FACILITATING AND LEARNING - Module 1 updated 2.pdf

MODULE 1
Understanding Learning
Facilitating
Learner-Centered
Teaching

MODULE 1 – UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Prof Ed 5 - Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
The primary goal of
education is not only to
guide learners in the
acquisition of
knowledge, but also to
expose them to problem
solving situations so that
they will thrive in both
their academic and
personal lives.
To achieve these, teachers
should look for a number of multidisciplinary-based learning opportunities that will provide
them realistic experiences in this contemporary world. By developing the learners’ higher order
thinking skills, they will be able to translate themselves to a programmed consciousness of their
own abilities to understand and process relevant information (Aquino, 2015).
Facilitating Learner-Centred Teaching is a course package designed for teacher-education
students to acquaint them with various educational theories that are focused on child-
centeredness and research on learning. This course package also introduces the emerging
paradigms for effective teaching-learning delivery modes and provides the pedagogical
implications of the learning theories which are considered crucial in the teaching profession.
As future teachers, you will be trained how to become effective facilitators of learning through
empowering your students to manage their own ability to think and learn. You will also be
taught how to heighten your learners’ level of motivation for them to develop genuine love for
learning. Furthermore, your training in this course requires you to become adept in choosing
and applying appropriate teaching approaches fitted to your learners’ diversified characteristics
and multiple intelligences.

Learning Objectives Learning Outcomes
a. Relate learner-centered principles to actual life
experiences.
b. Demonstrate understanding of student-centered
learning theories by creating an infographic.
Using a three- way Venn diagram,
Compare and contrast three theories of
learning: using a three-way Venn
Diagram.
LESSON 1 – Types of Learning
INTRODUCTION
What is Learning?
The process of education is to ensure
that students go through different
developmental stages such as enhanced
physical, emotional, social and
cognitive skills, knowledge, and other
personal behsaviors.
These stages of development are
considered as the upshot of learning.
Thus, it is the goal of education to
effect learning among students.
The term ‘learning’ including the other concepts related to it, has something to do with your
experience as future teachers.

Learning—a major function of the brain—is understood in various ways. Here are several ways
that learning can be described or defined. Before we dive into understanding the relevant science
behind the learning process, let us ground ourselves in a definition of learning that is drawn
from research.
1. Learning is an active process - process of engaging and manipulating objects,
experiences, and conversations in order to build mental models of the world (Dewey,
1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build knowledge as they explore the
world around them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse and engage with
others, and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings.
2. Learning is a process that builds on prior knowledge - and involves enriching,
building on, and changing existing understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is a
scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning” (Alexander, 1996, p. 89).
3. Learning occurs in a complex social environment - learning should not be limited to
being examined or perceived as something that happens on an individual level. Instead,
it is necessary to think of learning as a social activity involving people, the things they
use, the words they speak, the cultural context they’re in, and the actions they take
(Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that knowledge is built by members in the
activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
4. Learning is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity
to engage with specific ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis
(Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).
5. Learning requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement - to be sustained
when learning complex ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence are
necessary.
SOURCE:
http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/10-definitions-learning/ https://teaching.berkeley.edu/resources/learn/what-learning
TYPES OF LEARNING
The following are the types of learning that are considered as basic ingredients for students’
success in school. These types of learning are the outcomes of the students’ dynamic
involvement and engagement in various classroom activities
a. MOTOR LEARNING - Learners explore their worlds through
movement and make fundamental links between action and reality
through movement. They acquire motor skills such as building with
blocks, learning to write or draw, effectively moving through space,
or developing skills for sports or leisure activities.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/motor-learning

b. VERBAL LEARNING – This is the process of learning that is
typically associated with the memorization and retention of lists of
words, in order to describe basic elements of associative learning.
Words, pictures, symbols, signs, figures, and sounds are the common
tools used in activities.
http://web.mnstate.edu/malonech/Psy342/Terry%20Notes/Verbal%20Learning%20T6.htm
d. DISCRIMINATION LEARNING – The process of learning that refers
to the formation of associations between different stimuli and
corresponding outcomes or behaviors. For example, Elizabeth used
whistles with different pitches because she wanted to separate behaviors.
She knew her cats would have no idea what she wanted them to do if she
used one whistle to encourage every behavior. So, she used two tones:
one tone that would tell the cats that it was time to eat and a second tone
that would encourage the cats to go out the cat door.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/discrimination-learning-definition-examples.htmlr.
e. LEARNING OF PRINCIPLES - Learning principles are
laws in learning in which people learn most effectively. These
principles show the relationship between two or more concepts.
The more these principles are reflected in the learning process,
the more effective the teaching process is likely to be. Examples
of these are formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and the
like. https://www.iedunote.com/principles-of-learning
c. CONCEPT LEARNING – This type of learning focuses on ‘big ideas’
rather than paying attention to subject-specific content. A conceptual
learner learns to evaluate different aspects and make opinions by linking
different topics. It increases thinking capability and helps in transforming
information and ideas. It creates more opportunities for learning than just
learning from textbooks and notes. For example, when we do something
practical, we retain that information for a longer period without
confusion.
https://www.educationtimes.com/article/editors-pick/70464811/Portal-Exclusive-Why-teachers-
must-focus-on-concept-based-education-rather-than-rote-learning

LESSON 2 - Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
LEARNING POINT: Defining Learner-Centered
Learner-centered focuses on the individual learners – their heredity, experiences, perspectives,
backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning.
What are the main ideas behind the Learner-Centered principles?
a. They pertain to the learner and the process of learning.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the
learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff, and guidance
counsellors.
Below are the learner-centered psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be.
f. PROBLEM SOLVING - an ongoing activity in which students
take what they know to discover what they do not know. It involves
overcoming obstacles by generating hypotheses, testing those
predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions. It provides
students with opportunities to use their newly acquired knowledge
in meaningful, real-life activities, and assists them in working at
higher levels of thinking.
https://www.teachervision.com/problem-solving/problem-solving
g. ATTITUDE LEARNING - Student attitudes on learning determine
their ability and willingness to learn. If negative attitudes are not
altered, a student is unlikely to continue his education beyond what
is required. Changing students' negative attitudes towards learning
is a process that involves determining the factors driving the attitude
and using this information to bring about change.
https://education.gov.gy/web/index.php/teachers/tips-for-teaching/item/2192-
about-student-attitudes-on-learning

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
(Lucas, Maria Rita D. & Corpuz, Brenda B., 2014)
1. Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning
strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use
to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility
for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally
relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but
over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a
variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills.
How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students
with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains
isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new
situations.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to
help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and
feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models.
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem
occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate
alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of
thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior
knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits
of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure
can enhance or interfere the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students'
beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on
motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as an individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such
as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety
can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular
task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related
thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,

ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and
contribute to low performance.
Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners'
intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be
competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that
learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.
Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and
meet needs for choice and control.
8. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by
strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high
standards of comprehension and understanding.
9. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies across
intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different instructional
domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness--such as reading
readiness, for example--may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable
in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual
learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture,
and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality
of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can
influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental

differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities,
can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
10. Social influences on learning
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that
respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and
collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development,
as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can
increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive
climate for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative
beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role
expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to
establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help
learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning
community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through
learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to
learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in
helping learners reach their learning goals.
13. Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning.
Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for
designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that
their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued,

respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and
achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral
parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and
weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of
instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. On-going assessment of the learner's
understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and
teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress
and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both
within and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of
learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students self -
appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.
* The development of each principle involved thorough discussions of the research supporting
that principle. The multidisciplinary research expertise of the Task Force and Work Group
members facilitated an examination of each principle from a number of different research
perspectives.
LESSON 3 – Theories of Learning
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF LEARNING THEORIES
Any changes that ensue within an individual is complex to understand and imagine. Thus, there
is a need to learn and understand all the learning theories for us to better conceptualize what
really learning is and how it occurs among learners.
Learning theories are composed of many principles that provide explanations how individuals
acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. These theories are results of scientific studies that were
seriously intellectualized.
As theories of learning evolved over time, there were shifts of definitions from changes that
occur in the mind or individual’s behaviour to changes in individual’s or group’s identity.
Today, there is a strong advocacy for learner-centeredness in pedagogy and curriculum design.
As this happens, curriculum planning and implementation have diverted its major focus to
learners’ holistic development.

In your previous subjects, you have probably encountered the terms behaviorism, cognitivism,
and constructivism. You will probably hear these terms a lot as you will go through this
module. You may therefore want to gain a better understanding of these three main schools of
theories of learning.
THE THEORY OF BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism is a learning theory that studies observable and measurable behavioral changes,
which result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. This theory is most
commonly utilized in classrooms today as a tool for behavior management. However, educators
still utilize rote practice and repetition: two practices that are linked to the theory (Padgett,2020)
KEY PLAYERS:
#Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904 – 1990)
B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential of American
psychologists. As a behaviorist, he developed the theory of
operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined
by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments,
which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur
again. Skinner believed that the only scientific approach to
psychology was one that studied behaviors, not internal
(subjective) mental processes.
(https://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/famous_psychologist_and_psychologists/psychologist_famous_b_f_skinner.htm)
According to Skinner, rewards increase the likelihood that
behaviors will be repeated, while punishments decrease the
likelihood of repetition. He also theorized that rewards and punishments could be either positive
or negative in nature. This can confuse a lot of people. What he meant was that when we give
or add something to the environment, the interaction is positive; when we take something away,
the interaction is negative.
KEY TERMS: https://www.verywellmind.com/b-f-skinner-biography-1904-1990-2795543
Operant Conditioning - In Skinner's operant conditioning process, an operant referred to any
behavior that acts on the environment and leads to consequences. He contrasted operant
behaviors (the actions under our control) with respondent behaviors, which he described as
anything that occurs reflexively or automatically such as jerking your finger back when you
accidentally touch a hot pan.

Skinner’s Box - The "Skinner box" device was a chamber that contained a bar or key that an
animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some other form of reinforcement.
Punishment - According to Skinner, punishment is the application of an adverse outcome that
decreases or weakens the behavior it follows. A punishment involves presenting a negative
reinforcer (prison, spanking, scolding)—which some refer to as positive punishment—or
removing a positive reinforcer (taking away a favorite toy), which is also known as a negative
punishment.
Reinforcement - Skinner identified reinforcement as any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows. The two types of reinforcement he identified were positive reinforcement (favorable
outcomes such as reward or praise) and negative reinforcement (the removal of unfavorable
outcomes)
In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedules of
reinforcement. These schedules of reinforcement play a central role in the operant
conditioning process. The frequency with which a behavior is reinforced can help determine
how quickly a response is learned as well as how strong the response might be. Each schedule
of reinforcement has its own unique set of characteristics
 Fixed-ratio schedules - a fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. The fixed-ratio
schedule can be understood by looking at the term itself. Fixed refers to the delivery of
rewards on a consistent schedule. Ratio refers to the number of responses that are
required in order to receive reinforcement. For example, a fixed-ratio schedule might be
delivery a reward for every fifth response. After the subject responds to the stimulus five
times, a reward is delivered.
o Reinforcement provided after a set number of responses
o Delivery schedule predictable
o Examples include production line work, grade card rewards, sales commissions
 Variable-Ratio Schedule - a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced
after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a steady, high rate of
responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a
variable ratio schedule.
o Reinforcement provided after varying set of response
o Delivery schedule unpredictable
o Examples include slot machines, door-to-door sales, video games
 Fixed-interval schedules - a schedule of reinforcement where the first response is
rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high
amounts of responding near the end of the interval but much slower responding
immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

 Variable-interval schedules - a schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded
after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, which is the opposite of a fixed-interval
schedule. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
CLASSROOM IMPLICATION
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
1. Conditioning study behavior: Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of
reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching teacher should arrange
effective contingencies of reinforcement. Example: For Self learning of a student teacher
should reinforce student behavior through variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile,
praise, affectionate patting on the back or by giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: During learning process child acquire unpleasant
experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and the
classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a teacher. Suitable behavioral contingencies,
atmosphere of recognition, acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in approaching
teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher make use of negative
reinforcement like showing negligence, criticizing student etc. but if student is serious in
study, teacher make use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and smile.
3. Managing Problem Behavior: Two types of behavior are seen in the classroom via
undesired behavior and problematic behavior. Operant conditioning is a behavior therapy
technique that shape students behavior. For this teacher should admit positive contingencies
like praise, encouragement etc. for learning. One should not admit negative contingencies.
Example punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape
stimulation.
4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning fear, anxieties,
prejudices, attitudes, perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are signals on the
road, siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful injection from a doctor. Anxiety
is a generalized fear response. To break the habits of fear, a teacher should use
desensitization techniques. Initially teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned
stimulus. Gradually the strength of stimulus should be increased.
5. Conditioning group behavior: Conditioning makes entire group learn and complete
change in behavior is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behavior
too.
Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such
circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active
participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy – interaction will increase
and teaching learning process becomes more effective.

6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form, for the
progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct, positive
reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of
January is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this, programmed instruction
is used. In this subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence
helps in learning. Each step is built upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process
of learning. Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.
7. Shaping Complex Behavior: Complex behavior exists in form of a chain of small
behavior. Control is required for such kind of behavior. This extended form of learning is
shaping technique. Smallest Behavior is controlled at initial stage. On behalf of different
contingencies, next order of chain of behaviors is controlled. Example: Vocabulary in
English. Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex form of behavior.
EXERCISE 1
Directions: Identify what schedule of reinforcement is applied in the following situations.
___________________ 1. Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers never know
how many calls they need to make to receive the bonus, but they know that
they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.
___________________ 2. Your psychology instructor might issue periodic pop quizzes to test your
knowledge and to make sure you are paying attention in class. While these
exams occur with some frequency, you never really know exactly when he
might give you a pop quiz. One week you might end up taking two quizzes,
but then go a full two weeks without one. Because you never know when
you might receive a pop quiz, you will probably pay attention and stay
caught up in your studies to be prepared.
___________________ 3. Dental exams also take place on a fixed-interval schedule. People who go
in for their regular six-month check-up and cleaning often take extra care
to clean their teeth right before the exam, yet they may not be as diligent
on a day-to-day basis during the six months prior to the exam.
___________________ 4. Slot machine players have no way of knowing how many times they have
to play before they win. All they know is that eventually, a play will win.
There is always the possibility that the next coin they put in will be the
winning one.
___________________ 5. Typically, you check your email at random times throughout the day instead
of checking every time a single message is delivered. The thing about e-
mail is that in most cases, you never know when you are going to receive a
message. Because of this, emails roll in sporadically at completely
unpredictable times. When you check and see that you have received a
message, it acts as a reinforcer for checking your email

#Classical Conditioning
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)
Pavlov was an eminent Russian physiologist and
psychologist who devised the concept of the conditioned
reflex. He conducted a legendary experiment in which he
trained a hungry dog to drool at the sound of a bell, which
had previously been related to the presentation of food to
the animal.
In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate
when they heard a bell ring. In order to do this he first
showed them food, the sight of which caused them to
salivate.
Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually, he could
get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food.
In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex (salivation, a natural
bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby
creating a conditioned reflex/response.
Components Involved In Classical Conditioning
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
In order to have a better understanding of classical conditioning, we have to look at the various
components involved in Pavlov’s experiment;
• The unconditioned stimulus. (UCS)
• The conditioned stimulus. (CS)
• The unconditioned reflex/response. (UCR)
• The conditioned reflex/response. (CR)
The Unconditioned Stimulus (food): (UCS)
An unconditioned stimulus is anything, which can evoke a response without prior
learning or conditioning.
Example: When a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to salivate. Therefore the food is an
unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex response (salivation) automatically and
without the dog having to learn how to salivate.
Unconditioned Stimulus– This causes an automatic reflex response.
Conditioned Stimulus (bell): (CS)
The conditioned stimulus is created by learning, and therefore does not create a response
without prior conditioning.

Example: When Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was a conditioned
stimulus because the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food. If they had not learnt to associate
the bell with food, they would not have salivated when the bell was rung.
Conditioned Stimulus– You need to learn first before it creates a response. It is an
acquired power to change something.
Unconditioned Reflex/Response (salivation): (UCR)
An unconditioned reflex is anything that happens automatically without you having to
think about it, such as your mouth salivating when you eat.
Unconditioned Reflex – Reflex that happens automatically and you did not have to learn
how to do it.
Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell): (CR)
A conditioned reflex is a response which you have learnt to associate with something.
For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when previously (without
conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.
Conditioned Reflex– A conditioned reflex that can evoked in response to a conditioned
stimulus.
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS
1. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively before
embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to respond to a
particular stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a new one.
2. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be versatile
with various strategies that can enhance effective participation of the students in the
teaching learning activities.
3. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A negative
or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For example, providing
the necessary school material for primary school pupils will develop good feelings about
school and learning in them, while, punishment will discourage them from attending the
school.
Difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning
Operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this
way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the
individual.
Classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response.

EXERCISE 2
Directions: CLASSICAL OR OPERANT? Identify whether each situation depicts either
classical or operant conditioning.
___________________ 1. A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most
calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they
voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more
points.
___________________ 2. When a child receives praise for performing a chore without
complaint, like cleaning their room, they are more likely to continue
to perform that chore in the future.
___________________ 3. The pencil, the printed sheets, the chalkboard, and all the other
inanimate objects that surround writing a test or exam in school are
all neutral stimuli in and of themselves. It’s only because students
come to associate them, along with the dead silence of the room or
the nervously-ticking wall clock, to the stress of writing a test that
they elicit a negative response.
___________________ 4. An employer offering an employee a day off rather giving a tangible
reward and that the presence of something undesirable is reduced
such as the amount of time spent at work.
___________________ 5. You have been in a public area and heard a familiar notification
chime, this classical conditioning example will certainly ring true for
you. You hear that tone and instinctively reach for your smartphone,
only to realize it’s coming from someone else’s phone.

#Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura (1945)
https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2016/01/albert-bandura
Bandura is an influential social cognitive psychologist who
is perhaps best known for his social learning theory, the
concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll
experiments. He is a Professor Emeritus at Stanford
University and is widely regarded as one of the greatest
living psychologists.
In the Bobo doll experiment, a group of children were
shown a film in which an adult was shown shouting at and
beating a Bobo doll. While playing later in a room that
contained a Bobo doll, children who had seen the film were
more likely to torment the doll and imitated the words and
actions shown to them earlier.
He was the first to prove that self-efficacy, our belief in our own capabilities, affects the tasks
we choose, how much effort we put into them and how we feel while doing them. He also found
that we learn not only through our own beliefs and expectations but by “modeling” or observing
others, an idea that led to the development of modern social cognition theory.
https://educationaltechnology.net/social-learning-theory-albert-bandura/
This theory can be used to teach positive behaviors to students. Teachers can use positive role
models to increase desired behaviors and thus change the culture of a school. Not only will
individual students benefit from positive role models in and out of the classroom, but the entire
class and student body will do so.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are rooted
in social learning theory. For example, if a teacher is positive with their students and they
encourage them, this positive energy and verbal encouragement, in turn, helps build self-
efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities to succeed in various situations.

#Theory of Connectionism
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
Thorndike is one major behaviourist theorist who put
forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when
followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response
to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition.
This view of learning is akin to the “drill-and-practice”
programmes. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/geqaf/annexes/technical-
notes/most-influential-theories-learning
Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response
hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be
established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes
place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (Saettler, 1990).
The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively
rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened.
Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not
necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not
necessarily motivate performance.
The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated
when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.
The "law of readiness" because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units,
in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.
Scenes from a Classroom –
 In Ms. X’s first grade classroom, she is working with one of her students, Sam, to help
him with some challenging attention-span issues. She gives him a sticker whenever she
sees him on task. (Positive reward)
 In Mr. X’s third grade classroom, Mr. X quietly reminds a student to keep all four legs
of his chair on the floor. (Positive punishment – yes, verbal praise & reminders qualify
as adding something to the environment!)
 To increase the number of students who turn in their homework each day, Mr. X
announces that if the class has 100% completion on today’s assignment, they won’t have
homework on Friday. (Negative reward)
 Students in Mrs. X’s art class are having trouble sharing the supplies. Mrs. X writes the
word ART on the board, and each time students have a disagreement over supplies, she

erases a letter. If the word is erased completely, students will have to use pencil to
complete their project for the day. (Negative punishment)
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's
ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal
research, but later became involved in the study of human
behavior.
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes
and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other
behavior is established through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning.
In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child.
The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become
afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud,
jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear
when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was
repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said
that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment
suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.
Law of Readiness:
The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child. The teacher must consider
the psycho-biological readiness of the students to ensure successful learning experiences.
Law of Exercise
Exercise occupies an important place in learning. Teacher must repeat, give sufficient drill in
some subjects like mathematics, drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds
of the students.
Law of Effect
This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning. This implies that learning
trials must be associated with satisfying consequences. The teacher can use rewards to
strengthen certain responses and punishment to weaken others. However, the use of reward is
more desirable than the use of punishment in school learning. The teacher for motivating the
students for learning situations can exploit the use of reward.

Areas of Application of Behaviorism Theories:
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcers
l. Negative reinforcement
THE THEORY OF COGNITIVISM
Cognitive Theory is largely based on the work of Jean Piaget, who rejected the idea that
learners are passive and simply react to stimuli in the environment. Instead of focusing solely
on observable behavior, Cognitive Theory seeks to explain how the mind works during the
learning process. Like a computer, the mind takes in information, processes that information,
then uses that information to produce learning outcomes.
Major Concepts of Cognitive Theory
 Schema - An internal knowledge structure. New information is compared to existing
cognitive structures called "schema". Schema may be combined, extended or altered to
accommodate new information.
 Three-Stage Information Processing Model - input first enters a sensory register, then
is processed in short-term memory, and then is transferred to long-term memory for
storage and retrieval.
o Sensory Register - receives input from senses which lasts from less than a
second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much
of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is
monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary.
o Short-Term Memory (STM) - sensory input that is important or interesting is
transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here
for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can
hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be increased if material is
chunked into meaningful parts.
o Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) - stores information from STM for
long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are
"forced" into LTM by rote memorization and over learning. Deeper levels of

processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are
much better for successful retention of material.
 Meaningful Effects - Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. If a
learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to
retain. (Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975, in Good and Brophy, 1990)
 Serial Position Effects - It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a
list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.
 Practice Effects - Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is
distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with
many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.
 Transfer Effects- The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material.
 Interference Effects - Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new
material.
 Organization Effects - When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is
easier to remember.
 Levels of Processing Effects - Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis
of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. (Craik
and Lockhart, 1972, in Good and Brophy, 1990) The more deeply a word is process the
easier it will be to remember.
 State Dependent Effects - If learning takes place within a certain context it will be
easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.
 Mnemonic Effects - Mnemonics are strategies used by learners to organize relatively
meaningless input into more meaningful images or semantic contexts. For example, the
notes of a musical scale can be remembered by the rhyme: Every Good Boy Deserves
Fruit.
 Schema Effects - If information does not fit a person's schema it may be more difficult
for them to remember and what they remember or how they conceive of it may also be
affected by their prior schema.
 Advance Organizers – Ausebel’s advance organizers prepare the learner for the
material they are about to learn. They are not simply outlines of the material, but are
material that will enable the student to make sense out of the lesson.

KEY PLAYERS:
#Dual Coding Theory
Allan Paivio(1925-2016)
The Dual Coding Theory of memory was initially proposed
by Paivio (1971) in order to explain the powerful mnemonic
effects of imagery that he and others had uncovered, but its
implications for cognitive theory go far beyond these
findings.
There are two cognitive subsystems assumed by this
thoery, one specialized for the representation and
processing of nonverbal objects/events (i.e., imagery), and
the other specialized for dealing with language.
. https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/dual-coding/
Many experiments reported by Paivio and others support the importance of imagery in
cognitive operations. In one experiment, participants saw pairs of items that differed in
roundness (e.g., tomato, goblet) and were asked to indicate which member of the pair
was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The
response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs,
and fastest for the picture-picture pairs.
CLASSROOM APPLICATION
Dual coding theory has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including:
mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. Dual coding theory
accounts for the significance of spatial abilities in theories of intelligence.

#Taxonomy of Learning
Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999)
Bloom was an American educational psychologist who became
one of the most influential theorists to promote mastery learning
and higher level thinking. The embodiment of Bloom’s work was
intentionally focused on organizing educational objectives
according to their cognitive complexity.
Bloom was interested in providing a useful practical tool that was
congruent with what was understood about the features of the
higher mental processes. Thus, he created Blooms Taxonomy.
He discovered that the higher order thinking was dependent on the level that preceded it. In
other words, students needed to be able to recall information to then comprehend, to analyze,
then to apply it, and so on.
Bloom discovered that the goal of teaching needed to be geared toward the designing of tasks
so students were led to the realization of the objectives vs. given the objectives for recall.
Recently, Bloom's Taxonomy has been revisited and revised after determining that Synthesis
was a higher thinking process than evaluation. It was also revised to show "verbs" instead of
"nouns."
Bloom's Taxonomy OLD vs. Bloom's Taxonomy NEW
1. Use every level - the more ‘immediate access’ a student has to information, the more
naturally they can not only apply that information at higher-levels of thinking, but also

can initiate these kinds of actions on their own, making their own connections,
identifying their own misunderstandings, and more fluidly transferring understanding to
new and unfamiliar situations on their own.
2. Apply Bloom’s spiraling - Bloom’s Spiraling is the process of starting first at lower
levels of Bloom’s–recalling, defining, explaining, etc.–and then progressively
increasing the level of thinking. In that way, Bloom’s Taxonomy becomes a kind of
pathway to guide the learning process itself.
3. Use technology to emphasize specific levels - use digital technology and social media
to enable asynchronous collaboration using apps, social media, or digital communities.
Here, students can access different strands of a given assignment at their own pace,
adding their own thinking, and being able to observe, sit back, internalize, and then
offer strategic input according to their own readiness, background knowledge, and
relative expertise.
4. Let students lead - let students bring their ideas to the Bloom’s framework.
5. Plan Project-Based Learning sequences - if a student is doing a project on recycling,
for example, the ‘sequence’ could begin at lower levels, where the student recalls,
defines, and identifies key components of recycling, its challenges, etc. Then, students
begin to analyse cause/effect of many of those components and challenges, then
evaluates the effectiveness of existing recycling techniques, then finally creates new
strategies to increase recycling, improve adoption rates, etc.
6. Give points per level - To encourage students to move from lower levels of Bloom’s to
higher levels (and again, lower levels of bloom’s aren’t necessarily ‘bad’ and higher
levels aren’t necessarily ‘good’), you can give fewer points for students if they ‘stay too
long’ in the lower levels
Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1791/Bloom-B-S-1913-1999.html
https://sites.google.com/a/nau.edu/educationallearningtheories/home/benjamin-bloom
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/using-blooms-taxonomy-21st-century-4-strategies-
for-teaching/
#Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner (1943)
Gardner of Harvard University originally identified seven
distinct intelligences. According to Gardner, this theory,
which emerged from cognitive research, “documents the
extent to which students possess different kinds of minds
and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in
different ways.”
He elaborated his theory of ‘multiple intelligences’ in 1983.
His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence
as dominated by a single general ability.
He contends that each person’s level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct
“intelligences”. These include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical,
(5) bodily-kinaesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal.
If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical
ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in
which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning:
 Words (linguistic intelligence).
 Numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence).
 Pictures (spatial intelligence).
 Music (musical intelligence).
 Self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence).
 A physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence).
 A social experience (interpersonal intelligence).
 An experience in the natural world (naturalist intelligence).
Source: The Office of Learning and Teaching, 2004. Melbourne: Department of Education and
Training; OECD, 2010. Nature of Learning, Paris: Author; http://www.p21.org/
https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/what-are-multiple-intelligences-and-how-do-they-affect-
learning/
Areas of Application of Behaviorism Theories:
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known

c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics
THE THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not
passive recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction
with the environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Constructivists
see the learner as a constructor of knowledge. New learning is shaped by schemas, which the
learner brings to the learning process.
The central idea of constructivism's is that human learning is constructed, that learners build
new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but
interpreting it. This view of learning led to the shift from the “knowledge-acquisition” to
“knowledge-construction” metaphor.
KEY CONTRIBUTORS:
#Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who developed
a theory regarding the developmental stages of children from
birth to around age fifteen. His theory of cognitive
development focuses on the fact that children do not
necessarily learn in a linear process; rather, they go through
different stages throughout their early lives in which they
obtain certain learning abilities. The theory can be incorporated
into the classroom. For educators, understanding Piaget's
theory of cognitive development can be an important part of
improving the teaching process.
Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is
said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e. a state of cognitive (i.e. mental) balance.

Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development. A schema can be
defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand
and to respond to situations.
Stages of Development
Piaget believed that children think differently than adults and stated they go through 4 universal
stages of cognitive development.
These different levels is that they are qualitatively different. In other words, at each successive
stage, it's not just a matter of doing something better, but of doing a different thing altogether.
Cognitive Stages of Development Key Feature
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Years) Object Permanence
Pre-operational Stage (2-7 Years) Egocentrism
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years) Conservation
Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Above) Abstract Reasoning, Logical Thinking
#Socio-Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Vygotsky is an important founder of Constructivist
Theory. Vygotsky believed that learning is a
collaborative process, and that social interaction is
fundamental for cognitive development.
According to Vygotsky, students learn best when
working collaboratively with those whose proficiency
level is higher than their own, allowing them to complete
tasks they are not yet able to do independently.
Vygotsky identified these concepts as the More
Knowledgeable Other and the Zone of Proximal Development. Constructivist classrooms are
student-centered, with the teacher acting as the facilitator.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the
learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of
as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person,
or even computers.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance
and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently.
According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which
they act and interact in shared experiences.
According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that
develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments.
Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate
needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Scenes from a Classroom
 Mr. X intentionally pairs students performing on or above grade level with students
performing below grade level, inviting them to turn and talk about their learning
throughout a lesson.
 Mrs. X uses collaborative learning to facilitate engagement with specific learning
targets, ensuring heterogeneous student groupings.
 Ms. X uses Problem-Based Learning to engage her students in solving real world
problems, meeting several learning targets while giving students autonomy to make
decisions. She encourages students to work with peers who have different strengths than
their own.
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS
 Teaching cannot be viewed as the transmission of knowledge from enlightened to
unenlightened; constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage."
Rather, teachers act as "guides on the side" who provide students with opportunities to
test the adequacy of their current understandings.
 If learning is based on prior knowledge, then teachers must note that knowledge and
provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between learners' current
understandings and the new experiences before them. This challenges teachers, for they
cannot assume that all children understand something in the same way. Further, children
may need different experiences to advance to different levels of understanding.
 If students must apply their current understandings in new situations in order to build
new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning, bringing students'
current understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure that learning experiences
incorporate problems that are important to students, not those that are primarily
important to teachers and the educational system. Teachers can also encourage group
interaction, where the interplay among participants helps individual students become
explicit about their own understanding by comparing it to that of their peers.
 If new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it. Ample time facilitates
student reflection about new experiences, how those experiences line up against current

understandings, and how a different understanding might provide students with an
improved (not "correct") view of the world.
 If learning is a constructive process, and instruction must be designed to provide
opportunities for such construction, then what professional development practices can
bring teachers to teach in student-centered ways?
SOURCE: https://sedl.org/pubs/sedletter/v09n03/practice.html
#Discovery Learning
Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
Bruner is one of the best known and influential psychologists
of the twentieth century. He was one of the key figures in the
so called ‘cognitive revolution.’
He states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in
which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be
most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective
sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and
pacing of rewards and punishments.
Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young
age is capable of learning any material so long as the
instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage
theorists.
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new
propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in
problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and
existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.
Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with
questions and controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more
likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a
transmissionist model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided
discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental
learning, among others.

Areas of Application of Constructivism Theories:
a. Case studies
b. Research projects
c. Problem solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/ Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
SYNTHESIS:
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism –
The Fundamentals (Schuman, 1996)
a. Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses
on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
b. Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in
behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside
the learner's mind.
c. Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own
perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema.
Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in difficult
situations.
Key Takeaway
The best and most effective teachers can cater to each students’ strengths,
ensuring that they are truly grasping the information, and that, they are capable
of converting concepts into skills. Therefore, part of your responsibility as
future educators is to adjust all your lessons to the unique group of students
you are working with at any given time.
- Callie Malvik (2020)

EXERCISE 3
Directions: Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity.
Learning Activities and Practices Theory Applied
1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize the
multiplication table.
2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about an
effective teacher to a group of teacher-trainees.
3. On a lesson on environmental conservation,
students climbed a mountain to study the kinds of
topographical changes taking place.
4. In a statistics class, students were asked to
interpret the data illustrated in graphs.
5. The teacher gave a “star” to the pupil who gave
correct answers to her questions.
6. The teacher assigned the students to do interviews
with local officials. The purpose was to identify
who among the local officials are ‘good’ and
‘effective’ leaders based on a set of criteria.
7. In an English class, the topic was Joyce Kilmer’s
poem, “Trees.” The teacher asked two students to
write two paragraphs of their interpretations of the
poem from a science perspective. Two students
were also asked to interpret the poem in music
form.
8. The teacher asked the students to observe a chef
on the correct way of cooking recipe.
9. The topic under study is to explore the use of
computer programs needed for different tasks in
the workplace.
10. In a science class, the teacher asked the students
to do an experiment and answer the questions to
the resource speaker.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aquino, A. M. (2015). Facilitating Human Learning, 2nd Edition. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex
Book Store, Inc. .
Combs, B. (2000). Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and
Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/techconf00/mccombs_paper.html]
Dalisay, Brawner G. (2018). Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching. Adriana Publishing
Co., Inc.
Lucas, Maria Rita D. & Corpuz, Brenda B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive
Process, 4th Edition OBE and Kto12 Outcomes-based and Kto12-based. Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Padgett, D. (2020). Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the Classroom.
Leader in Me.
Learner-Centered Principles Work Group of the American Psychological Association's Board
of Educational Affairs. (1997, November). Learner – Centered Psychological Principles: A
framework for School Reform and Design.
Online References:
* Please refer to the attached links to each topic lifted from online sources

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