ETHNOGRAPHY I: What It Is, Where It Came From & How To Do It

Becoming
a
Social
Scien-st

Sociology
&
Policy
Department

TP2
Developing
Research
Skills
and
Prac-ce

Week
3:
Ethnography
I

What
it
is,
Where
it
Came
From
&
How
to
Do
it

Dr
Igor
Calzada

Lecture
Outline:

0.-‐
Lecture’s
sequence
and
Key
readings

1.-‐
Main
Deﬁni-ons

2.-‐
Introducing Qualitative Research
3.- The Ethnographer
4.- Hints to Become a Ethnographer

•  Reminder
of
the
Quan-ta-ve
Methods

•  Quan-ta-ve
Methods:
Ethnography

Lecture’s
Sequence

Lecture’s
Sequence

•  Reminder
of
the
Quan-ta-ve
Methods:

•  Week
2:
Quan-ta-ve
Data
Gathering
I.

Surveys,
What
The
Are
and
How
to
Do
with
Them.

•  Week
3:
Quan-ta-ve
Data
Gathering
II.

Sta-s-cs
and
Content
Analysis.

Cross
the
bridge!
QUALItaDve

•  Quan-ta-ve
Methods:
Ethnography

•  Week
4:
Ethnography
I.

What
it
is,
Where
It
Came
From
and
How
to
Do
It.

•  Week
5:
Ethnography
II.

Data
Analysis
and
Wri-ng
Ethnography.

•  Week
7:
Ethnography
III.

Theory
and
Reﬂexive
Ethnography.

Key
Readings

•  Burgess,
R.
G.
(1991)
Field
Research:
A
Sourcebook
and
Field
Manual.
London:

Allen
and
Unwin.

•  Denzin,
N.
K.
and
Lincoln,
Y.S.
(1994)
The
Handbook
of
Qualitave
Research.

London:
Sage.

•  Gampietro,
G.
(2008)
Doing
Ethnography,
Sage:
Los
Angeles.
Chapter
1.

•  M.
Hammersley
and
P.
Atkinson
(2005)
Ethnography:
Principles
in
Pracce,

London:
Routledge.
Chapter
1.

•  Bryman,
A.
(2012)
Social
Research
Methods
(fourth
edi-on).
Oxford:
Oxford

University
Press,
Chapters
16-‐18.

•  Crang,
M.
And
Cook,
I.
(2007)
Doing
Ethnographies.
London:
Sage,
Chapters
4-‐7.

•  Harper,
D.
(2012),
Visual
Sociology,
London:
Routledge.
Chap1.

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons

ETHNO
+
GRAPHY

from
Greek:

1)

ἔθνος
ETHNO

folk,
people,
na-on

and
GRAPHOS

2)
Γράφω

I
write”

ETHNOGRAPHY I: What It Is, Where It Came From & How To Do It

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons

Ethnography

ETHNO

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons

•  A
way
of
studying
cultures
(global,
na-onal,
communitarian

and
corporate)
through
observa-on,
par-cipa-on
and

qualita-ve
techniques.

•  The
ethnographic
studies
and
in-‐depth
interviews
in
which

sociology
has
specialized
allow
us
to
get
close
to
the
people

that
cons-tute
society.
These
methods
also
produce
rich

data
and
new
insights
that
give
us
a
leg
up
on
the
other

disciplines
seeking
to
reach
the
general
public.
(Herbert
J.

Gans,
2010)

•  htp://contexts.org/ar-cles/spring-‐2010/making-‐sociology-‐
more-‐socially-‐useful/

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons

•  Ethnography
is
the
art
and
science
of
describing
a
group
or

culture.
The
descrip-on
may
be
of
a
small
tribal
group
in
an

exo-c
land
or
a
classroom
in
middle-‐class
suburbia.

-‐-‐
David
M.
Feterman,
1998.

•  Ethnography
is
a
social
science
research
method.

•  It
realies
heavily
on
up-‐close,
personal
experience
and
possible

par-cipa-on,
not
just
observa-on,
by
researchers
trained
in
the

art
of
ethnography.

•  It
involves
a
commitment
to
get
close
to
the
subject
being

observed
in
its
natural
sewng,
to
be
factual
and
descrip-ve
in

repor-ng
what
is
observed,
and
to
ﬁnd
out
the
points
of
view
of

par-cipants
in
the
domain
observed.

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons
Characteris-cs

•  Contextual:

•  The
research
is
carried
out
in
the
context
in
which
the

subjects
normally
live
and
work.

•  Unobtrusive:

•  The
research
avoids
manipula-ng
the
phenomena
under

inves-ga-on.

•  Longitudinal:

•  The
research
is
rela-vely
long.

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons
Characteris-cs

•  Collabora-ve:

•  The
research
involves
the
par-cipa-on
of
stakeholders
other

than
the
researcher.

•  Interpreta-ve:

•  The
researcher
carries
out
interpreta-ve
analyses
of
the

data.

•  Organic:

•  There
is
interac-on
between
ques-ons/hypotheses
and
data

collec-on/interpreta-on.

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons
Characteris-cs

•  Ethnography
as
a
method:

•  People’s
behaviour
is
studies
in
everyday
contexts,
rather

than
under
experimental
condi-ons
created
by
the

researcher.

•  Data
are
gathered
from
a
range
of
sources,
but
observa-on

and/or
rela-vely
informal
conversa-ons
are
usually
the
main

ones.

•  The
approach
to
data
collec-on
is
‘unstructured
in
the
sens

that
it
does
not
involve
following
through
a
detailed
plan
set

up
at
the
beginning;
nor
are
the
categories
used
for

interpre-ng
what
people
say
and
do
pre-‐given
of
ﬁxed.
This

does
not
mean
that
the
research
is
unsystema-c;
simply
that

ini-ally
the
data
are
collected
in
as
raw
a
form,
and
on
as

wide
a
front,
as
feasible.

1.-‐
Main
deﬁni-ons
Characteris-cs

•  The
focus
is
usually
a
single
sewng
or
group,
of
rela-vely
small

scale.
In
life
history
research
the
focus
may
even
be
a
single

individual.

•  The
analysis
of
the
data
involves
interpresta-on
of
the

meanings
and
func-ons
of
human
ac-ons
and
mainly
takes
the

form
of
verbal
descrip-ons
and
explana-ons,
with

quan-ﬁca-on
and
sta-s-cal
analysis
playing
a
subordinate
role

at
most.

2.-‐
Introducing
Qualita-ve

Research

•  How
do
we
define
what
qualita-ve
research
is?

•  It s
not
quan-ta-ve
research

•  It
involves
non
quan-ta-ve
data
collec-on

•  It
is
thus
something
different
from
quan-ta-ve
research

•  Unease
in
defining
qualita-ve
research
because:

•  It
subsumes
several
different
types
of
research
methods

(more
on
this
later)

•  It
involves
a
more
ambiguous
rela-onship
between

theory
and
research
(more
on
this
in
week
5
and
6)

Quan-ta-ve
Qualita-ve

Numbers
Words

Researcher
Viewpoint
Par-cipant
Viewpoint

Hard ,
reliable
data
Rich
and
thick
data

Sta-c/Snapshot
Process/Change

Structured
Unstructured

Test
Theory
Emergent
Theory

Generalizable
Context
Speciﬁc

Researcher
Distant
Researcher
Close

Macro
Micro

Behaviour
Meaning

Ar-ﬁcial
Sewngs
Natural
Sewng

Contras-ng
Quan-ta-ve
and
Qualita-ve
Research

Qualita-ve
Research:
five

defining
features

1.  Seeing
through
the
eyes
of
people
being

studied
i.e. interpre-vism

2.  Detailed
descrip-on
and
aten-on
to

content

3.  Process
and
change

4.  Unstructured,
flexible
inves-ga-on

5.  Theory
grounded
in
data
(more
next
week)

2.-‐
The
Ethnographer

‘Naturalism
proposes
that
through
marginality,

in
social
posi-on
and
in
perspec-ve,
it
is

possible
to
construct
an
account
of
the
culture

under
inves-ga-on
that
both
understands
it

from
within
and
captures
it
as
external
to,
and

independent
of,
the
research;
in
other
words,

as
a
natural
phenomenon’
(Hammersley
and

Atkinson
2005:
9)

The
ethnographer
as
stranger

What
ethnography
is:
(REMINDER)
Do
not
get
lost!

•  Interpre-vism
and
the
naturalis-c
ethos:
social
science
and
natural

science
are
fundamentally
different
ac-vi-es

•  Quan-ta-ve
research
(scien-fic
posi-vism)
=
measurement
and

experimenta-on;
universal
laws;
cause
and
effect;
behaviouralism

•  Qualita-ve
research
(interpre-vism)
=
human
beings
can
atribute

meanings
and
act
on
these;
they
can
also
reflect
upon
these

meanings

•  We
thus
need
to
know
these
meanings
and
observe
behaviour

•  In
short,
we
need
to
study
the
social
world
in
its
natural
everyday

state,
undisturbed
by
the
researcher.

We
can
learn
the
society,

culture
or
subculture
we
are
studying
so
that
we
can
see
through

the
eyes
of
others.

•  Naturalism
is
underpinned
by
symbolic
interac-onism,

phenomenology
and
hermeneu-cs

What
ethnographers
do:

•  To
achieve
naturalism
ethnographers:

1.  undergo
extended
immersion
in
the
case

2.  u-lise
range
of
inter-‐related
research
methods
for
collec-ng

data

•  Principal
research
methods
include:

•  Adopt
role
of
par-cipant
observer:
to
par-cipate
in
what
is

being
observed;
par-cipant/observer;
ac-ve
or
passive?

•  Observing
and
listening

•  Interviews:
individual,
group,
structured,
unstructured,
life

history,
photo-‐elicita-on,
on-‐line,
recorded,
reconstructed

•  Conversa-ons
and
anecdotes

•  The
aim
is
produce
rich
and
thick
descrip-on
(Geertz
1973);
the

minu-ae
of
everyday
life

Methodological
principles:

•  Naturalism:

This
is
the
view
that
the
aim
of
social
research
is
to
capture
the

character
of
naturally
occurring
human
behavior,
and
that
this
can

only
be
achieved
by
ﬁrst-‐hand
contact
with
it,
not
by
inferences
from

what
people
do
in
ar-ﬁcial
sewngs
like
experiments
of
from
what

they
say
in
interviews
about
what
they
do
elsewhere.

Methodological
principles:

•  Understanding:

From
this
point
of
view,
if
we
are
to
be
able
to
explain
human
ac-ons

eﬀec-vely
we
must
gain
an
understanding
of
the
cultural
perspec-ves

on
which
they
are
based.

That
this
is
necessary
is
obvious
when
we
are
studying
a
society
that
is

alien
to
us,
since
we
shall
ﬁnd
much
of
what
we
see
and
hear
puzzling.

Methodological
principles:

•  Discovery:

Another
feature
of
ethnographic
thinking
is
a
concep-on
of
the

research
process
as
induc-ve
or
discovery-‐based;
rather
than
as
being

limited
to
the
tes-ng
of
explicit
hypotheses.

3.-‐
Hints
to
become
a

Ethnographers

3.-‐
Hints
to
become
a

Ethnographers

Some ethnographic techniques

•  Behavioural Mapping
•  Cognitive Mapping
•  Diary Studies
•  Usability Studies
•  Focus Groups
•  Aﬃnity Diagramming
•  Card Sorting
•  Directed Storytelling
•  Touchstone Tours
•  Love-‐‑ break-‐‑up-‐‑leFer
•  Graﬃti Walls

How
to
proceed

•  Research
Procedure:

•  The
design
of
an
ethnographic
research
is
decep-vely
simple.

•  It
appears
to
require
only
one
‘act
naturally’-‐

•  Then
again,
looking
beyond,
conduc-ng
an
ethnographic
research
is
a

process
of
discovery.
It
is
something
that
cannot
be
programmed.

•  It
is
not
a
mater
of
following
methodological
rules
but
a
prac-cal
ac-vity

requiring
the
exercise
of
one’s
judgement.

How
to
proceed

•  Data
Collec-on:

•  Typical
ethnographic
research
employs
three
kinds
of
data
collec-on:

interviews,
observa-on,
and
documents.
This
in
turn
produces
three
kinds

of
data:
quota-ons,
descrip-ons,
and
excerpts
of
documents,
resul-ng
in

one
product:
narra-ve
descrip-on.

•  Watching
what
happens.

•  Listening
to
what
is
said.

•  Asking
ques-ons
through
informal
and
formal
interviews.

•  Collec-ng
documents
and
ar-facts.

How
to
proceed

•  Data
Collec-on:

•  The
data
collected
include,
in
addi-on
to
the
rich
descrip-ve
accounts,

photographs,
maps,
ﬁgures,
tables,
texts,
audio
and
video
records,
and

transcrip-ons.
The
most
common
types
of
method
used
in
data
collec-on

are
interviews
[both
formal
and
informal],
documents
[also
both
formal

and
informal/oﬃcal],
and
through
observa-on.

How
to
proceed

•  Ethical
Concerns:

•  In
conduc-ng
an
ethnographic
research,
there
are
also
certain
ethical

concerns
that
are
being
raised
every
now
and
then.
Over-‐all,
they
can
be

summarised
as:

•  Informed
consent

•  Privacy

•  Harm

•  exploita-on

How
to
proceed

•  Process
and
Flexibility

•  Understanding
Process

•  social
life
as
process
unfolding
over
-me

•  convey
change
and
ﬂux;
understand
the
ﬂow
of
interdependent
events

•  immersion,
some-mes
for
years
(e.g.
Skeggs
1997)

•  Flexibility
and
semi/unstructured
inves-ga-on

•  absence
of
predetermined
view/theory

•  lack
of
structure
expands
possibili-es
for
discovery

•  general
or
open
research
ques-ons
(at
least
to
begin
with)

•  semi/unstructured
interviewing

•  to
pursue
themes/issues
as
they
arise

•  to
change
tack
if
the
situa-on
demands
it

Checklist
for
an
Ethnographer

•  Always
listen
more
than
you
speak

•  Remember
that
it
is
your
responsibility
to
be
true
for
the
thoughts,
behaviour
and

expressions
of
people
you
are
studying.

•  Conduct
the
research
in
the
natural
context
of
the
topic
you
are
studying
and
try

to
create
a
fun
and
welcoming
atmosphere,
if
appropriate.

•  Start
the
interview
with
a
general
descrip-on
of
the
goal
of
the
study,
but
don’t

provide
a
too
narrow
focus
as
that
might
limit
the
responses
you
will
get.

•  Encourage
people
to
share
their
thoughts
and
go
about
their
business
freely,
while

you
follow
along.

•  Avoid
leading
ques-ons
and
ques-ons
that
can
be
answered
with
only
yes/no

answers.
Ask
follow
up
ques-ons.

•  Prepare
an
outline
of
the
interview
ques-ons
you
would
like
to
ask
beforehand,

but
don’t
be
afraid
to
stray
from
it.

•  Be
a
shuterbug
and
snap
photos
of
interes-ng
things
and
behaviors.

•  Keep
your
ears
and
eyes
open
also
a‚er
the
recorder
stops,
this
is
o‚en
the

moment
when
you
get
valuable
revela-ons.

The
Rise
of
Visual
Ethnography:

Toolkit

•  Visual
ethnography
is
an
eﬀort
to
understand
culture
by
making
it

visible
...
(Harper
2012:
11)

•  To
see
is
to
know
and
understand

•  Visual
sociologists
see
photographs
(s-ll
and
moving)
as
integral
to
social

research

•  Photographs
as:
data,
evidence,
record,
ﬁeld
note,
prompt,
elicita-on,

communica-on,
reportage

When
Conduc-ng
Ethnographic

Research
Remember

DOs:

• Be
unobtrusive
(observer
discreetly)

• Use
your
eyes
–
non-‐verbal
cues
(observe
the
environment
and
how
the

customers
interact
in
that
space).

• Use
your
ears
–
verbal
cues
(listen
to
what
is
said)

• Preserve
objec-vity
–
create
a
persona
for
yourself
(away
from
your

demographics/brand)
to
remove
any
preconceived
no-ons.

• Find
themes
among
behaviours/paterns
(even
in
unexpected
paterns)

• Work
with
other
researchers/ethnographers
on
the
ﬂoor

When
Conduc-ng
Ethnographic

Research
Remember

DON’Ts:

• Be
obvious
(when
talking
pictures/recording
videos)

• Be
too
concerned
with
note-‐taking
(instead
focus
on
data
naturally
occurring)

• Follow
only
one
person
(instead
observe
diﬀerent
customers/situa-ons)

• Be
biased
(focusing
on
past
knowledge
can
alter
results
instead
keep
an
open

mind)

• Make
observa-ons
with
answers
in
mind,
do
not
make
valida-on
a
goal
(use

ethnography
to
gain
deeper
understanding
of
the
bigger
picture)

• Generalize
ac-ons
of
individuals
to
reﬂect
a
larger
majority

Some
Cri-cal
Points
to
Consider

•  Cri-cisms
of
ethnography/qualita-ve
research
(we

will
return
to
these
in
week
5)

•  Too
subjec-ve:
dependent
upon
researcher s

unsystema-c
views
and
close
personal
rela-onships

•  Problems
of
replicability

•  Problems
of
generalisa-on
(popula-ons
and
theory)

•  Lack
of
transparency:
method,
sampling,
analysis
(to

which
we
turn
next
week)

ETHNOGRAPHY I: What It Is, Where It Came From & How To Do It

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