Exploring Incentive- based Solutions for Freshwater Management

Exploring
Incentive-based
Solutions for
Freshwater
Management

Exploring incentive-based solutions for freshwater management 2
One of the largest
impediments to both
investment into the sector
and adoption of water
efficiency measures is the
chronic under-valuation
of water.
(this page) A woman walking her goat in
Bangladesh. Photo: Felix Clay.
(next page) Sarus Crane at Beel Akbarpur
wetlands in Dadri, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Photo: Koshyk; Colorado River, USA.
Photo: Jeremiah LaRocco; River fishing
in Guizhou, China. Photo: Christina Xu.

Foreword
For more than 100 years, The Rockefeller
Foundation’s mission has been to promote
the well-being of humanity throughout the
world. Today, The Rockefeller Foundation
pursues this mission through dual goals:
advancing inclusive economies that expand
opportunities for more broadly shared
prosperity, and building resilience by help-
ing people, communities and institutions
prepare for, withstand, and emerge stronger
from acute shocks and chronic stresses.
There’s no doubt that water scarcity
represents one of the greatest threats to
the well-being of people, and the ecosys-
tems they depend on. Water is central to
nearly every aspect of economic and social
development. As a resource, it’s both vitally
important and susceptible to overuse from
competing demands. From river basins in
California and China, to the cities of São
Paulo and Bangkok, competition for fresh-
water is on the rise and people around
the globe already face water crises each
and every day.
Overuse of water is just one example of
the myriad ways that humans have used,
benefited from, and shaped the natural
environment for the whole of human
history. But what we have not done –
especially in the course of industrialization
and modernization – is find effective ways
to integrate natural ecosystems into our
economic and social systems. Freshwater
ecosystem crises are representative of
the kind of misaligned incentives we seek
to correct.
In 2015, The Rockefeller Foundation
collaborated with several partners to begin
developing incentive-based mechanisms to
address competition for freshwater, and to
bring human water use back in balance with
the water needs of freshwater ecosystems
in order to build long-term resilience. The
early solutions that emerged, and the wider
lessons from the group’s work, are captured
in the report that follows.
We hope that you will find this report useful
and encourage you to explore the findings
and share it widely with colleagues.

Overview of global competition
for freshwater
Food production, energy production,
drinking and sanitation, and even recreation
and spiritual renewal all depend on water.
Water is a vital resource for human life and
livelihoods, and is also critical for terrestrial
ecosystems and the plethora of species
on earth. Historically, the vast majority of
human water use has been applied to the
agriculture sector.1
As demand for water
grows from population growth, industrial-
ization and urbanization, and water supply
becomes more variable due to climate
change, competition for freshwater is
reaching unprecedented levels, especially
in more arid and poorer basins.
Currently, 1.6 billion people live in river
basins with severe water stress and more
than half of the world’s cities and three-
fourths of all irrigated agriculture experi-
ence water scarcity on a recurring basis.2
Assuming no efficiency improvements,
by 2030 the world will face a 40 percent
shortfall between forecasted demand and
available water supply, and two-thirds of
the world’s population will live in water-
stressed basins. While human water use has
been unsustainable for decades, we have
now reached the limits of business as usual.
The traditional response to drought has
been to invest in new supply sources
(e.g., dams or groundwater pumping).
Unfortunately, it is becoming increasingly
difficult to find new supplies in many basins.
Surface flows are increasingly over-allo-
cated and groundwater supplies are being
exhausted at alarming rates. A new assess-
ment from NASA shows that the world’s
major aquifers are being withdrawn at
much faster rates than what can be natu-
rally replenished.3
Groundwater depletion
is occurring particularly rapidly in the key
agricultural regions of the world, includ-
ing in the US Midwest, US Central Valley of
California, Northwestern India, and North
China Plain. Over two billion people rely on
groundwater as their primary water source.
1 Today, agriculture accounts for about 70% of global
water use. Source: 2030 Water Resources Group.
“Charting Our Water Future: Economic frameworks to
inform decision-making.” 2015.
2 “Water Depletion: Seasonal and drought-related water
scarcity poses risks to food security and urban water
supplies” by Kate A Brauman, Brian Richter, Sandra Postel,
Marcus Malsy, and Martina Floerke. In review at
Science Advances, 2015.
3 Richey, A. S., B. F. Thomas, M.-H. Lo, J. T. Reager,
J. S. Famiglietti, K. Voss, S. Swenson, and M. Rodell (2015),
Quantifying renewable groundwater stress with GRACE,
Water Resources Research. doi:10.1002/2015WR017349.
Currently 1.6 billion
people live in water
basins with severe
water stress. In times
of scarcity and increased
competition, freshwater
ecosystems and poor
and vulnerable people
commonly lose out to
more powerful users
Rice terraces in the
Philippines. Photo:
Andrew Smith.

Baseline Water Stress
Assuming no efficiency
improvements, by 2030 the world
will face a 40 percent shortfall
between forecasted demand and
available water supply, and
two-thirds of the world’s population
will live in water-stressed basins.
Map source: Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas, World Resources Institute.
The world’s major aquifers
are being withdrawn at much
faster rates than what can be
naturally replenished.
The graph shows water storage declines in several of the world’s major aquifers in arid and
semi-arid mid-latitudes. Sourced from the NASA GRACE satellite mission.
2002
-350
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
150
150
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
Totalwaterstorageanomaly(mmequivalentwaterheight)
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Water storage declines (mm equivalent water height)
Low (<10%)
Low to medium (10–20%)
Medium to high (20–40%)
High (40–80%)
Extremely high (>80%)
Arid & low water use
No data
Guarani (South America)
Southern Plains (US)
Northwestern India
Middle East
Canning (Australia)
North China Plain
Central Valley (United States)

Despite the urgency of finding solutions to
global water challenges, the sector suffers
from a critical lack of investment and inno-
vation. Compared to other major economic
sectors, such as the electric power sector,
there is a staggeringly low level of invest-
ment in water. One of the largest impedi-
ments to both investment into the sector
and adoption of water efficiency measures
is the chronic under-valuation of water.
As a common pool resource, water is often
not priced to reflect the value it provides to
humanity, the cost of delivering the water
to the user, or the scarcity of the resource.
Shifting the focus of water management
from supply and infrastructure to demand
management, through improved pricing
mechanisms, more equitable and flexible
allocations, and more efficient water
markets will improve resource use efficiency
in the face of resource limitations. Incentive-
based approaches, including, but not limited
to regulatory approaches, can help make
systems efficient and better harness the
investment capacity and innovation of the
private sector.
In times of scarcity and increased
competition, freshwater ecosystems and
poor and vulnerable people commonly
lose out to more powerful users. There is
strong urgency and opportunity to develop
a new water economy and a new paradigm
of water resilience—one that anticipates
and creates solutions for water stress and
scarcity, rather than acting in a short-term,
reflexive manner.
A water market is a system
in which privately held
rights to water are legally
allowed to be sold, bought,
or leased between users.
In well-functioning water
markets, water prices signal
scarcity and abundance
as conditions change,
incentivizing efficiency
of water use and the
productive allocation of
water. Well-functioning
water markets provide
protections for both
environmental flows and for
vulnerable populations so
that they do not get priced
out of access to water.
(this page) Coal power-plant and oilseed
rape, Mehrum, Germany. Photo: Martin;
The Folsom Lake marina shows the effects
of the four-year California drought. Photo:
Robert Couse-Baker.
(next page) IUCN and TNC prototyping
process in Tanzania and Chile. Photos:
California Environmental Associates.

Across its work, The Rockefeller Foundation
supports the development and scale-up of
innovative responses to the world’s most
pressing problems. Often, surfacing these
innovations requires new ways of work-
ing – both as a Foundation and with our
grantees. In spring 2015, The Rockefeller
Foundation launched a six-month proto-
typing process with five grantees designed
to innovate and test incentive-based solu-
tions that could address the challenge of
freshwater competition and increase water
resilience. This represented a departure from
typical grant-making for the Foundation,
and the opportunity to build a cohort of
organizations with a shared ambition to
achieve change. We sought grantees with
deep expertise in the freshwater space, a
diverse geographic footprint, and a com-
mitment to identifying new solutions to
water management. The five grantees
were: Environmental Defense Fund (EDF),
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), The Freshwater Trust (TFT),
The Nature Conservancy (TNC), and
World Resources Institute (WRI).
Together with these leading organizations,
we undertook an intensive design and
testing process drawing on prototyping
and human-centered design methods.
Each organization took an initial kernel of
an idea and, over the course of the process,
iterated and refined it based on research,
analysis, and feedback from stakehold-
ers and potential users. Convenings of the
cohort served to enable exchange of ideas
and peer review. Throughout the process,
the five organizations shared insightful
and productive feedback with each other,
strengthening each prototype and deep-
ening our shared understanding of the
problem. At the end of the process, each
organization emerged with a more fully
developed paper prototype that could
eventually be implemented in river basins
to address the challenge of freshwater
competition. We are grateful to each of
the organizations for their time, energy,
and deep commitment to the process.
Introduction to
The Rockefeller Foundation’s
prototyping process
Prototyping is a term
adopted from the field
of human centered design.
It describes the rapid
iteration and testing process
the grantees undertook
as a part of The Rockefeller
Foundation’s exploration
of incentive based solutions
to freshwater.

8Exploring incentive-based solutions for freshwater management
Over the last 25 years, the
Environmental Defense Fund (EDF)
has partnered with the business sector
to advance environmentally-preferable
business practices and to innovate
around supply chain sustainability.
EDF’s prototype focused on develop-
ing 1) supply chain sourcing standards
that could catalyze sustainable water
use at the farm level as well as
2) mechanisms for helping buyers to
advocate for water policy change at
the basin or regional level.
EDF selected almonds and processing
tomatoes in California’s Central
Valley and lettuce in the Yuma Valley
of Arizona for their test cases. They
conducted thorough analyses of these
supply chains, studied the economics
of different irrigation practices, and
interviewed or surveyed a large
number of stakeholders surrounding
each crop. Their prototype was
developed in the following context:
• Agriculture uses roughly 80 percent
of all water supplies in the western
United States (ten to forty percent
more than is necessary).
• Both California and Arizona produce
high value crops and are facing
severe water shortages. In California,
a four-year drought has led to
massive over draft of groundwater
resources. In the Colorado River
Basin (which supplies water to
Arizona), a complex set of allocation
priorities and growing demand
for water have led to a chronically
over-allocated basin; the pressure
is on agriculture to free up water for
other uses.
• Corporate buyers of agricultural
products are beginning to recognize
the increasing risks that their supply
chains will face given the increased
frequency of drought and the
movement of water out of agricul-
ture (to higher value municipal and
industrial uses). Buyers have not yet
internalized these risks into their
sourcing standards.
Corporate actors across agricultural
supply chains are interested in engaging
in a meaningful way around water.
Environmental Defense Fund
PROTOTYPE: SUPPLY CHAIN SOURCING

Findings and take-aways
Broadly, EDF found that corporate
actors across agricultural supply
chains are interested in engaging
in a meaningful way around water.
Specifically, many agricultural buyers
reported a willingness to engage in
regulation. EDF found that the most
influential supply chain actor varied
by commodity. For lettuce, the retail
actors seemed to provide the stron-
gest demand signal. For tomatoes,
it is the processors and for almonds,
investors who invest directly into
almond farms are more likely to be
the best influencers. Many buyers see
the need for better engagement with
their supply chains around water,
but do not yet have the tools to do
so effectively.
EDF has proposed a tiered set of
sourcing benchmarks that could guide
supply chain engagement around
water. The benchmarks cover field
level consumptive use, the sustainabil-
ity level of the water supply sources
used at the field level, region-level
water management, and region-level
qualitative measures of ecological
and vulnerable community access
to water. For each benchmark, a
concrete metric is needed to help
buyers compare producers and basins
by the level of sustainability in their
water management.
Moving forward, EDF will continue
conversations with leading supply
chain actors in their target com-
modities, as well as existing supply
chain sustainability efforts (e.g., Field
to Market and The Sustainability
Consortium), to try to more concretely
define the benchmarks, metrics,
and associated data needs.
“With water users and supply chain
interests largely aligned, change is
possible. With policy engagement,
change can be sustained. We now
know that supply chain actors are
open to mitigating supply chain
water-based risks through revised
incentives, sourcing practices, and
policy engagement.”
– Rebecca Shaw, Environmental Defense Fund
(previous) Micro irrigation in an almond
orchard in Livingston, CA. Photo: USDA.
(this page) Retail consumer buying produce.
Photo: Anthony Albright; Almonds. Photo:
Harsha K R; Lettuce farm workers.
Photo: Peter Hayden.

The Global Water Programme of
IUCN is focused on the conservation
of water-related biodiversity through
sustainable uses and equitable sharing
of water resources. IUCN’s SUSTAIN
initiative is focused on demonstrating
how climate-resilient solutions for
land, water, and ecosystem manage-
ment can be coupled with strategies
for achieving sustainable and inclusive
economic growth in growth corridors
in Africa.
The objective of IUCN’s prototype
was to develop a plan for a “natural
infrastructure facility” (NIF) in the
Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor
of Tanzania (SAGCOT) which could
serve as a platform for deal making.
The NIF would allow private sector
actors to participate in transactions
that promote effective and equitable
utilization of freshwater resources
and/or that protect the natural
infrastructure of basins and their
ecosystems (e.g., forests, wetlands,
soils, floodplains, aquifers). By protect-
ing these resources, the investments
would help to sustain water supplies
needed for economic growth, food
security, resilience to climate change
and biodiversity conservation.
IUCN’s prototype was developed in
the following context:
• SAGCOT is a public-private
partnership designed to improve
agricultural productivity, food
security and livelihoods in Tanzania.
SAGCOT intends to catalyze over
USD $3 billion in private investment
and public sector grants and loans,
over a twenty year period. The goal
is to triple the area’s agricultural
output, with a focus on commercial-
izing smallholder production.
• The SAGCOT region encompasses
critical ecosystems across southern
Tanzania. The health of these eco-
systems is important for biodiversity
value, Tanzania’s tourism industry,
as well as the ecosystem services of
water storage and regulation, which
are critical for both smallholder and
commercial-scale agriculture, as
well as hydro-electricity production.
• Although green economic growth
is one of the principles of SAGCOT,
there is a real risk that the scale and
speed of investment into the region
will lead to increasing competition
for freshwater between sectors and
conflict over water use rights, with
the environment and rural commu-
nities most likely to lose out.
International Union for Conservation and Nature (IUCN)
PROTOTYPE: NATURAL INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITY
“The measure of our success will be that in ten
years time, SAGCOT will have succeeded… to lift
people out of poverty while ensuring that these
rivers still flow to the sea.”
– James Dalton, IUCN

IUCN’s in-going hypothesis was
that businesses and investors with
economic interests in the SAGCOT
region would benefit from investments
in natural infrastructure of the region
and that the NIF could provide an
attractive way for them to make
such investments.
Through focus groups, interviews,
research, and analysis, IUCN identified
a range of types of investors and
investment scenarios that could
generate the desired ecological and
equity outcomes and that could make
for attractive financial investments.
General reception to the NIF concept
was very positive among the range of
stakeholders in the SAGCOT region,
including agribusiness operators,
farmers’ organizations, companies
whose supply chains source from the
SAGCOT, impact investors and the
Ministry of Water.
In the near term, IUCN will continue
to work with partners in SAGCOT to
support their ambitions for growth
that is sustainable and inclusive. They
will focus on developing and brokering
a demonstration investment that can
prove the NIF concept. IUCN will also
start to explore what the NIF concept
could look like at a continent-wide
scale. For example, the NIF could work
in partnership with or be built into
Grow Africa, an initiative working to
increase private sector investment in
agriculture across Africa.
(previous) Preparing a carrot shipment in
Tanzania. Photo: David Brossard. (this page)
Safari in Tanzania; IUCN prototyping process
in Tanzania. Photos: California Environmental
Associates.
TANZANIA
SAGCOT Corridor
The SAGCOT region

Founded in 1983, The Freshwater
Trust (The Trust) seeks to accelerate
the pace and scale of freshwater
restoration through the use of science,
technology, and incentive-based
solutions. In 2013, The Trust received
the U.S. Water Prize for its innovative
efforts and impressive outcomes
restoring rivers in the Pacific Northwest.
In 2014, California enacted The
Sustainable Groundwater Management
Act (SGMA). This act established
a framework for the sustainable
management of groundwater
supplies, for the first time in the
state’s history. Under this legislation,
local and regional authorities will
form Groundwater Sustainability
Agencies (GSAs) that oversee the
implementation of local Groundwater
Sustainability Plans. Stakeholders have
until 2017 to establish these agencies,
until 2022 to begin implementation of
the sustainability plans, and until 2040
to achieve groundwater sustainability.
In the wake of SGMA’s passage, The
Trust recognized that quickly scalable
and replicable data and decision-
making tools would play a valuable
role in helping stakeholders under-
stand trade-offs and in creating more
effective sustainability plans.
The Trust set out to develop a tool that
would help stakeholders understand
the implications of different regulatory
approaches to groundwater
management and allow basin manag-
ers the opportunity to optimize plans
for different environmental, economic,
and social outcomes. The Trust chose
California’s Salinas Valley to begin
prototyping its tool.
• Nicknamed “the Salad Bowl for
the World,” the Salinas Valley is
a major producer of high-value
crops, including lettuce, broccoli
and strawberries. More than 60% of
the Valley area is under agricultural
cultivation.4
• The region depends almost entirely
on groundwater withdrawals and has
been running a groundwater deficit
for many years, which has caused
significant seawater intrusion.5
• Nitrate contamination of
groundwater from agricultural
fertilizers and unreliable instream
flows for endangered salmonids
are key concerns for the region.
4 Multi-Resolution Land Characteristic
Consortium, National Land Cover Database-
2011 (Mar. 2015)
5 Saltwater intrusion is the phenomenon
of saltwater from the ocean moving into
freshwater aquifers, thus contaminating
groundwater. Groundwater extraction, which
lowers the freshwater table and lowers the
pressure exerted by the groundwater column,
allowing room for saltwater to move inland,
is the primary cause of saltwater intrusion.
The Freshwater Trust
PROTOTYPE: BASINSCOUT DECISION SUPPORT TOOL
“Data, innovation, and technology have a critical
role to play in addressing the water issues our
world faces today. We want to be able to shine
a bright spotlight on key basin-level information
so that managers can make impactful, well-
informed decisions about how to sustainably
manage water resources.”
– Joe Whitworth, The Freshwater Trust

For the prototype, The Trust built
a decision support tool named
“BasinScout” which allows a user to
define a total basin-wide pumping
volume and then prioritize key indica-
tors, reflecting social, environmental,
and economic interests. The model
returns an optimal water allocation
solution based on cropping configu-
rations, toward which users can plan
and shape effective management
mechanisms.
Through focus groups and interviews,
The Trust received valuable feedback
from a variety of stakeholders in the
Salinas Valley. Community representa-
tives appreciate that the model takes
into account social indicators like
employment, profitability, and nitrate
concentrations. A GSA has not yet
been identified for the Salinas Valley.
This was one limitation identified for
testing the receptivity of BasinScout
as a key tool for the development of a
Groundwater Sustainability Plan, as it
will be ultimately be the responsibility
of GSAs to develop sustainability plans.
The Trust will continue to build
relationships with key actors in the
Salinas Valley and refine BasinScout
to best serve their needs. Additionally,
The Trust is exploring ways in which
this initial effort can be replicated with
increased efficiency and decreased
cost so that it could provide decision
support for all California basins
working through the SGMA process.
(previous) An aerial shot of lettuce production in California’s Salinas
Valley. Photo: Sharpshots Aerial Photography. (this page) Strawberries
in Watsonville, CA. Photo: USDA; Results of a water allocation scenario
modeled using BasinScout that weights profit and jobs along with a user
fee. BasinScout is a scenario-building tool to model impacts of policy
changes and to limit unintended consequences of management actions.
Image: The Freshwater Trust.

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is
a global conservation organization
whose work on freshwater is focused
on protecting watersheds that supply
drinking water to major urban centers,
addressing water scarcity through
water markets, promoting sustainable
hydropower development, and flood-
plain restoration. TNC’s prototype built
on its previous work in water markets
and continued to test TNC’s Water
Sharing Investment Partnership (WSIP)
model. A WSIP uses impact investment
capital to acquire a portfolio of water
rights in a given basin either by directly
purchasing the rights in a water market
or obtaining them through cooperative
agreements with farmers. Farmers can
implement water-saving measures
and then transfer the ‘surplus’ portion
of their water rights to the WSIP. A
portion of the total water acquired by
the WSIP is then leased to high value
water users, generating a financial
return for investors, while the remain-
der is retained to supplement environ-
mental flows and provide water to
underserved communities.
TNC has already successfully funded
and launched its initial WSIP in
Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin.
The innovation of the WSIP is the
use of private impact investment,
which, by providing more upfront
capital and a steady revenue stream
to fund on-going trust operations,
can enable greater impact than could
be accomplished through traditional
philanthropy alone.
TNC’s prototype examined the
feasibility of implementing water
sharing investment partnerships in
two new locations:
• The Colorado River in Texas (USA),
where municipal, agricultural, and
other water use needs are testing
the limits of natural supply during
dry times, leading to water conflicts,
financial stress for certain farming
communities, and, in some stream
reaches, no water to support aquatic
ecosystems.
• The Maipo River (Chile), where the
rapidly growing city of Santiago,
expansion of water-intensive indus-
trial uses, and irrigated agriculture
are placing stress on water sources.
Reliable water supply, wetlands, and
aquatic ecosystems are threatened.
In both locations, TNC investigated the
necessary enabling conditions (legal
frameworks, market liquidity, environ-
mental and social conditions, and data
availability), and tested the WSIP model
with local stakeholders and investors
to assess the viability of WSIPs in
different contexts. Different funding
mechanisms were also explored, rang-
ing from private impact investment to
“pay-for-performance” arrangements
(e.g., social impact bonds, develop-
ment impact bonds) between private
investors and governments.
The Nature Conservancy
PROTOTYPE: WATER SHARING INVESTMENT PARTNERSHIP
“I’ve always wondered why environmental NGOs
have not taken advantage of water markets to
buy water for environmental flows…the idea of
mixing investors in to attract more capital makes
a lot of sense.”
– Guillermo Donoso, Professor of Natural Resource Economics,
Universidad Católica de Chile

TNC found that the WSIP model is
potentially viable in both locations
where it was tested. While the details
of structure and operation will vary,
the opportunity exists to attract
impact investment, deliver financial
returns, and generate social and
ecosystem benefits through enhanced
environmental flows.
On a more granular level, TNC found
that there must be multiple water
users that place different value on
water in a given basin, so that an
incentive for trade between users
is created. An existing water market
framework with adequate regulatory
support is also necessary to enable
trade. TNC will continue to develop
WSIPs in both basins, following in
the steps of the Murray-Darling Basin
example. If successful, the WSIPs
will demonstrate a novel model of
attracting new sources of capital to
help address freshwater competition
and deliver environmental flows. For
more information on TNC’s Water
Sharing Investment Partnership work
click here.
(previous) The Maipo River, Chile. Photo: California Environmental Associates.
(this page, top) Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Photo: Tim J. Keegan;
TNC work sessions in Chile. Photos: California Environmental Associates.

WRI is a global research organization
focused on climate, clean energy,
food, forests, water, and sustainable
cities. Its freshwater work provides
unique, insightful, and publically
accessible maps and data on global
water, through its Aqueduct program,
and directly advises a range of
governments, corporations, and civil
society organizations. WRI’s focus
throughout the prototyping process
was to identify the key challenges in
water management in China’s Ningxia
Province — including lack of good
data, unclear water allocation rights,
weak monitoring and enforcement,
and inadequate funding for irrigation
efficiency improvements and farmer
training.
China is experiencing acute and
increasing water stress that limits the
country’s ability to achieve food and
energy security, two of the country’s
main goals. Ningxia is the smallest
province in China and shares the
Yellow River as its main water resource
with nine other provinces, which are
much larger in size and population. In
addition, Ningxia is targeted as a major
province to absorb industrial growth
in the energy sector, which is very
water intensive. As a result, Ningxia
had already started to experiment with
water transfer mechanisms between
the agriculture and industrial sectors
prior to Ningxia being selected by the
National Government to participate
as one of seven pilot provinces to
test potential market-based solutions
to China’s water challenges. WRI’s
prototype centered on helping China’s
Ningxia Province develop a water
market allocation and trading system
that would transfer water savings from
improved irrigation practices to water-
thirsty industries and municipalities.
World Resources Institute
PROTOTYPE: WATER MARKETS
“Water is China’s biggest environmental problem.
I am excited to see the potential for solid water
rights with transparent water savings in the
future – clear water rights would go a long way
towards encouraging more efficient water use.”
– Jennifer Turner, Director of the China Environment
Forum at the Woodrow Wilson Center

One of the biggest obstacles for
developing water allocation and
trading systems in China is the
challenge of allocating water rights in
the context of a state-run allocation
system. The solution that WRI has
devised, in partnership with the
Ningxia and Chinese governments
and international experts, clearly
defines the water entitlements of small
farmers and allows them to get paid
for water savings (both annually and
at the point of transfer), even without
direct ownership of the water right.
This model “frees up” inefficiently used
irrigation water in Ningxia and makes
the savings available to the growing
industries and cities. The model also
takes pressure off of environmental
flows and vulnerable ecosystems by
providing industries and cities with
an alternative mechanism to acquire
needed water.
WRI will continue to work with the
Ningxia government to establish
an allocation system in the coming
months, and to implement the frame-
work for a water trading scheme. If
taken to scale in China, the model has
the potential to benefit hundreds of
millions of small farmers who regularly
experience water stress by providing
them with incentives and opportuni-
ties to improve on-farm efficiencies
which they could not otherwise afford,
thereby improving rural livelihoods.
The model also has the potential to
help China support future urban and
industrial growth, while ensuring
needed food production, and help to
limit future conflict over freshwater.
(previous) Rural farmer in He Qing Yunnan, China.
Photo: Hong Meen Chee/WorldFish.
(this page) Canal system, water-saving irrigation, and
cellar to store rainwater in Ningxia, China. Photos: WRI.

A variety of incentive-based approaches
have the potential to change water manage-
ment for the benefit of ecosystems and poor
or vulnerable populations, including:
• regulatory reforms
(e.g., water markets, water pricing reform),
• other market mechanisms
(e.g.,payment for ecosystem services,
water banks, water benefit credits),
• corporate supply chain engagement
(e.g., benchmarking, sourcing
requirements), and
• finance-related incentives
(e.g., standards for major infrastructure
projects, impact investments, investor-led
reporting requirements).
Each of The Rockefeller Foundation’s proto-
typing partners sought to innovate around
one of these incentive-based approaches.
The lessons learned through prototyping
suggest that the most direct way to achieve
positive and comprehensive outcomes at
a basin scale is to implement regulatory
reform (water markets are one option,
but less extensive reforms such as changes
to pricing structures can also be effective).
Supply chain engagement and finance-
related incentives can drive water
management changes for individual actors
and entire supply chains – a scale of impact
that can be very meaningful. If widely
adopted, supply chain and finance-related
approaches can become standard practice
across an entire industry and catalyze
adoption of incentive-based regulations.
Through the prototyping process, it became
clear that there is a great deal of existing
activity as well as a tremendous opportunity
for expanded engagement in water along
corporate supply chains, particularly in the
agricultural sector. There is even evidence
of appetite for supply chain actors to engage
more in regulatory processes. However,
it is also clear that companies need
additional support to develop the right tools
and frameworks necessary for engagement;
this is particularly true for those companies
looking to support sustainable water
management at a basin level.
Summary of findings from
the prototyping process
Children in Sindh, Pakistan, play at a water pump
in a village. Photo: DFID/Russell Watkins;
Migrant workers process green peppers on Uesugi
Farms in Gilroy, CA. Photo: USDA/Bob Nichols.

Finance-related approaches have similar
impact potential, although they seem to be
more nascent than supply chain approaches.
Managing the risk of disruptions to water
supply is important for both corporations
and investors, and tools are emerging to
assess water-related risks. However, despite
the fact that the World Economic Forum
recently cited water as the number one
environmental risk to global society, it still
does not seem to be one of the key risks
investors are managing around.
If well designed, water markets are perhaps
the most comprehensive form of incen-
tive-based water management, because
they are regulatory driven and can deliver
strong outcomes at a basin scale. Currently,
water markets only exist in a handful of
geographies and their uptake is limited
by the pre-requisite of strong gover-
nance. Historically, water markets were not
designed to deliver environmental bene-
fits or to be inclusive of poor or vulnerable
populations. The work of the prototyping
partners helped demonstrate that these
elements can be incorporated into water
market designs or added through ancillary
mechanisms such as TNC’s Water Sharing
Investment Partnerships. Furthermore, as
WRI’s prototype demonstrated, there are
innovative ways to bring the benefits of
water markets to a range of governance
contexts, even those that do not lend them-
selves to traditional market-based trad-
ing, such as China’s. In Ningxia Province,
the water trading system in development
will allow small-scale farmers to sell their
water savings rather than their water rights,
because water rights are owned by the state.
Across all of these approaches, data is
often a limiting factor. Good analyses and
decision support tools can help stakeholders
understand the ramifications of change in
water policy, or help corporate and financial
actors make good management decisions.
Continued innovation in these areas is
critically important.
The prototyping process uncovered a
number of exciting ways in which
various incentive-based water management
approaches can be developed to support
resilient ecosystems and inclusive econo-
mies. The process also demonstrated that
there is burgeoning interest and momentum
behind many of the different approaches
and helped to identify the key needs for
their further expansion. The Rockefeller
Foundation believes that the opportunity is
ripe for increased adoption across a range of
incentive-based approaches and applauds all
of its prototyping partners for their excellent
contribution to innovation in this field.
If well designed, water markets are
perhaps the most comprehensive
form of incentive-based water
management, because they are
regulatory driven and can deliver
strong outcomes at a basin scale.
Longsheng rice terraces, China. Photo: Lihi Koren;
Empty drinking water bottles are transported by bicycle
in Tanzania. Photo: Unitarian Universalist Service
Committee (UUSC).

The Rockefeller Foundation
believes that the opportunity
is ripe for increased adoption
across a range of incentive-
based approaches and
applauds all of its prototyping
partners for their excellent
contribution to innovation
in this field.
(front cover) An aerial shot of the Salinas
Valley in California. Photo: Sharpshots Aerial
Photography. (back cover) Amazon River, Brazil.
Photo: Neil Palmer/CIAT for Center
for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).

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