewards of pay and benefits. We also need to consider intrinsic
rewards organizations can provide such as employee recognition
programs.
1. An employee recognition program is a plan to encourage specific behaviors by
formally appreciating specific employee contributions.
2. Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private thank-
you to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior
are encouraged and the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly
identified.
3. Some research suggests financial incentives may be more motivating in the
short term, but in the long run it’s nonfinancial incentives.
a. A few years ago, 1,500 employees were surveyed in a variety of work
settings to find out what they considered the most powerful workplace
motivator.
1) Recognition, recognition, and more recognition.
4. An obvious advantage of recognition programs is that they are inexpensive
because praise is free!
a. It shouldn’t be surprising then that they’ve grown in popularity.
5. Despite the increased popularity of employee recognition programs, critics
argue they are highly susceptible to political manipulation by management.
6. When applied to jobs for which performance factors are relatively objective,
such as sales, recognition programs are likely to be perceived by employees as
fair.
a. However, in most jobs, the criteria for good performance aren’t self-evident,
which allows managers to manipulate the system and recognize their
favorites.
1) Abuse can undermine the value of recognition programs and demoralize
employees.
VII. SUMMARY
A. Understanding what motivates individuals is ultimately key to organizational
performance.
1. Employees whose differences are recognized, who feel valued, and who have the
opportunity to work in jobs tailored to their strengths and interests will be
motivated to perform at the highest levels.
2. Employee participation can also increase employee productivity, commitment to
work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction.
3. However, we cannot overlook the powerful role of organizational rewards in
influencing motivation.
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102
a. Pay, benefits, and intrinsic rewards must be carefully and thoughtfully
designed in order to enhance employee motivation toward positive
organizational outcomes.
VIII. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
A. Recognize Individual Differences.
1. Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.
2. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their
motivational potential.
B. Use Goals and Feedback.
1. Employees should have firm, specific goals, and they should get feedback on
how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
C. Allow Employees to Participate in Decisions That Affect Them.
1. Employees can contribute to setting work goals, choosing their own benefits
packages, and solving productivity and quality problems.
2. Participation can increase employee productivity, commitment to work goals,
motivation, and job satisfaction.
D. Link Rewards to Performance.
1. Rewards should be contingent on performance, and employees must perceive
the link between the two.
2. Recognize the power of both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards.
E. Check the System for Equity.
1. Employees should perceive that experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other
obvious inputs explain differences in performance pay, job assignments, and
other rewards.
Discussion Questions
1. In what ways can employees be motivated through changing the work
environment?
Answer: Employees can be motivated by changing the nature of the work
environment in any of the following ways: (1) modifying the five dimensions of the
job characteristics model (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
and feedback); (2) redesigning jobs through job rotation, enlargement, and
enrichment; and/or (3) creating alternative work arrangements such as flextime,
job sharing, or telecommuting.
2. Compare and contrast the means in which jobs can be redesigned.
Answer: Jobs can be redesigned through job rotation and relational job design. Job
rotation keeps the individual jobs constant and rotates workers through each job.
Relational job design involves constructing the job so that employees see the
positive difference they can make in the lives of others. This is especially relevant
for companies with corporate social responsibility initiatives.
3. Why would managers want to use employee involvement programs?
Answer: By involving workers in the decisions that affect them and by increasing
their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more
motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more
satisfied with their jobs.
4. Define employee involvement and participation and identify the two major forms of
employee involvement.
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103
Answer: Employee involvement and participation is a process that uses employees’
input to increase their commitment to organizational success. Two major forms of
employee involvement are participative management where subordinates share a
significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors, and
representative participation which redistributes power in an organization by
including a small group of employees as participants in decision making.
5. Choose a variable-pay program and describe its motivational impact.
Answer: Answers will vary based on the choice. In general, these key points should
be made. Piece-rate pay motivates productivity by linking output directly to pay.
Merit-based pay motivates toward organizational outcomes by linking appraisals to
pay. Bonuses motivate by incentivizing recent performance. Skill-based pay
motivates employees toward learning by rewarding them for it. Profit-sharing plans
attempt to motivate employees toward organizational goals, specifically profits.
Gainsharing plans motivate employees toward productivity gains. Employee Stock
Option Plans motivate toward organizational outcomes through ownership.
6. Can motivational theories be applied across cultures?
Answer: Most likely, motivational theories cannot be directly applied without some
modification based on culture. However, there is insufficient research in most cases,
to make definitive statements. Students may give intuitive statements, such as that
individual rewards work best in individualistic cultures, but they should be
cautioned against accepting intuition as fact.
Exercises
1. Self-analysis. Think back to the job or activity that you found to be the most
motivational in your life. Describe the aspects of the job that made it so exciting for
you. What type, or types, of motivational techniques were used in that job or
activity? If you are the manager in your current job, how could you apply those
techniques in that environment?
2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, find an additional motivational
technique, not mentioned in the chapter. Fully describe and cite this technique.
Using the motivational theories from Chapter 7, explain why you believe it would
work and under what conditions you think it would prove most effective.
3. Teamwork. As a small group, assume you are a consultancy firm that specializes in
motivational techniques and job redesign. The college administration has come to
you and asked that you examine the college bookstore (or some other entity on the
campus) and can provide them with suggestions for increasing the motivation of the
employees there. Assess the current work environment and write your suggestions
using the motivational theories and techniques given in Chapters 6 and 7.
4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Assess the motivational
techniques (both extrinsic and intrinsic) used at your workplace. Describe the
techniques you were able to identify and assess their effectiveness in your work
environment. If any of the techniques were ineffective, provide some suggestions
for increasing the effectiveness of those techniques.
Suggested Assignment
For this activity, select two teams of four people each, one moderator (master of ceremonies
[MC]), one scorekeeper, and one timekeeper. The rest of the class will act as a studio
audience (but they also have tasks to perform).

104
Setup: (ensure the class is very familiar with the concepts in both Chapters 7 and 8
before attempting this activity).
a. One of the two groups of four will act as Abraham Maslow. The other group
will act as Fredrick Herzberg. Allow the teams 5 to 10 minutes to review
their materials on these two motivational theorists.
b. The moderator will act as the MC for the debate and read questions to the
two panels. (The instructor may decide to act as MC.)
c. While the groups are preparing, the audience should write down questions
regarding their concerns over the motivational effectiveness of job rotation,
job enrichment, and job enlargement on 3 x 5 cards.
d. The debate works this way:
i. A question from the audience is selected and read aloud to both
teams by the MC.
ii. The MC selects one panel and gives them two minutes to respond to
the question based on the views of the theorist they represent.
Timekeeper will give a five-second warning and stop the panel when
two minutes are up.
iii. The MC will then give the second panel their two minutes to express
their theorist's viewpoint. Again, the timekeeper will give warning
and stop the panel when time is up.
iv. The MC will give the first group a one-minute rebuttal of the second
panel's argument. Then the second group has one minute to rebut
the first. Timekeeper will ensure deadlines are met.
v. After the second rebuttal, the audience should be asked to vote as to
which motivational theorist won the current point.
vi. The debate cycle then begins anew with another card from the
audience. This continues as time allows or until there are no more
questions from the audience.
vii. The panel with the most points at the end of the activity wins.

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arcading; and over this the Norman triforium windows blocked up, and
again, above the later Perpendicular triforium, superimposed on the old, and
finished with a battlemented parapet. Behind this come the triforium roof,
and then beyond the original Norman clerestory, each bay with a triple arch
formation, the centre arch pierced for a window. And then above all, the lead
roof over the nave vault.
“The radical changes that have taken place since the nave was built by
Bishop Eborard (1121-45) consist of the insertion in the aisles of later
‘Decorated’ traceried windows in place of the original Norman ones, and of
the superimposition, before referred to, at triforium level, of a whole range
of ‘Perpendicular’ windows over the old Norman work, which were blocked
up at this period. The battlementing, too, over the clerestory to the nave is
later work, to correspond with battlementing over the triforium windows. It
will be noticed that the two bays next the transept in the triforium are higher
than the others, in order to throw additional light into the choir.
“Also on this same south side, in the seventh and eighth bays from the
west end, two very late windows occur, inserted in the Norman arcading
under the original triforium windows; these were inserted by Bishop Nykke
to light the chapel he built in two bays of the south aisle of the nave.
“The curious raking of the lead rolls to the nave roof is noticeable; the
mediæval builders did this with a view of counteracting the ‘crawl’ of the
lead.”—(C. H. B. Q.)
Norwich Cathedral is famous for its magnificent interior.
A noble view is obtained on entering, for the great Nave
reaches 200 feet to the choir-screen; and if the organ on the
latter were removed, the view would be longer, for the
extreme length of the Cathedral is 407 feet. The
perspective is splendid, as it is, and very largely is it so
because of the lierne vault of Perpendicular days, which
relieves the severity of the Norman work below.
The nave consists of seven double bays (fourteen
compartments) from the west end to the transepts. The

main piers are, of course, large, and the arcade arches are
ornamented with the billet. The triforium arches are
decorated with a chevron or zigzag. Over it is the typical
Norman clerestory and above all spreads the handsome
lierne vault (Perpendicular). This splendid vault (72 feet),
built by Bishop Lyhart (1446-1472), after the Norman roof
had been destroyed by fire in 1463, is of great value to the
student. There are 328 carved bosses at the intersection of
the ribs, the subjects of which are taken from Biblical
history.
“The vault is of Perpendicular design, and known as lierne; such vaults
may be distinguished by the fact that between the main ribs, springing from
the vaulting shafts, are placed cross ribs forming a pattern, as it were, and
bracing the main ribs, but not in any great measure structural. This vault at
Norwich may be taken as typical of the last legitimate development of the
stone roof; it was the precursor of the later fan-vaulting, such as we find in
Henry VII.’s chapel at Westminster, where legitimate construction was
replaced by ostentatious ingenuity and the accumulation of needless
ornament and detail.
“To all those who take an interest in early stone-cutting, this vault of
Norwich is a store of inexhaustible treasure; the bosses, rudely cut as they
are, tell their own tales with singular truth and directness. Their sculpture
may not display the anatomical knowledge of the work of the Renaissance;
yet it has a distinct decorative value that has been seldom equalled in the
later decadent period. The fourteen large central bosses on the main
longitudinal ribs present in themselves an epitome not only of Bible history,
but of the connecting incidents forming the theme of Christian teaching. In
the tenth bay, on the longitudinal rib, there is, in place of a boss, a circular
hole through the vault. It is supposed to have been formed to allow a thurible
to be suspended therefrom into the church below. Harrod, quoting from
Lambard’s ‘Topographical Dictionary,’ says: ‘I myself, being a child, once
saw in Poule’s Church at London, at a feast of Whitsontide, wheare the

comyng down of the Holy Gost was set forth by a white pigeon that was let
to fly out of a hole that is yet to be seen in the mydst of the roof of the great
ile, and by a long censer which, descending out of the same place almost to
the very ground, was swinged up and down at such a length that it reached at
one swepe almost to the west gate of the church, and with the other to the
queer [quire] stairs of the same, breathing out over the whole church and
companie a most pleasant perfume of such sweet things as burned therein.’
“It is probable that the hole in the nave vault at Norwich was used for a
similar purpose; and its position would seem to agree with such use, situated
as it is about midway between the west end and where the front of the
mediæval rood loft occurred.”—(C. H. B. Q.)
In the aisles we find Decorated windows, and in the
triforium, Perpendicular windows.
The Choir-Screen was erected by Bishop Lyhart in
1446-1472, but only the lower part survived the fury of the
Puritan mob. The organ was placed in its present position
in 1833. Immediately under the organ loft is a single
compartment, blocked off from the north and south aisles
by screens that originally belonged to one old screen
(Perpendicular). This ante-chapel was formerly the chapel
of Our Lady of Pity.
The Choir extends a little into the nave, and, therefore,
beyond the tower and transepts. There are sixty splendid
Choir-stalls of the Fifteenth Century, with ornate
misereres. The Bishop’s Throne and Pulpit are modern. The
old Pelican Lectern, in the Decorated style, should be
noticed.

Essentials of Organizational Behavior 14th Edition Robbins Solutions Manual

Norwich: Choir
The Presbytery is the earliest part of the cathedral. It
consists of four compartments, or bays, and terminates in a
semicircular apse of five compartments. We find here
Perpendicular arches, a lofty Norman triforium, and
clerestory windows of the transitional period from
Decorated to Perpendicular. The whole effect is Norman
and noble. Unfortunately the old glass of the windows has
perished.
The aisles of the presbytery are also called the
Processional Path, and consist of four bays, and five
around the apse. A door in the north aisle opens into the
gardens of the Bishop’s Palace; and in this aisle, at the
fourth bay east of the tower, there is a very peculiar bridge-
chapel that spans the aisle. Critics say that it formed the
ante-chapel to the reliquary chapel projecting northward
from the outer wall of the Cathedral, and that it was
probably built as a bridge for exhibiting relics as the
processions passed along underneath.
On the south side of the presbytery (third bay) is the
Chapel of St. Mary the Less, or Bauchon Chapel
(Fourteenth Century). It projects beyond the wall. The
vault is Fifteenth Century, and the bosses represent the
Life, Death and Assumption of the Virgin. This is now the
Consistory Court.
The north transept is without aisles or triforium.
Arcading decorates the wall up to the clerestory. Above is a

lierne vault of later date, of course, than the transept. The
old apsidal chapel on the east (dedicated to St. Anne) is
now used as a storeroom.
A staircase in the east wall of the north transept leads to
the tower-galleries and walks, very interesting in
themselves and affording glimpses through their openings
into the nave, presbytery and transepts below.
Between the south aisle of the presbytery and the south
transept a beautiful screen of late Perpendicular tracery
fills the Norman arch. The roof, like that of the north
transept, originally of wood, was destroyed by fire in 1509,
and a new vault added in Perpendicular times.
Of the three chapels grouped around the presbytery the
Jesus Chapel on the north and the chapel on the south, St.
Luke’s, remain. The Lady-Chapel, at the extreme east, has
perished.
The Norman Lady-Chapel was partly destroyed by the
fire of 1169, and was succeeded by an Early English chapel
of the Thirteenth Century. This was destroyed in the
Sixteenth Century; but the finely proportioned entrance
arches still remain. They are ornamented with the dog-
tooth.
It is not often that ancient altar-pieces are found in the
English cathedrals; but Norwich possesses a Retable,
supposed to be the work of an Italian painter of the
Fourteenth Century. It is in five panels—The Scourging,

Bearing the Cross, Crucifixion, Resurrection and
Ascension. It was formerly in the Jesus Chapel.
The Cloisters are in their usual position—on the south.
Originally these were Norman, and perished by fire in
1272. The present ones were 133 years in building, and so
they reveal the developments of architecture during 1297-
1430. The cloister garth is about 145 feet square.
“The arches are filled with open tracery carried by two mullions.
“On the east side it is geometrical in character, the work being transitional
between Early English and Decorated; on the south side the tracery is more
flowing and has advanced to Decorated; on the west side again, we get the
transitional style between Decorated and Perpendicular, with some
flamboyant or flame-like detail; while on the north and latest side it is
frankly Perpendicular.”—(C. H. B. Q.)
They are entered from the south side of the nave, of
course. The Monk’s Door, opening into the East Walk, is
an ornate specimen of Perpendicular; and the Prior’s
Door, opening into the West Walk, a fine specimen of
Early Decorated.

ST. ALBANS
Dedication: St. Alban. Church of a Benedictine
Monastery.
When Sir Gilbert Scott began to restore and repair the old
abbey church of St. Albans, in 1870, he found it in a very
dilapidated condition. Among other base uses to which
various parts of the Cathedral had been put, the Lady-
Chapel had been converted into a grammar-school, and a
thoroughfare had been made through the retro-choir. After
Scott’s death, in 1878, Lord Grimthorpe, who had been
diligent and liberal for years regarding restorations,
succeeded in getting control of the entire work. He made
various changes and additions, and inserted windows at his
own pleasure, not always with judgment, nor in the best
taste. The consequence is that St. Albans is open to much
criticism. Yet it remains an interesting old pile in many
respects.
St. Albans did not become a cathedral until 1877. It was
a famous old abbey church, dating back to the days of Offa
II., King of the Mercians, who founded a Benedictine
monastery here about 793. From this time until the
suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., the Abbey
of St. Albans was of the greatest importance. Its Abbot had
a seat in the House of Lords, and took precedence of all the
abbots in the kingdom. Naturally, therefore, the list of

abbots is notable. Some of them were related to the royal
family. Among those especially distinguished were: Paul of
Caen, John de Cella, William of Trumpington, John of
Hertford, Roger of Norton, Hugh of Eversden, Richard of
Wallingford, Thomas de la Mare, John de la Moote, John
of Wheathampstead, and Thomas Wolsey, the great
cardinal.
Royalty was entertained in the Abbey on many occasions
as both guest and prisoner. When the Abbey was
consecrated in 1115 by the Archbishop of Rouen, Henry I.
and his queen, Matilda, with their courtiers, were
entertained from December 27 until January 6; Richard II.
stayed here for eight days after Wat Tyler’s rebellion had
subsided; and here the conspiracy against him was planned,
when the Duke of Gloucester and the Prior of Westminster
were dining with the abbot, John de la Moote. In 1399 John
of Gaunt’s body rested here; and Richard II., and Henry,
Duke of Lancaster (Henry IV.) were here in the same year.
During the Wars of the Roses the Abbey of St. Albans was
frequently used as a prison. In the first battle of St. Albans
(May 23, 1455), when the White Roses were victorious,
Henry was confined in the monastery; but in the second
battle (February 17, 1461), the king, having been captured,
was set at liberty by his brave wife, Margaret of Anjou,
who marched from Wakefield with 18,000 men. The royal
party went to the Abbey, where the monks chanted
thanksgiving and in every way received them with delight.
The undisciplined horde of soldiers unfortunately ran wild

in the town and plundered the Abbey. Their behaviour was
such that Abbot John Stokes changed his politics, and
became an ardent Yorkist.
Among the celebrated monks of St. Albans Matthew
Paris takes the lead, the great historian whose book begins
with the creation and continues to 1259.
St. Albans for a long period received “Peter’s Pence.”
This was first levied by the King of the West Saxons in
727, and was a tax of one penny on each family owning
lands. The receipt amounted to thirty pence a year and went
to the support of a Saxon College at Rome; and because it
was collected on August 1 (the day of St. Peter ad Vincula)
it was called “Peter’s Pence.” Offa induced the Pope to
give it to the Abbey of St. Albans.
The monastic buildings have all perished, and the only
remnant of the Abbey is the Great Gate, built in the days
of Thomas de la Mare, about 1365. Over the archway there
is a large room in which sessions used to be held, and
below the road the curious may inspect the dungeons. This
Gateway was a law-court and prison; and, as the Abbot of
St. Albans had civil jurisdiction over all the town, as well
as his monastery, many offenders were tried and
condemned here. In the days of Wat Tyler’s rebellion John
Ball and his seventeen companions were tried here and
spent their last days in the dungeons. Another scene that we
can picture is that of the monks bringing out ale and wine

to quell the fury of the mob that stormed the Gatehouse
before the news of Wat Tyler’s death arrived.
St. Albans was a favorite place of pilgrimage, for it
sheltered the remains of the first Christian martyr in
Britain. Alban, or Albans, was a young soldier, who, during
the persecution of the Christians in the Fourth Century,
befriended a deacon named Amphibalus by receiving him
in his house. Amphibalus converted him. Alban exchanged
clothing with him so that he might escape. Amphibalus was
captured, however, and executed near Verulamium. Alban
was also beheaded; and a few years after his death a church
was built over the spot where his blood had been shed. The
north transept of the existing church is said to cover this
place.
Matthew Paris states that the body of St. Alban was,
during an invasion, removed from the church for safety,
and afterward placed in its original grave. Offa II. found
the coffin containing the remains of the martyr and laid
them in a splendid reliquary, taking care first to place a
golden band around the head with the inscription “Hoc est
caput Sancti Albani.” Offa also had the martyr canonized.
With a miracle-working shrine, the richly-endowed
monastery continued to flourish.
The Abbey Church was deemed quite large enough until
Paul of Caen (1077-1093) was appointed abbot by William
the Conqueror. In about eleven years only (1077-1088) he
rebuilt St. Albans, using many of the Roman bricks from

the ruins of the neighbouring Verulamium and timber
already collected. His was an enormous Norman edifice
(460 feet), longer even than Canterbury (290 feet).
After a hundred years or so, Abbot John de Cella (1195-
1214) made various changes. Money was raised in various
ways for the purpose, and among them the abbot persuaded
his monks to do without wine for fifteen years and
contribute the savings to the fund for building.
After him came William of Trumpington (1214-1235),
who continued the work of building. He also constructed
the cloister. Let us see exactly in what their work consisted:
“Abbot John de Cella (1195-1214) pulled down the west front and began
to build a new one in its place. He laid the foundation of the whole front, but
then went on with the north side first. The north porch was nearly finished in
his time; the central porch was carried up as far as the spring of the arch; the
southern porch was carried hardly any way up from the foundations. The
porches are described by those who saw them before Lord Grimthorpe swept
away the whole west front as some of the choicest specimens of Thirteenth
Century work in England. The mouldings were of great delicacy, and were
enriched with dog-tooth ornament. It is said that Abbot John was not a good
man of business, and that he was sorely robbed and cheated by his builders,
and so had not money enough to finish the work that he had planned. To his
successor, William of Trumpington, it therefore fell to carry on the work. He
was a man of a more practical character, though not equal to his predecessor
in matters of taste. He finished the main part of the western front. Oddly
enough no dog-tooth ornament was used in the central and southern porches,
and the character of the carved foliage differs also from that of the north
porch. In Abbot John’s undoubted work the curling leaves overlap, and have
strongly defined stems resembling the foliage of Lincoln choir, while that of
Abbot William’s time had the ordinary character of the Early English style.
There is evidence to show that he intended to vault the church with a stone
roof; this may be seen from the marble vaulting-shafts on the north side of

the nave between the arches of the main arcade, which, however, are not
carried higher than the string-course below the triforium. The idea of a stone
vault was, however, abandoned before the two eastern Early English bays on
the south side were built, for no preparation for vaulting shafts exists there.
“Abbot John de Cella had begun to build afresh the western towers, or,
according to some authorities, to build the first western towers that the
church ever had; we have no record of their completion, and it is said that
Abbot William abandoned the idea. We have only the foundations by which
we can determine their size. William of Trumpington transformed the
windows of the aisles into Early English ones. He also added a wooden
lantern to the tower, somewhat in the style of the wooden octagon on the
central tower of Ely.”—(T. P.)
The next changes were made in the east end. These were
begun in the last half of the Thirteenth Century. The walls
of the presbytery were raised; the Saint’s Chapel built; then
the retro-choir; and then the Lady-Chapel (1326).
Then Hugh of Eversden (1308-1326) became abbot and
had to rebuild the part of the nave that fell in 1323. His
work was continued by Richard of Wallingford (1326-
1335) and completed by Michael of Mentmore in 1345.
John de Wheathampstead, who was twice abbot (1420-
1440, and 1451-1464), rebuilt the upper part of the west
front, made changes in the roofs, inserted Perpendicular
windows in the ends of the transept, and also converted the
Norman triforium arches into windows by filling them with
Perpendicular tracery. His chantry was built after his death.
William of Wallingford (1476-1484) contributed the
gorgeous screen.

The exterior has no interest for the student of
architecture. The enormous church is plain, and Lord
Grimthorpe has been at work everywhere. The only feature
that has any real beauty is the fine Norman tower.
“It is 144 feet high and is not quite square in plan, measuring 47 feet from
east to west, and two feet less from north to south. The walls are about seven
feet thick; in the thickness, however, passages are cut. It has three stages
above the ridges of the roof. The lower stage has plain windows in each face,
lighting the church below; the next stage, or ringing room, has two pairs of
double windows; and the upper or belfry stage, two double windows of large
size, furnished with louvre boards. The parapet is battlemented, and of
course of later work than the tower itself. The tower is flanked by pilaster
buttresses, which merge into cylindrical turrets in the upper story. For simple
dignity the tower stands unrivalled in this country. It must have been
splendidly built to have stood as it has done so many centuries without
accident. Winchester tower fell not long after its building, Peterborough
tower has been rebuilt in modern days; but Paul of Caen did not scamp his
work as the monks of Peterborough did, and no evil-living king was buried
below the tower, as was the case at Winchester, thus, according to the beliefs
of the time, leading to its downfall. Tewkesbury tower alone can vie with
that of St. Albans, and the Seventeenth Century pinnacles on that tower spoil
the general effect, so that the foremost place among central Norman towers
as we see them to-day may safely be claimed for that at St. Albans. Few
more beautiful architectural objects can be seen than this tower of Roman
brick, especially when the warmth of its colour is accentuated by the ruddy
flush thrown over it by the rays of a setting sun.”—(T. P.)
The pilgrims to St. Alban’s shrine used to enter by the
North Door of the Transept, carrying the candles that
they had bought at the Waxhouse Gate. This Norman
doorway, with a Norman window on each side (modern
glass), still exists. The upper part of the north wall with the
wheel window was rebuilt by Lord Grimthorpe.

The nave is immensely long—about a tenth of a mile. It
is Norman, grim, and cold, but impressive.
“As we stand just inside the west door of the church we are struck by the
length of ritual nave, about 200 feet, the flatness of the roofs, and the
massiveness of the arcading dividing the nave from the aisles; for, though
the four western bays on the north side and five on the south are Early
English in date, there is none of that lightness and grace that we are
accustomed to associate with work of this period, no detached shafts of
Purbeck marble such as we see at Salisbury, no exquisitely carved capitals
such
St. Albans: North

St. Albans: Nave, east
as we meet with at Wells. William of Trumpington seems to have aimed at
making his work harmonize with the Norman work that he left untouched;
and when the rest of the main arcade on the south side was rebuilt in the next
century, it was made to differ but little in general appearance and dimensions
from Abbot William’s.
“On entering by the west door a peculiarity will at once be noticed. About
fifteen feet from the inner side of the west wall there is a rise of five steps
which stretch right across the church from north to south. The floor to the
east of these steps slopes imperceptibly upwards for eight bays, when a rise
of three more steps is met with. On this higher level stands the altar, which is
backed up by the rood screen. There is another step to be ascended to the
level of the choir, and another to reach the space below the tower. Five steps
lead from this into the presbytery; there is another step at the high altar rails,
and four more lead up to the platform on which the high altar will stand.

From the space below the tower one step leads up into the north aisle and
two more into the north arm of the transept. From the level of the south choir
aisle and south transept two steps lead up into the south aisle of the
presbytery; from this aisle there is a rise of four steps into the aisle south of
the Saint’s Chapel, and from this into the chapel itself a rise of four more. So
that the floor of this chapel is, with the exception of the high altar platform,
which is one step higher, the highest in the whole church, or nineteen steps
above the floor just inside the west door. From the aisle of the Saint’s Chapel
one step leads into the retro-choir, and two more into the Lady-Chapel;
hence the floor of the Lady-Chapel is one step lower than that of the Saint’s
Chapel. If we take seven inches as the average height of a step, it would
appear that the floor of the Lady-Chapel is about ten feet higher than the
floor at the west end of the nave.”—(T. P.)
The nave is blocked behind the altar with a Rood screen,
of Fourteenth Century work, much restored. It is pierced by
two doors (also Fourteenth Century), through which
processions passed into the choir. Upon it the organ is
placed.
The eastern part of the nave was rebuilt after the
calamity that happened on St. Paulinus’s Day (October 10),
1323. Mass had just been celebrated, and the church was
still crowded with men, women and children, when two of
the great piers of the main arcade on the south side fell
outwards, crushing the south wall of the aisle and cloisters.
Soon the wooden roof of the nave also fell. Strange to
relate nobody was injured; and although the shrine of St.
Amphibalus was damaged, still the chest that contained his
relics suffered no harm.
All this part of the church had to be rebuilt; and, of
course, the south arcade differs from the northern one.

A massive pier, either the original Norman or one rebuilt
in the Norman style, divides the five Early English bays on
the west from the Decorated ones on the east. West we find
the characteristic tooth ornament; and east, the
characteristic ball-flower.
When the pestilence was raging in London (only twenty
miles away) in 1543, 1589, and 1593, courts of justice were
held in this nave. On the north side a pier bears an
inscription to the memory of Sir John Mandeville, the
famous traveller, who was born at St. Albans in the
Fourteenth Century and educated in the monastery school.
The massive piers were coated with plaster and then
painted. Each has traces of the same picture of the
Crucifixion, with a second subject below it. This subject
differs on every column. The soffits of the arches were also
bright with colour, so that the severity and plainness that
we now feel were originally missing.
“Although in the four western bays of the main arcade the Early English
work is very plain, yet the triforium is ornate. The arcading consists of two
pointed arches in each bay, each comprising two sub-arches; the supporting
columns are slender and enriched with dog-tooth mouldings, with which also
the string-course below the triforium is decorated. The shafts, which
probably were intended to support a stone vault over the nave, should be
noticed.
“The triforium over the Norman main arcade consists of large, wide-
splayed, round-headed openings, in which the tracery and glazing introduced
in the Fifteenth Century, when the aisle roof was lowered in pitch so as to
expose the north side of the triforium to the sky, still remains. One of the
triforium arches, namely, the third from the tower, was simply walled up at
this time, and so retains its original form. The clerestory in this part of the

church consists of plain, round-headed openings. Between each bay the outer
southern face of each Norman pier is continued in the form of the flat
pilaster buttress up to the roof.”—(T. P.)
The piers of the choir, like those of the nave, were
originally painted. So was the ceiling. Wall-paintings were
likewise discovered between the clerestory windows in
1875. The choir-stalls and Bishop’s Throne are modern. In
the south-choir-aisle the tomb of Roger and Sigar, two
local hermits, was once a place of pious pilgrimage.
The arches of the Tower are fifty-five feet high. The four
inside faces of the lantern contain windows above the
arcade, and the ceiling of the lantern (102 feet from the
floor) is painted with the red and white roses of Lancaster
and York, and various coats-of-arms. The effect of the
tower is impressive. The peal consists of eight bells, cast in
London in 1699. Some of the bells have been recast.
Beneath the Presbytery notable abbots, monks and
laymen were given burial. The presbytery is divided from
the aisles by solid walls, broken by the Ramryge and
Wheathampstead chantries, and two doorways: it is closed
in on the east side by a magnificent screen, constructed
during William of Wallingford’s rule (1476-1484), and
generally known as the Wallingford Screen. It is hard to
realize that the lace-like canopies, of which it is composed,
are made of stone. The material is clunch, a hard stone
from the lower chalk formation. This great reredos has
been restored of late years and filled with statues. There are
no records to describe or even name the original figures;

but those now occupying the niches, by Mr. H. Hems, of
Exeter, are, beginning on the left and reading downwards:
(1) St. Titus, St. Timothy, St. Barnabas, Angel Gabriel; (2)
King Edmund, St. Cuthbert, St. Augustine; (3) St. Oswyn,
St. Giles, St. Cecilia, St. Boniface, St. Katherine, St. David;
(4) King Offa, St. Helen, oak door; (5) St. Ethelbert, St.
Leonard, St. Agnes, St. Nicholas, St. Frideswide, St. Chad;
(6) Edward the Confessor, St. Benedict, St. Alban; (7)
Angel, Angel, Angel; (8) Angel, Blessed Virgin Mary; (9)
Crucifix; (10) Angel, St. John; (11) Angel, Angel, Angel;
(12) St. Hugh of Lincoln, St. Patrick, St. Amphibalus; (13)
Edward King of West Saxons, St. Lawrence, St. Lucy, St.
Wolfstan, St. Osyth, St. Alphege; (14) Pope Adrian IV., St.
Etheldreda, oak door; (15) St. George, St. Benedict,
Biscop, St. Ethelberga, St. Richard; (17) The Venerable
Bede, St. Germain, St. Erkenwald, St. Margaret, St. Ælfric;
(18) St. Paul, St. Luke, St. Mark, St. Mary the Virgin.
Below the Crucifix stands a row of smaller statues
representing Christ and the Twelve Apostles. On Christ’s
right: St. James Minor, St. Philip, St. John, St. James
Major, St. Andrew, St. Peter; and on his left: St. Thomas,
St. Bartholomew, St. Matthew, St. Simon, St. Matthias and
St. Jude.
On the right and left of the altar are chantries. The south
one is that of John of Wheathampstead, who was twice
Abbot (1420-1440, and 1451-1464). His effigy is robed in
full vestments, carries a pastoral staff and wears a mitre.

His rebus—three ears of wheat—and his motto—Valles
habundabunt—appear in various places.
On the other side of the steps the handsomer Ramryge
Chantry commemorates Abbot Thomas Ramryge, who
also has a rebus—a ram wearing a collar with the letters R.
Y. G. E. upon it. He entered office in 1492, and, strange to
relate, no details of his rule are known. The date of his
death is also a blank. Yet here is his fine monument in the
Perpendicular style.
Behind the Wallingford Screen lies the Saint’s Chapel,
with the Shrine of St. Alban in the centre.
“The bones of St. Alban were of course counted as the chief treasure of
the Abbey, in some respects the most valuable relics in the kingdom, since
they were the bones of the first Christian martyr in the island. It was meet
and fitting, then, that the most splendid resting-place should be chosen for
them. The bones themselves were enclosed in an outer and an inner case; the
inner was the work of the sixteenth Abbot, Geoffrey of Gorham (1119-1149),
and the outer of the nineteenth Abbot, Symeon (1167-1183). These coffers
were of special metal encrusted with rich gems. It is recorded that the
reliquary was so heavy that it required four men to carry it, which they
probably did by two poles, each passing through two rings on either side of
the coffer. It is said to have been placed in a lofty position by Abbot
Symeon; but the pedestal of which we see the reconstruction to-day was
erected during the early part of the Fourteenth Century, in the time of the
twenty-sixth Abbot, John de Marinis (1302-1308). This was built of Purbeck
marble and consists of a basement 2 feet 6 inches high, 8 feet 6 inches long,
and 3 feet 2 inches wide, above which were four canopied niches at each
side and one at each end; these were richly painted and probably contained
other relics; in the spandrels were carved figures, at the corners angels
censing. At the west end was a representation of St. Alban’s martyrdom; on
the south side in the centre was, and still is, a figure of King Offa holding the
model of a church; in the next spandrel to the east the figure of another king;

on the east side a representation of the scourging of St. Alban, and on the
north other figures, of which the only one remaining is that of a bishop or
mitred abbot. In the pediments or gables were carvings of foliage, and round
the top of the pedestal ran a richly-carved cornice; round the base stood
fourteen detached shafts, on which perhaps the movable canopy rested, and
outside three other shafts of twisted pattern on each side, which carried six
huge candles, probably kept burning day and night, certainly during the
night, to light the chamber holding the shrine. On this lofty pedestal, 8 feet 3
inches high, the glorious shrine rested. It was rendered still more ornate than
it was in Abbot Symeon’s time by the addition of a silver-gilt turret, on the
lower part of which was a representation of the Resurrection with two angels
and four knights (suggested by the guard of Roman soldiers) keeping the
tomb. A silver-gilt eagle of cunning craftsmanship stood on the shrine. All
these additions were given by Abbot Thomas de la Mare (1349-1396). A
certain monk also gave two representations of the sun in solid gold,
surrounded by rays of silver tipped with precious stones. Over all was a
canopy which, like many modern font-covers, was probably suspended by a
rope running over a pulley in the roof, by which it might be raised. There is a
mark in the roof remaining, possibly caused by the fastening of the pulley.
An altar, dedicated to St. Alban, stood at the west end of the pedestal.
“Such a precious thing as this jewelled shrine and the still more precious
bones within it could not be left for a moment unguarded and unwatched, for
stealing relics, when a favourable opportunity arose, was a temptation too
great to be resisted by any monks, however holy. So on the south side of the
shrine was erected a watching loft; the one that remains was constructed
probably during the reign of Richard II., and his badge appears on it, but, no
doubt, from the first there was some such place provided for the purpose of
keeping guard. The chamber had two stories: the lower contained cupboards,
in which vestments and relics were kept, these are now filled with various
antiquarian curiosities, Roman pottery from Verulamium, architectural
fragments, etc. An oaken staircase leads up into the chamber where the
‘custos feretri’ sat watching the shrine day and night, guard of course being
changed at intervals. It must have been trying work watching there during
the night-time in frosty weather, but monks were accustomed to bear cold.
The watching chamber was built of oak and was richly carved. On the south
side of the cornice are angels, the hart—badge of Richard II., the martyrdom

of St. Alban, Time the reaper, and the seasons; on the north the months of the
year are represented.”—(T. P.)
On the south side is buried Humphrey, Duke of
Gloucester, son of Henry IV., brother of Henry V., and
uncle of Henry VI. He died in 1447. The handsome tomb
was probably erected by the Abbot Wheathampstead, who
was a great friend of Duke Humphrey’s.
In the north aisle of the Saint’s Chapel we come to the
pedestal of the Shrine of St. Amphibalus (see page 362).
It stood in the centre of the retro-choir until Lord
Grimthorpe removed it to its present position.
An oak screen separates the Saint’s Chapel from the
Retro-Choir. This is Lord Grimthorpe’s work, and through
it we pass. The Retro-Choir dates from the end of the
Thirteenth Century, and has been greatly restored. In the
centre once stood the shrine of St. Amphibalus (now
removed to the north aisle of the Saint’s Chapel), and there
were several altars: to Our Lady of the Four Tapers; to St.
Michael; to St. Edmund, King and Martyr; to St. Peter; and
to St. Amphibalus.
The Lady-Chapel, greatly restored, dates from the latter
part of the Thirteenth and early part of the Fourteenth
Centuries. Several changes of style may be noted. The side
windows are fine examples of the Decorated, and the
statuettes ornamenting the jambs and mullions still remain.
The eastern window of five lights is a strange combination
of tracery and tabernacle work. Originally the Lady-Chapel

was separated from the retro-choir by a screen. The glass in
the windows is modern, and the stone vaulting is also
modern. Historical associations are numerous.
Beneath the floor lie the hated Edmund Beaufort, Duke
of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt; Henry Percy, Earl
of Northumberland, son of the famous Hotspur; and
Thomas, Lord Clifford: whose bodies were found lying
dead in the streets of St. Albans, after the first battle in
1455, in which they fell fighting for the Red Rose party.
Beyond the eastern bay on the south side was built the
Chapel of the Transfiguration, dedicated in 1430. Of late
years this addition was rebuilt for a vestry. The walls were
made lower than the original ones, so as to show the fine
window above that consists of a traceried arch within a
curvilinear triangle, beneath which is a row of niches.
Beneath these is a very fine row of sedilia and piscinœ. The
carving in the new chapel is very naturalistic, and
represents the poppy, buttercup, primrose, gooseberry, rose,
blackberry, pansy, ivy, maple, and convolvulus and other
local flowers and leaves.

OXFORD
Dedication: The Holy Trinity, St. Mary and St.
Frideswide.
Special features: Ceiling in Choir; Windows;
Shrine of St. Frideswide.
This Cathedral is peculiar in being almost hidden from
sight in a series of college buildings, gardens and
quadrangles. It is the chapel of Christ Church, as well as a
cathedral; and to enter it we have to pass through the
gateway of the famous Tom Tower, and across the great
quadrangle, familiarly known as Tom Quad.
The big bell Tom gives its name to the tower and
quadrangle, is seven feet one inch in diameter, and weighs
17,000 tons. It was brought from Oseney Abbey with the
other bells, the “merry Christ Church bells,” that now hang
in the bell-tower above the hall staircase. Tom was recast
in 1680.
The lower story of Tom Tower was built by Cardinal
Wolsey. The cupola was added by Sir Christopher Wren.
Three sides of the quadrangle were built by Wolsey, and the
north side by Bishop Fell. As we pass through Tom Tower
we note that a statue of Cardinal Wolsey faces St.
Aldgate’s, and a statue of Queen Anne faces the
quadrangle.

Christ Church is the largest college in the University of
Oxford, and stands on the site of the ancient priory of St.
Frideswide.
In 1524 Cardinal Wolsey obtained authority from Henry
VIII. and Clement VIII. to suppress a number of religious
houses in various parts of England, and to appropriate their
revenues to the building and endowing of a College. After
he had made considerable progress in the building of Christ
Church he fell into disgrace with the King, who seized the
property and distributed it among his courtiers. At a later
period Henry VIII. refounded the establishment, and added
to it the Abbey of Oseney, which was then the Cathedral of
the See of Oxford. Christ Church (the present Cathedral)
was at that time called the College of Henry VIII., and was
a Collegiate Church. In 1546, on the suppression of Oseney
Abbey, St. Frideswide became the Cathedral Church of
Oxford. Oseney is depicted in the King window (see page
391).
The foundation was converted into one of secular canons
in the Eighth or Ninth Century; and these were in turn
succeeded by the regular canons, who built their chapter-
house, dormitory, refectory and cloisters. In 1158 they
began the present Cathedral, which was completed in 1180,
having swept away the Saxon church rebuilt by King
Ethelred in 1004, according to some critics, while other
antiquaries think that much of the present Cathedral is St.
Ethelred’s. The church was dedicated to the Holy Trinity,

St. Mary, and St. Frideswide, and was somewhat peculiar
for the Twelfth Century, in being more elegant than was
usual at that time. Cramped for room the south transept was
cut off for the sake of the cloisters; and aisles were given to
the north transept. There was no room for a Lady-Chapel at
the east end; and, consequently, an additional aisle north of
the north aisle of the choir was built. The same
arrangement occurs at Ripon; the Elder Lady Chapel at
Bristol holds a similar position.
“St. Frideswide Church, now Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, is a fine
example of late Norman and transitional work of early character. It was
consecrated in 1180, and was probably building for about twenty years
previously: the confirmation, by Pope Hadrian IV. (Breakspeare, the only
English Pope), of the charters granting the Saxon monastery of St.
Frideswide to the Norman monks was not obtained until 1158, and it is not
probable that they began to rebuild their church until their property was
secured. The Prior at this period was Robert of Cricklade, called Canutus, a
man of considerable eminence, some of whose writings were in existence in
the time of Leland. Under his superintendence the church was entirely
rebuilt from the foundations, and without doubt on a larger scale than before,
as the Saxon church does not appear to have been destroyed until this period.
“The design of the present structure is very remarkable; the lofty arched
recesses, which are carried up over the actual arches and the triforium,
giving the idea of a subsequent work carried over the older work; but an
examination of the construction shows that this is not the case, that it was all
built at one time, and that none of it is earlier than about 1160. In this church
the central tower is not square, the nave and choir being wider than the
transepts, and consequently the east and west arches are round-headed, while
the north and south are pointed: this would not in itself be any proof of
transition, but the whole character of the work is late, though very rich and
good, and the clerestory windows of the nave are pointed without any
necessity for it, which is then a mark of transition.”—(J. H. P.)

St. Frideswide (Bond of Peace), or “the Lady,” as she
was called in Oxford, lived early in the Eighth Century,
when Ethelbald was king of Mercia. Her father, Didan, was
a prince who lived in the city of Oxford about 727, where
Frideswide was born. Of her early piety, her refusal of
marriage, her foundation of this nunnery at Oxford, her
miracles of healing and her “glorious death,” there are
many pretty stories.
St. Frideswide’s Church was burned in 1002, when
Ethelred the Unready ordained the Massacre of the Danes.
Ethelred afterwards made a vow that he would rebuild
St. Frideswide’s Church; and in 1004 he began the splendid
edifice, of unusual magnificence for the period.
Robert of Cricklade, prior from 1141 to 1180, seems to
have restored Ethelred’s church; and in that year the relics
of St. Frideswide were translated to a more conspicuous
place in the church.
Many distinguished noblemen and prelates were present:
“After they were meet, and injoyned fasting and prayers were past, as
also those ceremonies that are used at such times was with all decency
performed, then those bishops that were appointed, accompanied with
Alexio, the pope’s legat for Scotland, went to the place where she was
buried, and opening the sepulchre, took out with great devotion the
remainder of her body that was left after it had rested there 480 yeares, and
with all the sweet odours and spices imaginable to the great rejoycing of the
multitude then present mingled them amongst her bones and laid them up in
a rich gilt coffer made and consecrated for that purpose, and placed it on the
north side of the quire, somewhat distant from the ground, and inclosed it
with a partition from the sight hereafter of the vulgar.”—(A.-à-W.)

In 1289 these relics were again translated and placed in
the position of the old shrine, probably in the north-choir-
aisle, where the marble base recently discovered now
stands (see page 385).
“In the Lancet period (1190-1245) the works went on apace. An upper
stage was added to the tower and on that the spire was built—the first large
stone spire in England. It is a Broach spire, i.e., the cardinal sides of the spire
are built right out to the eaves, so that there is no parapet. On the other hand,
instead of having broaches at the angle it has pinnacles. Moreover, to bring
down the thrusts more vertically, heavy dormer windows are inserted at the
foot of each of the cardinal sides of the spire,—altogether a very logical and
scientific piece of engineering, much more common in the early spires of
Northern France than in England.”—(F. B.)
About the Thirteenth Century the monks built the
Chapter-House now standing; then the Lady-Chapel;
altered the Norman windows to Decorated; and in the
Fifteenth Century made many changes in the new
Perpendicular style.
Wolsey destroyed half of the nave in order to build Tom
Quad. His idea was to erect a magnificent church on a large
scale; but in the meantime his fall occurred. In 1546 St.
Frideswide’s was made, as already noted, the Cathedral
Church of Oxford.
In the Seventeenth Century the tracery of many windows
was altered for the sake of glass by the Dutchman Abraham
Van Ling, for which old windows depicting scenes from St.
Frideswide’s life and ancient arms were sacrificed. In later
times some of Van Ling’s windows suffered the same fate,
for modern work. One of his windows, however, remains

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