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Fibre optics principles and advanced practices Second
Edition. Edition Al-Azzawi Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Al-Azzawi, Abdul
ISBN(s): 9781498774369, 1498774369
Edition: Second edition.
File Details: PDF, 48.79 MB
Year: 2017
Language: english

Fibre Optics
Principles and Advanced Practices
Second Edition
Abdul Al-Azzawi

This material was previously published in Photonics: Principles and Practices © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
CRC Press
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v
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................................... xxiii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................xxv
Author ..........................................................................................................................................xxvii
Contributors ..................................................................................................................................xxix
Chapter 1 Fibre-Optic Cables .......................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................1
1.2 The Evolution of Fibre-Optic Cables ..............................................................1
1.3 Fibre-Optic Cables ..........................................................................................4
1.4 Plastic Fibre Cables.........................................................................................6
1.5 Light Propagation in Fibre-Optic Cables ........................................................6
1.6 Refractive-Index Profile ..................................................................................8
1.7 Types of Fibre-Optic Cables............................................................................8
1.7.1 Single-Mode Step-Index Fibre Cable...............................................9
1.7.2 Multi-Mode Step-Index Fibre Cable (Multi-Mode Fibre Cable)......9
1.7.3 Multi-Mode Graded-Index Fibre (Graded-Index Fibre Cable).........9
1.8 Polarisation Maintaining Fibre Cables..........................................................10
1.9 Specialty Fibre Cables................................................................................... 11
1.10 Fibre Cable Fabrication Techniques.............................................................. 11
1.10.1 Double Crucible Method................................................................ 11
1.10.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition Processes ........................................12
1.10.3 Outside Vapour Deposition ............................................................13
1.10.4 Vapour Axial Deposition................................................................ 14
1.10.5 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition .........................................15
1.10.6 Plasma Chemical Vapour Deposition............................................. 16
1.11 Fibre Drawing................................................................................................ 16
1.12 Numerical Aperture ...................................................................................... 17
1.13 Modes in a Fibre-Optic Cable....................................................................... 18
1.14 Light Source Coupling to a Fibre Cable........................................................19
1.15 Launching Light Conditions into Fibre Cables .............................................21
1.16 Fibre Tube Assembly.....................................................................................23
1.16.1 Manufacturing of a Fibre Tube Assembly......................................23
1.16.2 Experimental Work for Testing Fibre Tube Assembly...................25
1.16.2.1 Technique and Apparatus ...........................................25
1.16.2.2 Procedure....................................................................26
1.16.2.3 Safety Procedure.........................................................26
1.16.2.4 Apparatus Set-Up........................................................26
1.16.2.5 Data Collection...........................................................28
1.16.2.6 Calculations and Analysis ..........................................28
1.16.2.7 Results and Discussions..............................................28
1.16.2.8 Conclusion ..................................................................28
1.16.2.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work...............................28
1.16.2.10 References...................................................................28
1.16.2.11 Appendix ....................................................................28
1.17 Fibre-Optic Cables versus Copper Cables.....................................................28

vi Contents
1.18 Applications of Fibre-Optic Cables...............................................................29
1.19 Experimental Work .......................................................................................30
1.19.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling ............................30
1.19.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation........................................30
1.19.3 Case (c): Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angles
Calculation.................................................................................... 31
1.19.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity .............................. 31
1.19.5 Technique and Apparatus .............................................................32
1.19.6 Procedure......................................................................................33
1.19.7 Safety Procedure...........................................................................33
1.19.8 Apparatus Set-Up..........................................................................33
1.19.8.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling.........33
1.19.8.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation.....................35
1.19.8.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation ....39
1.19.8.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity ...........40
1.19.9 Data Collection............................................................................. 41
1.19.9.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling......... 41
1.19.10 Calculations and Analysis ............................................................42
1.19.11 Results and Discussions................................................................42
1.19.12 Conclusion ....................................................................................43
1.19.13 Suggestions for Future Lab Work.................................................43
1.20 List of References..........................................................................................43
1.21 Appendix.......................................................................................................43
Further Reading..........................................................................................................43
Chapter 2 Advanced Fibre-Optic Cables ....................................................................................45
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................45
2.2 Advanced Types of Fibre-Optic Cables ........................................................45
2.2.1 Dual-Core Fibre for High-Power Laser........................................46
2.2.2 Fibre Bragg Gratings ....................................................................46
2.2.2.1 Manufacturing Method..............................................47
2.2.3 Chirped Fibre Bragg Gratings......................................................48
2.2.3.1 Manufacturing Method..............................................49
2.2.4 Blazed Fibre Bragg Gratings ........................................................49
2.2.5 Non-Zero-Dispersion Fibre-Optic Cables ....................................50
2.2.6 Photonic Crystal Fibre Cables ......................................................50
2.2.7 Microstructure Fibre Cables.........................................................52
2.2.8 Polymer Holey-Fibre Cables.........................................................53
2.2.9 Image Fibre Cables.......................................................................53

vii
Contents
2.2.10 Liquid Crystal Photonic Band Gap Fibre Cables.............................54
2.2.11 Lensed and Tapered Fibre Cables ....................................................54
2.2.11.1 Advantages of Lensing Technology................................55
2.2.11.2 Manufacturing Technologies..........................................56
2.2.12 Bend-Insensitive Fibre Cables..........................................................57
2.2.13 Nanoribbon Fibre-Optic Cables .......................................................57
2.3 Applications of Advanced Fibre Cables..........................................................58
2.4 Experimental Work .........................................................................................59
2.4.1 Conclusion........................................................................................59
2.4.2 Suggestions for Future Lab Work.....................................................59
2.5 List of References............................................................................................60
2.6 Appendix .........................................................................................................60
Further Reading..........................................................................................................60
Chapter 3 Light Attenuation in Optical Components .................................................................63
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................63
3.2 Light Losses in an Optical Material................................................................63
3.2.1 Absorption........................................................................................64
3.2.2 Dispersion.........................................................................................64
3.2.3 Scattering..........................................................................................64
3.2.4 Light Loss in Parallel Optical Surfaces ...........................................64
3.2.5 Light Loss in an Epoxy Layer ..........................................................65
3.2.6 Bending and Micro-Bending............................................................66
3.3 Attenuation Calculations .................................................................................67
3.4 Experimental Work .........................................................................................68
3.4.1 Technique and Apparatus.................................................................69
3.4.2 Procedure .........................................................................................70
3.4.3 Safety Procedure ..............................................................................70
3.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up .............................................................................70
3.4.4.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to Five
Microscope Slides...........................................................70
3.4.4.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single Slide
Inclined at Different Angles ...........................................71
3.4.4.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy Layer
between Two Slides ........................................................72
3.4.4.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable..... 75
3.4.4.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic
Cable due to Micro-Bending ..........................................76
3.4.4.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic
Cable Coupled to a GRIN Lens at the Input
and/or Output..................................................................77
3.4.5 Data Collection.................................................................................78
Microscope Slides...........................................................78
Inclined at Different Angles............................................78
between Two Slides ........................................................78
3.4.5.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a
Fibre-Optic Cable ....................................................78

viii Contents
3.4.5.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable
due to Micro-Bending.........................................................79
Coupled to a GRIN Lens at the Input and/or Output .........79
3.4.6 Calculations and Analysis..................................................................79
Microscope Slides...............................................................79
Inclined at Different Angles ...............................................79
between Two Slides ............................................................79
3.4.6.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable........79
Coupled to a GRIN Lens at the Input and/or Output ......... 79
3.4.7 Results and Discussions .....................................................................80
Microscope Slides...............................................................80
Inclined at Different Angles ...............................................80
between Two Slides ............................................................80
3.4.7.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable........80
Coupled to a GRIN Lens at the Input and/or Output ......... 80
3.4.8 Conclusion..........................................................................................80
3.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work.......................................................80
3.5 List of References............................................................................................80
3.6 Appendix ......................................................................................................... 81
Further Reading.......................................................................................................... 81
Chapter 4 Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Installations.................................................................83
4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................83
4.2 Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications .....................................................83
4.2.1 Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications ............................84
4.2.2 Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications..........................85
4.2.3 Indoor/Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications..............85
4.2.4 Other Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications..............................86
4.3 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation Methods..........................................................87
4.3.1 Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Installation................................................87
4.3.2 Cable Installation in Tray and Duct Systems.....................................87
4.3.3 Conduit Installation............................................................................88
4.3.4 Pulling Fibre-Optic Cable Installation...............................................88
4.3.5 Fibre-Optic Cables Direct Burial Installation....................................89
4.3.6 Fibre-Optic Cable Aerial Installation.................................................90
4.3.7 Air-Blown Fibre-Cable Installation....................................................90
4.3.8 Other Fibre-Cable Installation Methods ............................................ 91

ix
Contents
4.4 Standard Hardware for Fibre-Optic Cables ..................................................91
4.4.1 Fibre-Splice Closures ..................................................................... 91
4.4.2 Rack with Panels ............................................................................91
4.4.3 Connector Housings .......................................................................92
4.4.4 Patch Panels....................................................................................92
4.4.5 Splice Housings..............................................................................92
4.4.6 Wall Outlets....................................................................................92
4.4.7 Fibre-Optic Testing Equipment......................................................93
4.5 Fibre-Optic Cable Test Requirements...........................................................94
4.6 Experimental Work .......................................................................................95
4.6.1 Technique and Apparatus ...............................................................95
4.6.2 Procedure........................................................................................96
4.6.3 Safety Procedure.............................................................................96
4.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up ...........................................................................96
4.6.4.1 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation......................................96
4.6.5 Data Collection...............................................................................96
4.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ..............................................................96
4.6.7 Results and Discussions .................................................................96
4.6.8 Conclusion......................................................................................96
4.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work...................................................97
4.7 List of References..........................................................................................97
4.8 Appendix.......................................................................................................97
Further Reading..........................................................................................................97
Chapter 5 Fibre-Optic Connectors..............................................................................................99
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................99
5.2 Applications of Connectors and Splices........................................................99
5.3 Requirements of Connectors and Splices....................................................100
5.4 Fibre Connectors .........................................................................................100
5.5 Mechanical Considerations .........................................................................102
5.5.1 Durability .....................................................................................102
5.5.2 Environmental Considerations .....................................................103
5.5.3 Compatibility................................................................................ 103
5.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Types...................................................................... 103
5.7 Adapters for Different Fibre-Optic Connector Types.................................104
5.8 Fibre-Optic Connector Structures...............................................................104
5.9 Fibre-Optic Connector Assembly Techniques ............................................104
5.9.1 Common Fibre-Connector Assembly...........................................105
5.9.2 Hot-Melt Connector .....................................................................105
5.9.3 Epoxyless Connector....................................................................105
5.9.4 Automated Polishing....................................................................106
5.9.5 Fluid-Jet Polishing........................................................................106
5.9.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Cleaning ..................................................106
5.9.7 Connector Testing ........................................................................106
5.10 Fibre Splicing ..............................................................................................106
5.10.1 Mechanical Splicing.....................................................................108
5.10.1.1 Key-Lock Mechanical Fibre-Optic Splices ................109
5.10.1.2 Table-Type Mechanical Fibre-Optic Splices ..............109
5.11 Fusion Splices .............................................................................................110
5.11.1 Splice Testing ...............................................................................110

x Contents
5.12 Connectors versus Splices...........................................................................111
5.13 Experimental Work......................................................................................111
5.13.1 Technique and Apparatus .............................................................111
5.13.2 Procedure......................................................................................112
5.13.3 Safety Procedure...........................................................................112
5.13.4 Apparatus Set-Up .........................................................................112
5.13.4.1 Case (a): Building FSMA Connectors........................112
5.13.4.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in
Two Connectors..........................................................114
5.13.4.3 Case (c): Testing Connection Loss in a
Mechanical Splice ......................................................115
5.13.4.4 Case (d): Testing Connection Loss in a
Fusion Splice ...........................................................117
5.13.5 Data Collection.............................................................................118
5.13.5.1 Case (a): Building a Connector ..................................118
5.13.5.2 Case (b): Testing Connection Loss in Two
Connectors..................................................................118
Fusion Splice.......................................................... 118
5.13.6 Calculations and Analysis ............................................................118
Connectors..................................................................118
Fusion Splice ...........................................................118
5.13.7 Results and Discussions ...............................................................118
Connectors..................................................................119
Fusion Splice.............................................................119
5.13.8 Conclusion....................................................................................119
5.14 List of References........................................................................................119
5.15 Appendix .....................................................................................................119
Further Reading........................................................................................................119
Chapter 6 Passive Fibre-Optic Devices.....................................................................................121
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................121
6.2 2 × 2 Couplers.............................................................................................121
6.3 3 dB Couplers..............................................................................................123
6.4 Y-Couplers...................................................................................................124
6.5 Star Couplers...............................................................................................125

xi
Contents
6.6 Coupler Construction ..................................................................................125
6.6.1 Fused Taper Couplers...................................................................126
6.6.2 Polishing D-Section Couplers......................................................126
6.6.3 Twin Core Fibre Couplers ............................................................126
6.7 The Principle of Reciprocity.......................................................................126
6.8 Proximity Sensor.........................................................................................127
6.9 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer....................................................................127
6.10 Optical Isolators ..........................................................................................128
6.11 Optical Circulators ......................................................................................129
6.12 Optical Filters..............................................................................................130
6.12.1 Fixed Optical Filters..................................................................... 131
6.12.2 Tunable Optical Filters................................................................. 132
6.12.2.1 Fibre Fabry–Perot Tunable Filters.............................. 132
6.12.2.2 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer Tunable Filters .......... 133
6.12.2.3 Fibre Grating Tunable Filters ..................................... 133
6.12.2.4 Liquid Crystal Tunable Filters....................................134
6.12.2.5 Acousto-Optic Tunable Filters ...................................134
6.12.2.6 Thermo-Optic Tunable Filters....................................134
6.12.2.7 Other Types of Tunable Filters ................................... 135
6.13 Optical Fibre Ring Resonators.................................................................... 135
6.14 Optical Modulators...................................................................................... 135
6.15 Optical Attenuators .....................................................................................136
6.15.1 Fixed Attenuators.........................................................................136
6.15.2 Variable Attenuators.....................................................................136
6.16 Optical Spectrometers.................................................................................136
6.17 Experimental Work .....................................................................................138
6.17.1 Technique and Apparatus............................................................. 139
6.17.2 Procedure ..................................................................................... 139
6.17.3 Safety Procedure .......................................................................... 139
6.17.4 Apparatus Set-Up ......................................................................... 140
6.17.4.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler ............................................... 140
6.17.4.2 Testing a 1 × 4 3 dB Coupler...................................... 141
6.17.4.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in the Lab ...................... 141
6.17.4.4 Testing a Y-Coupler....................................................144
6.17.4.5 Testing a 1 × 4 Y-Coupler .......................................... 145
6.17.4.6 Testing a Proximity Sensor......................................... 146
6.17.5 Data Collection............................................................................. 148
6.17.5.2 Testing a 1 × 4 3 dB Coupler...................................... 148
6.17.5.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in the Lab ...................... 148
6.17.5.4 Testing a Y-Coupler.................................................... 148
6.17.5.5 Testing a 1 × 4 Y-Coupler .......................................... 148
6.17.6 Calculations and Analysis............................................................ 149
6.17.6.1 Testing a 3 dB Coupler...............................................149
6.17.6.2 Testing a 1 × 4 3 dB Coupler......................................149
6.17.6.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in the Lab.......................149
6.17.6.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ....................................................149
6.17.6.5 Testing a 1 × 4 Y-Coupler...........................................149

xii Contents
6.17.7 Results and Discussions ............................................................... 149
6.17.7.2 Testing a 1 × 4 3 dB Coupler......................................150
6.17.7.3 Manufacturing a Y-Coupler in the Lab.......................150
6.17.7.4 Testing a Y-Coupler ....................................................150
6.17.7.5 Testing a 1 × 4 Y-Coupler...........................................150
6.17.7.6 Testing a Proximity Sensor.........................................150
6.17.8 Conclusion....................................................................................150
6.18 List of References........................................................................................150
6.19 Appendix..................................................................................................... 151
Further Reading........................................................................................................ 151
Chapter 7 Wavelength Division Multiplexer............................................................................. 153
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 153
7.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing.............................................................. 153
7.3 Time-Division Multiplexing........................................................................154
7.4 Frequency-Division Multiplexing................................................................ 155
7.5 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing................................................... 155
7.6 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing.................................................. 155
7.7 Techniques for Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing.....................................156
7.7.1 Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Using a Prism.......................156
7.7.2 Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing Using a
Diffraction Grating................................................................... 156
7.7.3 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers/De-Multiplexers........................156
7.7.4 Arrayed Waveguide Gratings....................................................... 157
7.7.5 Fibre Bragg Grating ..................................................................... 158
7.7.6 Thin Film Filters or Multi-Layer Interference Filters.................. 158
7.7.7 Periodic Filters, Frequency Slicers and Interleavers
Multiplexing ................................................................................. 159
7.7.8 Mach–Zehnder Interferometer..................................................... 159
7.8 Wavelength Division Multiplexers and De-Multiplexers ............................160
7.8.1 2-Channel WDM Devices............................................................160
7.8.2 8-Channel WDM Devices............................................................ 161
7.9 Experimental Work ..................................................................................... 161
7.9.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer................................................. 162
7.9.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer........................................... 162
7.9.3 Technique and Apparatus............................................................. 162
7.9.4 Procedure .....................................................................................164
7.9.5 Safety Procedure ..........................................................................164
7.9.6 Apparatus Set-Up ......................................................................... 165
7.9.6.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer............................... 165
7.9.6.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer......................... 170
7.9.7 Data Collection............................................................................. 174
7.9.7.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer...............................174
7.9.8 Calculations and Analysis............................................................ 174
7.9.8.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer...............................174

xiii
Contents
7.9.9 Results and Discussions ............................................................... 174
7.9.9.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexer ................................. 174
7.9.9.2 Wavelength Division De-Multiplexer ........................... 175
7.9.10 Conclusion.................................................................................... 175
7.9.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work................................................. 175
7.10 List of References........................................................................................ 175
7.11 Appendix..................................................................................................... 175
Further Reading........................................................................................................ 175
Chapter 8 Optical Amplifiers.................................................................................................... 177
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 177
8.2 Basic Applications of Optical Amplifiers ................................................... 177
8.2.1 In-Line Optical Amplifiers ...........................................................178
8.2.2 Post-Amplifier ..............................................................................178
8.2.3 Pre-Amplifier................................................................................179
8.2.4 In Local Area Networks............................................................... 179
8.3 Types of Optical Amplifiers........................................................................ 180
8.3.1 Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers................................................... 180
8.3.1.1 Erbium-Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers ......................180
8.3.1.2 Praseodymium-Doped Fluoride Optical Amplifiers.....182
8.3.1.3 Neodymium-Doped Optical Amplifiers........................182
8.3.1.4 Telluride-Based, Erbium-Doped Fibre Optical
Amplifiers..................................................................... 182
8.3.1.5 Thulium-Doped Optical Amplifiers ............................. 182
8.3.1.6 Other Doped Fibre Optical Amplifiers......................... 182
8.3.2 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers...............................................182
8.3.3 Raman Fibre Optical Amplifiers ..................................................183
8.3.4 Planer Waveguide Optical Amplifiers ..........................................184
8.3.5 Linear Optical Amplifiers............................................................ 185
8.4 Other Types of Optical Amplifiers.............................................................. 185
Further Reading........................................................................................................ 185
Chapter 9 Optical Receivers and Senders................................................................................. 189
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 189
9.2 Fibre-Optic Receivers.................................................................................. 189
9.3 Principles of Semiconductors......................................................................190
9.3.1 N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors............................................191
9.3.2 The Fundamentals of Photodetection...........................................191
9.3.3 Leakage Current ...........................................................................192
9.3.4 Sources of Leakage Current.........................................................192
9.4 Properties of Semiconductor Photodetectors..............................................192
9.4.1 Quantum Efficiency......................................................................192
9.4.2 Responsivity .................................................................................193
9.4.3 Response Time .............................................................................194
9.4.4 Sensitivity..................................................................................... 195
9.5 Types of Optical Detectors.......................................................................... 195
9.5.1 Phototransistors ............................................................................195
9.5.2 Photovoltaics ................................................................................196

xiv Contents
9.5.3 Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Detectors..........................................197
9.5.4 The p-i-n Photodiodes....................................................................197
9.5.5 Avalanche Photodiodes.................................................................. 198
9.6 Comparison of Photodetectors .....................................................................199
9.7 Experimental Work.......................................................................................200
9.7.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two Photodetector Types..............200
9.7.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests.................................................................200
9.7.3 Technique and Apparatus...............................................................201
9.7.4 Procedure .......................................................................................201
9.7.5 Safety Procedure............................................................................201
9.7.6 Apparatus Set-Up...........................................................................202
9.7.6.1 Measuring Light Power Using Two
Photodetector Types......................................................202
9.7.6.2 Photovoltaic Panel Tests ...............................................204
9.7.7 Data Collection ..............................................................................205
9.7.8 Calculations and Analysis..............................................................206
9.7.9 Results and Discussions.................................................................206
9.7.10 Conclusion......................................................................................207
9.7.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..................................................207
9.8 List of References .........................................................................................207
9.9 Appendix ......................................................................................................207
Further Reading ........................................................................................................207
Chapter 10 Optical Switches.......................................................................................................209
10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................209
10.2 Opto-Mechanical Switches...........................................................................209
10.3 Electro-Optic Switches................................................................................. 221
10.4 Thermo-Optic Switches................................................................................222
10.4.1 Switch Logic ..................................................................................225
10.4.1.1 Switching Unit Configuration.......................................225
10.5 Acousto-Optic Switches ...............................................................................227
10.6 Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems .............................................................228
10.7 3D MEMS-Based Optical Switches .............................................................230
10.8 Micro-Opto-Mechanical Systems.................................................................232
10.9 Experimental Work.......................................................................................232
10.9.1 A 1 × 2 Switch with One Laser Source.........................................233
10.9.2 Two 1 × 2 Switches with Two Laser Sources ................................234
10.9.3 A 2 × 2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror .......................................235
10.9.4 A 1 × 2 Switch Using a Prism........................................................237
10.9.5 Technique and Apparatus...............................................................237
10.9.6 Procedure .......................................................................................238

xv
Contents
10.9.7 Safety Procedure........................................................................238
10.9.8 Apparatus Set-Up.......................................................................238
10.9.8.1 A 1 × 2 Switch with One Laser Source..................238
10.9.8.2 Two 1 × 2 Switches with Two Laser Sources.........240
10.9.8.3 A 2 × 2 Switch Using a Movable Mirror................242
10.9.8.4 A 1 × 2 Switch Using a Prism................................244
10.9.9 Data Collection ..........................................................................246
10.9.10 Calculations and Analysis..........................................................246
10.9.11 Results and Discussions.............................................................247
10.9.12 Conclusion..................................................................................247
10.9.13 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ..............................................247
10.10 List of References.......................................................................................247
10.11 Appendix....................................................................................................247
Further Reading........................................................................................................247
Chapter 11 Laser Technology ..................................................................................................... 251
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................251
11.2 Light Emission ...........................................................................................252
11.3 Principle of the Laser .................................................................................253
11.4 Thermal Equilibrium and Population Inversion.........................................255
11.5 Transverse and Longitudinal Modes ..........................................................257
11.6 Gain ............................................................................................................258
11.7 Threshold Condition...................................................................................259
11.8 Power and Energy.......................................................................................260
11.9 Three- and Four-Energy Level Laser Systems...........................................261
11.10 Types of Laser ............................................................................................263
11.10.1 Gas Lasers..................................................................................263
11.10.1.1 Helium–Neon (He–Ne) Laser ................................263
11.10.1.2 Argon Ion (Ar+) Laser ............................................264
11.10.1.3 Carbon Dioxide Gas Laser.....................................265
11.10.2 Solid State Lasers.......................................................................265
11.10.2.1 Ruby Laser .............................................................265
11.10.2.2 Neodymium–YAG Laser........................................268
11.10.2.3 Alexandrite Laser...................................................269
11.10.3 Dye Lasers .................................................................................269
11.10.4 Semiconductor Lasers................................................................269
11.10.4.1 Energy Bands .........................................................270
11.10.4.2 Types of Semiconductor Lasers ............................. 271

xvi Contents
11.10.4.3 Heterojunction Laser Diodes...........................272
11.10.4.4 Double Heterostructure Laser Diodes.............273
11.10.4.5 Quantum Well Lasers......................................273
11.10.4.6 Separate Confinement Heterostructure
Lasers.............................................................273
11.10.4.7 Distributed Feedback Lasers...........................273
11.10.4.8 Tunable Laser Diodes......................................273
11.10.5 Other Types of Lasers........................................................... 274
11.11 Comparison of Semiconductor and Conventional Lasers ....................... 274
11.12 Classification of Lasers............................................................................ 275
11.13 Laser-Beam Alignment ........................................................................... 275
11.13.1 Alignment Using One, Two and Multi-Axis Positioners......276
11.13.2 Alignment Using Two Mirror Mounts..................................276
11.13.3 Alignment Using Three and Four Mirror Mounts ...............278
11.13.4 Alignment Using a Risley Prism Pair...................................279
11.13.5 Alignment Using an Adjustable Wedge................................280
11.14 Laser-Beam Expansion............................................................................281
11.14.1 Characteristics of a Gaussian Beam.....................................282
11.14.2 The Rayleigh Range..............................................................284
11.14.3 Expansion and Collimation of a Laser Beam.......................285
11.15 Laser Applications...................................................................................286
11.16 Experimental Work .................................................................................288
11.16.1 Experiment One: Laser-Beam Alignment............................288
11.16.2 Experiment Two: Laser-Beam Expansion ............................288
11.16.3 Technique and Apparatus .....................................................288
11.16.4 Procedure.............................................................................. 291
11.16.5 Safety Procedure................................................................... 291
11.16.6 Apparatus Set-Up.................................................................. 291
11.16.6.1 Experiment One: Laser-Beam Alignment ...... 291
11.16.6.2 Experiment Two: Laser-Beam Expansion.......299
11.16.7 Data Collection.....................................................................302
11.16.7.1 Experiment One: Laser-Beam Alignment ......302
11.16.8 Calculations and Analysis ....................................................303
11.16.9 Results and Discussions........................................................304
11.16.10 Conclusion ............................................................................304
11.16.11 Suggestions for Future Lab Work.........................................304
11.17 List of References....................................................................................305
11.18 Appendix .................................................................................................305
Further Reading......................................................................................................305

xvii
Contents
Chapter 12 Optical-Fibre Communications................................................................................307
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................307
12.2 The Evolution of Communication Systems................................................308
12.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum Overview.........................................................308
12.4 The Evolution of Fibre-Optic Systems....................................................... 310
12.4.1 The First Generation..................................................................310
12.4.2 The Second Generation .............................................................311
12.4.3 The Third Generation ................................................................311
12.5 Undersea DWDM Cable Network (SEA-ME-WE-3)................................311
12.6 Basic Communication Systems..................................................................312
12.7 Types of Topologies.................................................................................... 313
12.7.1 Bus Topology.............................................................................313
12.7.2 Ring Topology ...........................................................................314
12.7.3 Star Topology.............................................................................314
12.7.4 Mesh Topology..........................................................................314
12.7.5 Tree Topology............................................................................ 314
12.8 Types of Networks...................................................................................... 316
12.8.1 Home Area Networks ................................................................316
12.8.2 Local Area Networks.................................................................316
12.8.3 Campus Area Networks.............................................................316
12.8.4 Metropolitan Area Networks .....................................................317
12.8.5 Wide Area Networks.................................................................320
12.9 Submarine Cables.......................................................................................321
12.10 Open-System Interconnection.................................................................... 321
12.10.1 Physical (Layer 1)......................................................................321
12.10.2 Data Link (Layer 2)...................................................................321
12.10.3 Network (Layer 3) .....................................................................321
12.10.4 Transport (Layer 4)....................................................................323
12.10.5 Session (Layer 5).......................................................................324
12.10.6 Presentation (Layer 6) ...............................................................324
12.10.7 Application (Layer 7) ................................................................324
12.11 Performance of Passive Linear Optical Networks .....................................324
12.11.1 Power Budget Calculation .........................................................325
12.11.2 Nearest-Distance Power Budget ................................................325
12.11.3 Largest-Distance Power Budget ................................................326
12.12 Performance of Star Optical Networks......................................................326
12.13 Transmission Links ....................................................................................327
12.13.1 Analogue Signals.......................................................................327
12.13.2 Digital Signals ...........................................................................328
12.13.3 Converting Analogue Signal to Digital Signal ..........................329
12.13.4 Bit Error Rate ............................................................................330
12.13.5 Fibre-Optic Telecommunication Equipment and Devices ........ 331

xviii Contents
12.14 SONET/SDH............................................................................................... 331
12.14.1 Definition of SONET and SDH..................................................331
12.14.2 SONET/SDH Purposes and Features......................................... 332
12.14.2.1 Multi-Vendor Networks........................................... 332
12.14.2.2 Cost Reduction........................................................ 332
12.14.2.3 Survivability and Availability..................................333
12.14.2.4 New High-Speed Services.......................................333
12.14.2.5 Bandwidth Management .........................................333
12.14.2.6 Network Management/Single-Ended Operations..... 333
12.15 Multiplexing Terminology and Signalling Hierarchy ................................ 333
12.15.1 Existing Multiplexing Terminology and Digital Signalling
Hierarchy.................................................................................... 333
12.15.2 SONET Multiplexing Terminology and Optical Signalling
Hierarchy....................................................................................334
12.15.3 SDH Multiplexing Terminology and Optical Signalling
Hierarchy.................................................................................... 335
12.16 SONET and SDH Transmission Rates .......................................................336
12.17 North American Optical and Digital Signal Designation ..........................336
12.18 SONET Systems ......................................................................................... 337
12.18.1 Linear Systems...........................................................................337
12.18.2 Ring Systems..............................................................................338
12.19 STS-1 Frame Structure...............................................................................338
12.19.1 Serial Transmission ....................................................................338
12.19.2 Transport Overhead....................................................................339
12.19.3 STS-1 SPE Path Overhead .........................................................340
12.19.4 Multiplexing Method.................................................................. 341
12.20 Metro and Long-Haul Optical Networks.................................................... 341
12.21 Network Configuration...............................................................................342
12.21.1 Automatic Protection Switching ................................................342
12.21.2 SONET/SDH Ring Configurations ............................................342
12.21.2.1 Two-Fibre Unidirectional Path Switched Ring
Configuration ..........................................................342
12.21.2.2 Four-Fibre BLSR Configuration .............................343
12.21.3 Generic SONET Network ..........................................................345
12.21.4 SONET Add/Drop Multiplexer ..................................................346
12.21.5 Dense WDM Deployment..........................................................346
Further Reading ........................................................................................................347
Chapter 13 Fibre-Optic Lighting ................................................................................................349
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................349
13.2 Light............................................................................................................349
13.3 Electrical Energy Consumption by Lighting..............................................350
13.4 Light Measurement..................................................................................... 351
13.4.1 Luminous Flux or Light Output .................................................351
13.4.2 Luminous Efficacy .....................................................................351
13.4.3 Luminous Flux Density of Lighting Level................................. 352
13.5 Electrical Lighting System ......................................................................... 353

xix
Contents
13.6 Fibre-Optic Lighting System .......................................................................354
13.7 Advantages of Fibre-Optic Lighting............................................................ 355
13.8 Fibre-Optic Lighting Applications...............................................................356
13.9 Experimental Work...................................................................................... 357
13.9.1 Technique and Apparatus.............................................................357
13.9.2 Procedure.....................................................................................358
13.9.3 Safety Procedure..........................................................................358
13.9.4 Apparatus Set-Up ........................................................................ 358
13.9.4.1 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Diffuser ............................358
13.9.4.2 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Lens and Diffuser.............359
13.9.4.3 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Lenses and Diffuser......... 359
13.9.5 Data Collection............................................................................360
13.9.5.3 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Lenses and Diffuser.........360
13.9.6 Calculations and Analysis ...........................................................360
13.9.6.3 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Lenses and Diffuser.........360
13.9.7 Results and Discussions............................................................... 361
13.9.7.3 Fibre-Optic Lighting with Lenses and Diffuser......... 361
13.9.8 Conclusion ................................................................................... 361
13.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work................................................ 361
13.10 List of References ........................................................................................ 361
13.11 Appendix...................................................................................................... 361
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 361
Chapter 14 Fibre-Optic Testing ..................................................................................................363
14.1 Introduction..................................................................................................363
14.2 Testing Photonics Components....................................................................363
14.3 Optical-Power Measurements (Intensity) ....................................................364
14.3.1 Optical-Power Measurement Units .............................................364
14.3.2 Optical-Power Loss Measurements.............................................365
14.3.2.1 Insertion Loss.............................................................365
14.3.2.2 Crosstalk.....................................................................365
14.3.2.3 Polarisation-Dependent Loss......................................366
14.3.2.4 Return Loss or Back Reflection..................................366
14.3.2.5 Temperature-Dependent Loss ....................................367
14.3.2.6 Wavelength-Dependent Loss......................................367
14.3.2.7 Chromatic Dispersion.................................................367
14.4 Optical-Frequency Measurements...............................................................368
14.5 Testing Optical Fibre Switches ....................................................................368
14.5.1 Mechanical Tests .........................................................................369
14.5.2 Environmental Tests....................................................................369
14.5.3 Repeatability Test ........................................................................370
14.5.4 Speed Test....................................................................................370

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καμνόντων, ἐκτὸς ἐὼν πάσης ἀδικίης ἑκουσίης καὶ φθορίης τῆς τε
ἄλλης, καὶ ἀ φ ρ ο δ ι σ ί ω ν ἔ ρ γ ω ν , ἐ π ί τ ε γ υ ν α ι κ ε ί ω ν
σ ω μ ά τ ω ν κ α ὶ ἀ ν θ ρ ώ π ω ν ἐ λ ε υ θ έ ρ ω ν τ ε κ α ὶ
δ ο ύ λ ω ν. (Also into whatsoever houses I enter, I will go in there
for the succour of sick persons, devoid of all voluntary offence
and all evil-doing, and above all of all amorous practices, whether
on the persons of women or free men or slaves). At the same
time we learn from this document, that even then paederastia
was wide-spread enough already, and that physicians were
actually not ashamed to abuse their patients in this, as in other
vicious ways! Undoubtedly it is from no other reason that the
Turk at this very moment will rather expire than allow a clyster to
be administered to him.
278 Martial, bk. II. Epigr. 40.,
Omnes Tongilium medici iussere lavari,
O stulti! febrem creditis esse? gula est.
(All the doctors ordered Tongilius to bathe; fools! think you it is
a fever? it is gluttony that is the matter). Comp. bk. XI. Epigr. 87.
279 Galen, Method. medendi, bk. VIII. ch. 6., edit. Kühn Vol. X.
p. 580., σχεδὸν εἴρηταί μοι πάντα περὶ τῶν ἐφημέρων πυρετῶν·
οἱ γὰρ ἐπὶ βουβῶσι πυρέξαντες οὐδὲ πυνθάνονται τῶν ἰατρῶν ὅ τι
χρὴ ποιεῖν· ἀλλὰ τοῦθ’ἕλκους ἐφ’ᾧπερ ἂν ὁ βουβὼν αὐτοῖς εἴη
γεγεννημένος, αὐτοῦ τε τοῦ βουβῶνος προνοησάμενοι, λούονται
κατὰ τὴν παρακμὴν τοῦ γενομένου κ. τ. λ. (for translation see
text above). The Diatriton mentioned in the next sentence was
the fast till the third day, which was generally prescribed by
Thessalus and the methodic school. For this reason it was called
διάτριτον θεσσαλείον (Thessalus’ diatriton), and the physicians
who held to it διατριτάριοι ἰατροὶ (doctors of the diatriton), as we
gather from the subsequent statement of Galen. Of the ephemera
in case of buboes Galen also speaks, ad Glauconem meth. med.
bk. I. ch. 2., edit. Kühn Vol. XI. p. 6., καὶ οἱ ἐπὶ βουβῶσι δὲ
πυρετοὶ τούτου τοῦ γένους εἰσὶ, πλὴν εἰ μὴ χωρὶς ἕλκους φανεροῦ
γένοιντο, (Moreover the fevers that follow on buboes are of this
kind, the exception being if they have not been without open
ulceration). Celsus moreover, De re med. bk. VI. ch. 18., says à
propos of diseases of the genitals, that he means to undertake
their description, quia in vulgus eorum curatio praecipue
cognoscenda est, quae invitissimus quisque alteri ostendit,

(because a general acquaintance is particularly desirable with the
means of curing such complaints as every man is most reluctant
to make known to another).
280 Galen, Meth. med., bk. XIII. ch. 5. p. 881., οὕτως οὖν καὶ
δι’ἕλκος ἐν δακτύλῳ γινόμενον ἤτοι ποδὸς ἢ χειρὸς οἱ κατὰ τὸν
βουβῶνα καὶ τὴν μασχάλην ἀδένες ἐξαίρονταί τε καὶ
φλεγμαίνουσι, τοῦ καταῤῥέοντος ἐπ’ ἄκρον τὸν κῶλον αἵματος
ἀπολαβόντες πρῶτοι· καὶ κατὰ τράχηλον δὲ καὶ παρ’ ὦτα πολλάκις
ἐξῄρθησαν ἀδένες, ἑλκῶν γενομένων ἤτοι κατὰ τὴν κεφαλὴν ἢ
τὸν τράχηλον ἤ τι τῶν πλησίων μορίων· ὀνομάζουσι δὲ τοὺς
οὕτως ἐξαρθέντας ἀδένας βουβῶνας. (Thus then in consequence
of an ulcer that has formed in a finger or toe the glands of the
groin and the arm-pit become swollen and inflamed, having been
the first to receive back the blood that flows down to the
extremity of the limb. Moreover on the neck and about the ears
glands are frequently swollen, when ulcers have been set up in
the head or neck or any of the neighbouring parts. And glands
swollen up in this way are known as buboes).
281 Hippocratic Oath, in Hippocrates, Vol. I. p. 2., ἃ δ’ἂν ἐν
θεραπείῃ ἢ ἴδω ἢ ἀκούσω, ἢ καὶ ἄνευ θεραπείης, κατὰ βίον
ἀνθρώπων, ἃ μὴ χρή ποτε ἐκκαλέεσθαι ἔξω, σιγήσομαι, ἄῤῥητα
ἡγεύμενος εἶναι τὰ τοιαῦτα. (and whatsoever I may see or hear in
my practice, or even apart from practice, connected with men’s
life, what ought not in any case to be revealed, this I will say
nought of, holding such secrets inviolable).
282 Hippocrates, De locis in homine, edit. Kühn Vol. II. p. 139.
283 Galen, Method. medendi bk. IV. ch. 2., edit. Kühn Vol. X. p.
238.
284 Oppenheim, loco citato p. 123. The Eastern Christian
woman in question actually assured Niebuhr herself that she
would never agree to the knife being applied to her husband’s
genitals, and yet in this case it was merely a question of dividing
an over short frenulum. Michaelis, “Mosaisches Recht”, (Mosaic
Law), Vol. IV. p. 3.
285 Examples of such are at any rate plentiful in Martial, e.g.
bk. XI. Epigr. 75.,

Curandum penem commisit Bacchara Graecus
Rivali medico: Bacchara Gallus erit.
(Bacchara entrusted the cure of his member to a rival doctor:
Bacchara was a Greek, he will now be a Gaul,—“Gallus”, castrated
Priest of Cybelé).
bk. II. Epigr. 46.,
Quae tibi non stabat, praecisa est mentula, Glypte.
Demens, cum ferro quid tibi? Gallus eras.
(Your member, Glyptus, that you could never get to stand
erect, has been cut. Fool,—why! what had you to do with the
knife? You were a “Gallus” already).
bk. III. Epigr. 81.,
Abscissa est quare Samia tibi mentula testa,
Si tibi tam gratus, Baetice, cunnus erat?
(Why has your member been cut with a Samian potsherd, if the
female organ, Baeticus, was so dear to you)?
286 Scribonius Largus, De compos. medicam. edit. Bernhold,
Strasburg 1786., p. 2., writes in his Introduction to the Callistus:
Siquidem verum est, antiquos herbis ac radicibus eorum corporis
vitia curasse: quia etiam tunc genus mortalium i n t e r i n i t i a
n o n f a c i l e s e f e r r o c o m m i t t e b a t. Quod etiam nunc
plerique faciunt, ne dicam omnes; et, nisi magna compulsi
necessitate speque ipsius salutis, non patiunter sibi fieri, quae
sane vix sunt toleranda. (If in fact it is true that the Ancients
cured the diseases of their bodies by means of herbs and roots:
for even then the race of mortals at the beginning did not readily
entrust its cure to the knife. And this is what even now the most
part do; and, unless constrained by a sore need and by the hope
of actual recovery, do not suffer operations to be performed on
them, which in very deed are hardly to be endured).
287 Galen, Method. medendi bk. IV. ch. 1., edit. Kühn Vol. X. p.
233.

288 Hippocrates, Coact. praenot., edit. Kühn Vol. I. p. 343., τὰ
ἑρπηστικὰ ὑπεράνω βουβῶνος πρὸς κενεῶνα καὶ ἥβην γινόμενα,
σημαίνει κοιλίην πονηρευομένην. (Spreading eruptions that
appear above the groin towards the flank and pubes point to an
evil condition of stomach).
289 Galen, Method. medendi bk. IV. ch. 3., edit. Kühn Vol. X.
pp. 243 sqq.
290 Hence Hensler is quite right in saying as he does (History
of Venereal Disease Vol. I. p. 298.): “It is extraordinary that a
precision should have been demanded on the part of the
Ancients, which they could not possibly possess, such indeed as
cannot be expected in any disease during its childhood. As to
requiring them to have announced the cause of the evil with
certainty and clearness, this is always only the result of time and
reiterated experience.”
291 Galen, De locis affect. bk. VI. ch. 5., edit. Kühn Vol. VIII. p.
422., φαινομένου δὲ σαφῶς, ἰσχυροτάτην ἔχειν τὴν δύναμιν ἐνίας
τῶν οὐσιῶν, ὑπόλοιπον ἂν εἴη ζητεῖν, εἰ διαφθορά τις ἐν τοῖς
ζώοις δύναται γενέσθαι τηλικαύτη τὸ μέγεθος, ὡς ἰῷ θηρίου
παραπλησίαν ἔχειν ποιότητά τε καὶ δύναμιν. (But it being plainly
evident that there are some creatures that have the power
developed in the highest degree, it would be superfluous to
enquire whether there can exist in animals a destructive force so
great in amount as to possess a quality and power similar to
poison in snakes). In fact he answers this question in the
affirmative so far as regards semen and menstrual blood,
appealing to the poisonous quality of the spittle of dogs in rabies.
292 Heyne, De febribus epidemicis Romae falso in pestium
censum relatis Progr., (On certain Epidemic Fevers at Rome
incorrectly referred to the Category of Plagues,—a Graduation
Exercise), Göttingen 1782., p. 4. (Works vol. III.), Hoc enim erat
illud, quod antiquitatem omnino ab subtiliore naturae adeoque et
morborum cognitione revocavit et retraxit, quod ea, quae ad
interiorem eius notitiam spectabant, inprimisque quae ab solenni
rerum cursu recedebant, ad religiones metumque deorum
referebantur. (For indeed this was the cause which withdrew and
kept back Antiquity generally from a more precise acquaintance
with nature and so with diseases, viz. that everything which
regarded the more intimate knowledge of it, and above all
everything that was somewhat out of the common course of

things, became a matter of religious scruples and superstition).
Comp. C. F. H. Marx, Origines Contagii, (Original Causes of
Contagion) Carlrühe and Baden 1824.
293 As a rule they ascribed the origin of the contagion to σῆψις
(putrefaction), and from their point of view septic, or putrefactive,
diseases were pretty much the same as infectious (Galen, De febr.
diff. I. 4.). Hence it would seem probable the ἕλκεα σηπεδόνα
(putrefying ulcers) were at any rate partly looked at in the same
light,—a circumstance of the highest importance as bearing on
ulcers of the genitals, as in that case these latter are manifestly
represented as being infectious. It is to be hoped that experts will
give their decision as to this. At any rate as early as Galen’s time
(De locis effect. bk. VI. ch. 5., edit. Kühn Vol. VIII. p. 422.) the
action of contagion was regarded as analogous to that of the
electric ray-fish (νάρκη θαλάττιος) and the magnet, and the
conclusion was drawn: ταῦτά τε οὖν ἱκανὰ τεκμήρια τοῦ σμικρὰν
οὐσίαν ἀλλοιώσεις μεγίστας ἐργάζεσθαι μόνῳ τῷ ψαῦσαι. (these
then are sufficient evidences of the fact that a small creature may
produce very great variations by contact alone).
294 These were treated by the female physicians (αἱ ἰατρίναι),
Galen, De loc. effect. VI. 5., Vol. VIII. p. 414. and the midwives,
who had to examine the female genitals in cases of disease
affecting them, and report the results to the Physicians.
Σκέψασθαι κέλευσον τὴν μαῖαν ἁψαμένην τοῦ τῆς μήτρας
αὐχένος, (bid the midwife examine by touch the neck of the
womb), Galen says, loco citato p. 433.
295 Galen, De morborum causis, ch. 9., edit. Kühn Vol. VII. p.
39.
296 Galen, Methodus medendi bk. II. ch. 2., edit. Kühn Vol. X.
p. 84.
297 Hensler, History of Venereal Disease Vol. I. p. 191. He says
explicitly: “However I do not propose to follow up to its original
cause the history either of gonorrhœa, valuable as the results
might be, nor that of any other complaint liable to occur. It is
sufficient for my purpose to elucidate my Authorities for Venereal
disease at its first appearance from the circumstances of their
epoch, though no doubt incidentally the eye must sometimes take
a wider sweep and look further and higher.”

298 Galen, De loc. affect, bk. VI. 6. (VIII. p. 439.), τὸ δὲ τῆς
γονοῤῥοίας ὄνομα προφανῶς ἐστι σύνθετον ἐκ τῆς γονῆς καὶ τοῦ
ῥεῖν· ὀνομάζεται γὰρ τὸ σπέρμα καὶ γονός. (Now the name of
gonorrhœa is evidently compounded from the words γονὴ and
ῥεῖν. For the semen (σπέρμα) is also known as γονός.)
299 Galen, loco cit. p. 441., γονόῤῥοια μὲν οὖν τῶν
σπερματικῶν ὀργάνων ἐστὶ πάθος, οὐ τῶν αἰδοίων, οἷς ὁδῷ
χρῆται πρὸς ἔκρουν ἡ γονή· (Gonorrhœa accordingly is an
affection of the seminal organs, not of the privates, which the
seed merely uses as its passage for excretion).—De usu partium
bk. XIV. ch. 10. (IV. p. 188.), κατὰ δὲ τὰς γονοῤῥοίας αὐτῶν
μόνων ἐστὶ τὸ πάθημα τῶν σπερματικῶν ἀγγείων. (But in
gonorrhœas the affection is one solely of the seminal vessels).
300 Galen, De symptom. caus. bk. II. ch. 2. (VII. p. 150.),
ὥσπέρ γε καὶ τῆς γονοῤῥοίας ἡ ἑτέρα διαφορά· εἰ μὲν γὰρ μετὰ
ἐντάσεως τοῦ αἰδοίου γένοιτο, οἷον σπασμός ἐστιν, εἰ δὲ χωρὶς
ταύτης, ἀῤῥωστία τῆς καθεκτικῆς δυνάμεως. (As is the case too
with the second variety of gonorrhœa. For if it be combined with
tension of the private, it is a sort of spasm, but if without this, a
weakness of retentive force).—Bk. III. ch. 11. (p. 267.), καὶ μὴν
καὶ αἱ γονόῤῥοιαι, χωρὶς μὲν τοῦ συνεντείνεσθαι τὸ αἰδοῖον,
ἀρρωστία τῆς καθεκτικῆς δυνάμεως τῆς ἐν τοῖς σπερματικοῖς
ἀγγείοις· ἐντεινομένου δέ πως, οἷον σπασμῷ τινι παραπλήσιον
πασχόντων ἐπιτελοῦνται. (Moreover also gonorrhœas, if not
combined with a state of tension of the private, are from a
weakness of retentive power in the seminal vessels; but if there is
any tension, they are marked by a sort of spasm resembling that
of spasmodic patients).
301 Galen, De tumoribus praeternat., ch. 14. (VII. p. 728.),
καθάπερ καὶ τὰς κατὰ φύσιν ἐντάσεις τῶν αἰδοίων μὴ
καθισταμένας τινὲς ὀνομάζουσι σατυριασμὸν, τινὲς δὲ πριαπισμόν.
(Precisely as tensions of the privates not originating in a natural
way are called by some Satyriasis, by others Priapism). The latter,
as we gather from Galen, Method. XIV. ch. 7. (X. p. 968.), by the
younger physicians.
302 Galen, De usu partium bk. XIV. ch. 10. (IV. p. 187.),
πηλίκην γὰρ ἔχει δύναμιν εἰς τὴν τῶν περιεχομένων ἔκκρισιν ὁ
οἷον σπασμὸς τῶν μορίων τοῖς ἀφροδισίοις ἑπόμενος, ἔνεστί σοι
μαθεῖν ἔκ τε τῶν ἐπιληψίων τῶν μεγάλων κἀκ τοῦ παθήματος, ὃ
δὴ καλεῖται γονόῤῥοια· κατὰ μὲν γὰρ τὰς ἰσχυρὰς ἐπιληψίας, ὅτι

τὸ πᾶν σῶμα σπᾶται σφοδρῶς, καὶ σὺν αὐτῷ τὰ γεννητικὰ μόρια,
διὰ τοῦτο ἐκκρίνεται τὸ σπέρμα· κατὰ δὲ τὰς γονοῤῥοίας αὐτῶν
μόνων ἐστὶ τὸ πάθημα τῶν σπερματικῶν ἀγγείων· ὁποίαν οὖν
τάσιν ἐν τοῖς εἰρημένοις νοσήμασι πάσχει, τοιαύτην ἴσχοντα ταῖς
συνουσίαις ἐκκρίνει τὸ σπέρμα. (for how great a force in the way
of stimulating the secretion of the surrounding glands is exerted
by the species of spasm of the parts that follows on amatory
action, you may learn from the seizures in the more serious forms
of epilepsy, as also from the affection which is known as
gonorrhœa. For in violent epileptic seizures, because the whole
body is strongly convulsed, and with it the procreative parts, for
this reason the semen is secreted; whereas in gonorrhœas the
affection is one solely of the actual seminal vessels. Accordingly
whatever tension these parts undergo in the diseases mentioned
is the same in degree as they experience on secreting semen in
acts of sexual intercourse). Comp. Note 2.
303 Galen, Method. medendi bk. XIV. ch. 7. (X. p. 967.), αὐτίκα
γέ τοι πάθος ἐστὶ τὸ καλούμενον ὑπὸ τῶν νεωτέρων πριαπισμὸς,
ἐπειδὴ τὸ αἰδοῖον ἀκουσίως ἐξαίρεται, τῶν οὕτω διακειμένων· ὃ
θεασάμενός τις τῶν ἐν τοῖσδε τοῖς ὑπομνήμασι
προγεγυμνασμένων ἑτοίμως γνωριεῖ τοῦ τῶν ἐμφυσημάτων
ὑπάρχον γένους· (The immediate complaint is what is called by
the younger school Priapism, when the private part is erected
involuntarily in patients so afflicted; and if any of my readers who
have been prepared beforehand in the present memoranda see
this, he will readily recognize the phænomenon to belong to the
class of the emphysemata, or inflations). De sympt. caus. bk. III.
ch. 11. (VII. p. 266).
304 Galen, De causis morb. ch. 6. (VII. p. 22.), καὶ ὡς ἐνίοτε
μὲν εἰλικρινὴς ἐπιῤῥεῖ τούτων ἕκαστος τῶν χυμῶν, ἐνίοτε
δ’ἀλλήλοις ἐπιμίγνυνται· καὶ ὡς αἱ τῶν οἰδούντων—μορίων
διαθέσεις ἐντεῦθεν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ποικίλλονται ... καὶ σατυριάσεις
ἐκ τούτου τοῦ γένους εἰσὶ. (And so sometimes each of these
humours is secreted pure, while at other times they are mixed
one with the other; and so from this circumstance the conditions
of the parts suffering swelling vary in the highest degree.... Now
cases of satyriasis are of this kind). Comp. Method. med. bk. XIV.
ch. 7.
305 Paulus Aegineta, bk. III. ch. 56., ἡ σατυρίασις ἐστὶ παλμὸς
τοῦ αἰδοίου φλεγμονώδει τινι διαθέσει τῶν σπερματικῶν ἀγγείων
ἑπόμενος μετ’ἐντάσεως· καὶ εἰ μὴ παύσαιτο ὁ παλμός,

κατασκήπτειν εἴωθεν εἰς πάρεσιν τῶν σπερματικῶν ἀγγείων ἢ
σπασμόν, καὶ ἀπόλλυντας ὀξέως οἱ σπασθέντες· τελευτῶντες δὲ
φυσῶνται γαστέρα καὶ ὑδροῦσι ψυχρόν. (Satyriasis is palpitation
of the private part following on an inflammatory condition of the
spermatic vessels and accompanied with tension. If the
palpitation do not cease, it commonly passes into paresis of the
spermatic vessels or spasm, and patients attacked by the spasm
quickly succumb; and in their last moments they have the
abdomen distended and suffer from cold sweats.)
306 Actuarius, Method. med. bk. I ch. 22., Priapismus vero est
permanens constansque colis extensio.—Corripit hic affectus cum
calidus crassusque spiritus in colem decumbit, qui ubi non facile
egredi permittitur, penem vi extendit. Hi exiguum vel nihil seminis
eiaculantur, sentiunt tamen quod spiritus una excludatur et levari
quidem aegri ita quadamtenus videntur: verum denuo eodem
malo corripiuntur, donec intensionis causa fuerit sublata. Coles
resolvitur, aut quod nervi illius aliqua intemperie debilitentur aut
quod spiritus confluens deficiat vel meatus eius obstruantur
dissecenturve. (Now priapism is a permanent and chronic state of
erection of the member.—This complaint attacks a patient, when a
hot and heavy spirit descends into the member, which not being
suffered to readily escape, violently erects the penis. Such
patients ejaculate little or no semen, yet feel that the spirit is
voided along with it, and so far as there is any emission, appear
to be relieved thereby; but they are again attacked afresh by the
same evil, until the cause of the tension has been removed. Then
the member is relaxed, either because its muscles are weakened
by some morbid condition, or because the spirit converging to it
fails or its passages are blocked and become dried up).
307 Aretaeus, Morb. chron. sympt. bk. II. ch. 5., ἀπὸ
σατυριήσεως ἐς γονοῤῥοίης ἀπόσκηψιν ἡ κατάστασις. (The
established tendency after satyriasis is towards a determination of
gonorrhœa). Caelius Aurelian, Acut. morb. bk. III. ch. 18.,
Omnibus tamen in ultimo conductio nervorum fit, quam Graeci
spasmon vocaverunt et voluntarius seminis iactus. (Yet in all
cases eventually a certain action of the muscles takes place,
which the Greeks call spasm, and a voluntary ejaculation of
semen).
308 Galen, Method. med. bk. XIV. ch. 7. (X. p. 970.), γίνεται δὲ
οὐ πολλοῖς μὲν τὸ πάθος τοῦτο, νεανίαις γε μὲν μᾶλλον ἢ
κατ’ἄλλην ἡλικίαν· (Now this complaint does not attack many, and

young men are more liable than any other age). Caelius Aurelian,
Acut. morb. bk. III. ch. 18., Sed antecedentes ipsius passionis
causae sunt epota medicamina—ἐντατικὰ—, item immodicus
atque intemporalis usus veneris. Est autem communis passio viris
atque feminis, quae solet accidere aetatibus mediis atque
iuventuti. (But the antecedent causes of the actual complaint are
the taking of drugs, viz. aphrodisiacs, as also immoderate and
unseasonable indulgence in love. And the complaint is common
both to men and women, and regularly attacks persons in middle
life as well as the young).
309 Galen, Method. med. bk. XIV. ch. 7. (X. pp. 969 sqq.).
Comp. De Composit. medicam. secund. locos, bk. IX. ch. 9. (XIII.
p. 318.). Caelius Aurelian, Acut. morb. bk. III. 18., Chron. morb.
bk. II. 1. V. 9. Actuarius, Method. med. I. 15. Nonnus, Epitom. ch.
194. Priscian, bk. II. ch. 11.
310 Caelius Aurelian bk. III. ch. 18., Prohibentes etiam
hominum ingressum et magis iuvenum feminarum atque
puerorum. Pulchritudo enim ingredientium admonitione quadam
provocat aegrotantes; quippe cum etiam sani saepe talibus usi
statim in veneream veniant voluptatem, provocati partium effecta
tentigine. (Forbidding the entrance even of men, much more that
of youths, women and boys. For the beauty of those entering
excites the patients by calling up remembered images; for even
healthy subjects frequently enjoying such sights straightway fall
in lustful love, incited by a certain tension of the parts being
produced). He also recommended shaving the hair of the pubis.
311 Galen, De loc affect. VI. 6. (VIII. p. 439.), ἡ μὲν οὖν
γονόῤῥοια σπέρματος ἀπόκρισίς ἐστιν ἀκούσιος, ἔξεστι δὲ καὶ
ἀπροαίρετον ὀνομάζειν, ὥσπερ καὶ σαφέστερον, ἀπόκρισιν
σπέρματος συνεχῶς γιγνομένην, χωρὶς τῆς κατὰ τὸ αἰδοῖον
ἐνστάσεως ... ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ τ’ἄλλα πάντα τὰ ἐκ τοῦ σώματος
ἡμῶν ἐκκενούμενα κατὰ διττὸν τρόπον τοῦτο πάσχει, ποτὲ μὲν ἐκ
τῶν περιεχόντων αὐτὰ σωμάτων ἐκκρινόμενα, ποτὲ δὲ αὐτομάτως
ἐκρέοντα δι’ ἀῤῥωστίαν τῶν αὐτῶν σωμάτων οὐ κατεχόμενα,
οὕτως καὶ τὸ σπέρμα· (Now gonorrhœa is an involuntary
discharge of semen, or we may call it unintentional, if we prefer,
as being a clearer term, the discharge of semen taking place
continuously, without erection in the member.... And just as other
parts of our body when evacuated, suffer this in one of two ways,
sometimes being discharged by the bodies that surround them, at
others flowing out automatically, as failing to be retained through

some weakness in the bodies themselves, so is it also with the
semen).—Paulus Aegineta, bk. III. ch. 55., ἡ γονόῤῥοια
σπέρματος ἐστὶν ἀκούσιος ἀπόκρισις σανεχῶς γινομένη χωρὶς τῆς
κατὰ τὸ αἰδοῖον ἐνστάσεως, διὰ τὴν τῆς καθεκτικῆς δυνάμεως
ἀσθένειαν γινομένη. (Gonorrhœa is an involuntary discharge of
seed going on persistently without erection in the member, being
due to feebleness of the retentive power). Nonnus, Epitome ch.
193., says the same.
312 Galen, loco citato p. 441., ὥσπερ γε καὶ τὴν τῆς
γονοῤῥοίας, ἀνάλογον οὔρων ἐκκρίσεσιν ἀκουσίοις, ὅταν ἡ
κατέχουσα δύναμις αὐτὴ παραλυθεῖσα τύχῃ. (Similarly too the
discharge of gonorrhœa, analogous to the involuntary discharges
of urine, whenever the retentive power itself has come to be
paralysed). Actuarius, Method. med. bk. I. ch. 22., Causa autem
eius est, seminalium vasorum fluxus facilitas, aut impotentia aut
quod ob enatam intemperiem semen continere nequeant, aut
quod h u m o r quispiam m o r d a x ibi abundans stimulet. (Now
the cause of it is the facility of flow from the seminal vessels,
either from impotence or because they are unable to retain the
semen in consequence of a morbid condition that has arisen, or
else because some acrid humour is there in over-abundance,
stimulating the flow).
313 Galen, De sanitate tuenda Bk. VI. ch. 14. (VI. p. 443.),
Μοχθηροτάτη δὲ σώματός ἐστι καὶ ἡ τοίαδε· σπέρμα πολὺ καὶ
δερμὸν ἔνιοι γεννῶσιν, ἐπείγει γὰρ αὐτοὺς εἰς ἀπόκρισιν, οὗ μετὰ
τὴν ἔκκρισιν ἔκλυτοί τε γίγνονται τῷ στόματι τῆς κοιλίας, ...
ἀσθενεῖς γίγνονται, καὶ ξηροὶ καὶ λεπτοὶ, καὶ ὠχροὶ, καὶ
κοιλοφθαλμιῶντες οἱ οὕτω διακείμενοι· εἰ δὲ ἐκ τοῦ ταῦτα πάσχειν
ἐπὶ ταῖς συνουσίαις ἀπέχοιντο μίξεως ἀφροδισίων δύσφοροι μὲν
τὴν κεφαλὴν, δύσφοροι δὲ καὶ τῷ στομάχῳ, καὶ ἀσώδεις· οὐδὲν
δὲ μέγα διὰ τῆς ἐγκρατείας ὠφελοῦνται· συμβαίνει γὰρ αὐτοῖς
ἐξονειρώττουσι παραπλησίας γίνεσθαι βλάβας, ἃς ἔπασχον ἐπὶ ταῖς
συνουσίαις· ὡ ς δ έ τ ι ς ἐ ξ α ὐ τ ῶ ν ἔ φ η μ ο ι ,
δ α κ ν ώ δ ο υ ς τ ε κ α ὶ θ ε ρ μ ο ῦ π ά ν υ τ ο ῦ σ π έ ρ μ α τ ο ς
α ἰ σ θ ά ν ε σ θ α ι κ α τ ὰ τ ὴ ν ἀ π ό κ ρ ι σ ι ν , ο ὐ μ ό ν ο ν
ἑ α υ τ ὸ ν , ἀ λ λ ὰ κ α ὶ τ ὰ ς γ υ ν α ῖ κ α ς α ἷ ς ἂ ν ὁ μ ι λ ή σ ῃ·
(However the most troublesome condition of body is the
following: some patients produce copious and hot semen, and
this provokes them to ejaculation, then after its ejaculation, they
grow relaxed at the neck of the belly, ... and become weak, and
dried up, and thin, and pale, and hollow-eyed,—the patients that

find themselves so affected. And if after suffering in these ways,
they then indulge in the intercourse of sexual love, they are
afflicted in head and in stomach, and with nausea. Nor on the
other hand do they get any great benefit from continence; for
they come, by having pollutions in dreams, to undergo similar
inconveniences to those they incurred in sexual intercourse. And
as one of them said to me, he experienced a biting and
exceedingly hot sensation from the semen in its ejaculation,—and
not himself only, but also such women as he had intercourse
with).
314 Aretaeus, De morbor. chronic. symptom. bk. II. ch. 5.,
Ἀνώλεθρον μὲν ἡ γονόῤῥοια, ἀ τ ε ρ π ὲ ς δ ὲ κ α ὶ ἀ η δ ὲ ς
μ έ σ φ ι ἀ κ ο ῆ ς· ἣν γὰρ ἀκρασίη καὶ π ά ρ ε σ ι ς τὰ ὑγρὰ ἴσχῃ καὶ
γόνιμα μέρεα, ὅκως διὰ ψυχρῶν ῥέει ἡ θορὴ, οὐδὲ ἐπισχεῖν ἐστὶ
αὐτὴν οὐδὲ ἐν ὕπνοισι· ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἤν τε εὕδῃ, ἤν τε ἐγρηγορέῃ,
ἀνεπίσχετος ἡ φορὴ, ἀναίσθητος δὲ ἡ ῥοὴ τοῦ γόνου γίγνεται·
ν ο σ έ ο υ σ ι δ ὲ κ α ὶ γ υ ν α ῖ κ ε ς τ ή ν δ ε τ ὴ ν ν ο ῦ σ ο ν,
ἀλλ’ἐπὶ κνησμοῖσι τῶν μορίων καὶ ἡδονῇ προχέεται τῇσι ἡ θορή·
ἀτὰρ καὶ πρὸς ἄνδρας ὁμιλίῃ ἀναισχύντῳ· ἄνδρες δὲ οὐδ’ὅλως
ὀδάξονται· τὸ δὲ ῥέον ὑγρὸν λεπτὸν, ψυχρὸν, ἄχρουν, ἄγονον·
πῶς γὰρ ζωογόνον ἐκπέμψαι σπέρμα ψυχρὴ οὖσα ἡ φύσις· ἢν δὲ
καὶ νέοι πάσχωσι, γηραλέους χρὴ γενέσθαι πάντας τὴν ἕξιν,
νωθώδεας, ἐκλύτους, ἀψύχους, ὀκνέοντας, κωφούς, ἀσθενέας,
ῥικνούς, ἀπρήκτους, ἐπώχρους, λευκοὺς, γυναικώδεας,
ἀποσίτους, ψυχροὺς, μελέων βάρεα, καὶ νάρκας σκελέων,
ἀκρατέας, καὶ ἐς πάντα παρέτους· ἥδε ἡ νοῦσος ὁδὸς ἐς
παράλυσιν πολλοῖσι γίγνεται· πῶς γὰρ οὐκ ἂν τῶν νεύρων ἥδε ἡ
δύναμις πάθοι τῆς ἐς ζωῆς γένεσιν φύσιος ἀπεψυγμένης.
(Gonorrhœa is not indeed a dangerous thing, but it is a
disagreeable one, and one that is in the highest degree unseemly
in repute. For if incontinence and paresis attack the soft
procreative parts, the semen flows all the same even though the
organs are cold, nor is it possible to stop it even in sleep; for
whether a man sleep, or wake, the running is continual, and the
flow of the seed goes on unconsciously. And women also are
subject to this complaint; but in their case the discharge of the
semen is accompanied with itchings and with pleasurable feeling,
as well as with shameless intercourse with men, whereas men are
not in any way excited. And the moisture that is discharged is
thin, cold, colourless, unfruitful; for how should its nature, that is
cold, send forth fertile semen? And if young men suffer from it,
they are bound to grow old in constitution and condition,

sluggish, relaxed, lifeless, hesitating, dull of hearing, weak,
shrunken, ineffectual, pallid, white, womanish, without appetite,
chilly, heavy of limb, and stiff of leg and palsied in every part.
This complaint is the avenue to paralysis for many; for how
should this power of the nerves not suffer when the natural parts
pertaining to the generation of life are chilled).
315 Celsus De re med. bk. IV. ch. 21., Est etiam circa naturalia
vitium, nimia profusio seminis, quod sine venere, sine nocturnis
imaginibus sic fertur, ut interposito spatio, tabe hominem
consumat. (There is another complaint connected with the private
parts, viz. excessive discharge of semen, which apart altogether
from love, and apart from nocturnal pollutions in dreams, is so
persistent that, given a sufficient interval of time, it destroys a
man by wasting).
316 Alexander of Tralles, bk. IV. ch. 9., δέονται γὰρ οὗτοι τῶν
ἐπικιρνώντων καὶ ἐμψυχόντων πάνυ καὶ λουτρῶν εὐκράτων· ὥστε
παχυνθεῖσαν ἠρέμα τὴν γονὴν καὶ εὔκρατον γενομένην, μηκέτι
φέρεσθαι. (For these patients require compound and very cooling
drugs, and lukewarm baths; so that the seed growing quietly
thicker and well-conditioned, may no longer flow away).
317 Galen, Definit. medic. n. 288. (XIX. p. 426.), Γονόῤῥοιά
ἐστιν ἀπόκρισις ἐπιφέρουσα σπέρματος νόσημα μετὰ τοῦ
τήκεσθαι τὸ σῶμα καὶ ἀχρούστερον ἀποτελεῖσθαι· γίνεται δὲ
ἀτονησάντων τῶν σπερματικῶν ἀγγείων, ὥστε τρόπον τινὰ
παρειμένων αὐτῶν μὴ κρατεῖσθαι τὸ σπέρμα. (Gonorrhœa is a
discharge producing a diseased state of semen accompanied by
wasting of the body and an unhealthy-looking complexion; and it
arises through the semen vessels having become atonic, so that,
these being in a way paralysed, the semen is not retained).
318 Actuarius, Method. med. bk. I. ch. 22., Et in seminis
quidem profluvio, neque coles intenditur, neque aeger eadem qua
sanus afficitur voluptate, sed perinde ac si superfluum quiddam
excerneretur, sensu privatur. Quod si morbus moram traxerit,
necesse est ut aeger in colliquationem collabatur ac pereat; quod
pinguior humoris portio eiiciatur ac vitalis spiritus non parum una
effluat. (Moreover in this excessive flux of semen, neither is the
member erected, nor does the patient experience the same
pleasure as he does in health, but exactly as though something
superfluous were being eliminated, he is robbed of sensation. But
if the malady runs a more protracted course, the sufferer cannot

but fall into collapse and succumb, inasmuch as the richer portion
of the humour is ejaculated, and the vital spirit must escape
along with it). As early as Hippocrates, De morbis bk. II., edit.
Kühn Vol. II. p. we read: ἡ νωτιὰς φθίσις ἀπὸ τοῦ μυελοῦ γίνεται·
λαμβάνει δὲ μάλιστα νεογάμους καὶ φιλολάγνους ... καὶ ἐπὴν
οὐρέῃ ἢ ἀποπατέῃ, προέρχεταί οἱ θορὸς πουλὺς καὶ ὑγρὸς, καὶ
γενεὴ οὐκ ἐγγίνεται, καὶ ὀνειρώσσει, κἂν συγκοιμηθῇ γυναικί, κἂν
μή. (Spinal consumption arises from the marrow; and it attacks
particularly newly married men and lascivious subjects.... And
every time the patient makes water or evacuates, semen flows
from him copious and wet, and he does not succeed in
generating, and has nocturnal pollutions, whether he sleep with a
woman or no). Ought this not to be referred to gonorrhœa?
319 Aretaeus, p. 424. loco citato; also De curat. morb. chron.
bk. II. ch. 5., καὶ τοῦ ἀτερπέος τοῦ πάθεος εἵνεκεν καὶ τοῦ κατὰ
σύντηξιν κινδυνώδεος καὶ τῆς ἐς διάδεξιν γένος χρείης λύειν χρὴ
μὴ βραδέως τὴν γονόῤῥοιαν πάντων κακῶν οὖσαν αἰτίην· (Equally
on account of the disagreeable nature of the malady as on
account of the risk of tabes or wasting and for the sake of the
needful maintenance of posterity, gonorrhœa should be rapidly
cured, being the cause of very many evils). Truly if not another
passage remained to us from the Ancient writers besides these
two of Aretaeus’, they alone would suffice to convince us of the
existence in his time of virulent gonorrhœa brought on by sexual
intercourse; and it is quite inconceivable how Simon, Versuch
einer krit. Gesch. (Essay towards a Critical History), Bk. I. p. 24.,
can say: “Thus for instance all the symptoms, which Aretaeus
mentions in his Chapter on Gonorrhœa, speak for true seminal
flux!”
320 Theodorus Priscianus, bk. II. logic, ch. 11., Satyriasis,
gonorrhœa vel priapismus, quibus similis est sub immoderata
patratione molestia, his accidentibus disterminantur. Gonorrhœa
sine veretri extensione vel usus venerii desiderio, spermatis
affluentissima sub effusione corpora debilitat et per chronica
tempora producitur. (Satyriasis, gonorrhœa or priapism, maladies
involving similar inconvenience as in immoderate copulation, are
distinguished by the following particularities. Gonorrhœa without
erection of the member or desire for the enjoyment of love,
debilitates the body by a most copious discharge of semen, and is
protracted over chronic periods of time).

321 Julius Firmicus Maternus, Astronomica bk. III. chs. 7 and
8., In loco octavo ♀ ab horoscopo constituto ... si ☿ cum ea fuerit
vel cum ☿ Venerem in hoc loco positam, malevola stella
respexerit, vel per quadratum vel diametrum, vel si cum ipsis, in
hoc loco fuerit inventa, omne eius qui natus fuerit patrimonium
dissipatur vel qualicunque proscriptione nudatur, m o r s v e r o
i l l i p e r g o n o r r h e a m, id est d e f l u x i o n e m s e m i n i s,
aut contractionem vel spasmum aut apoplexin fertur. (In the
eighth place determined by the horoscope stands ♀ Venus.... If ☿
(Mercury) be in conjunction with it, or if Venus standing in this
place with ☿ (Mercury) be faced by an evil star, whether by
quadrate or diameter, or if such star is found in conjunction with
them in this place, all the patrimony of him who has been born
under this conjunction is wasted, or is lost utterly by some
proscription or another, and his death is brought about by
gonorrhœa, that is to say a flux of the semen, or cramp or spasm
or apoplexy.)
322 Caelius Aurelianus, Morb. Chron. bk. V. ch. 7., Item
antecedens causa supradictae passionis, quam s e m i n i s
appellamus l a p s u m, fuisse probatur, a qua discernitur, si
quidem illa passio etiam per diem vigilantibus aegris fluere facit
semen, nulla phantasia in usum venereum provocante. (Such is
proved to have been another antecedent cause of the above
named malady, which we call discharge of semen; but a distinct
cause has to be assigned, if it so be that the malady in question
makes the semen flow even by day and when the patients are
awake, and though no dream provokes to the exercise of love).
Philagrius appears to have made this distinction quite correctly,
when as quoted by Aëtius (Tetrab. III. serm. 3. ch. 34.), De
seminis in somno profluvio, Philagrii (On the discharge of semen
in sleep, according to Philagrius), he says: Semen in somnis
profundere dicuntur quicumque dum dormiunt, n a t u r a e
g e n i t a l e s e m e n emittunt, quod ipsum eis ut plurimum ob
vitiati humoris materiam, aut materiae multitudinem aut ob
partium seminalium robur contingit. Iam vero quidam et ob animi
moestitiam aut inediam, per somnos praeter consuetudinem
semen excreverunt, atque id materiae acrimonia irritati, non ob
partium seminalium robur, pertulerunt etc. (They are said to
discharge semen in sleep, whoever during slumber, ejaculate the
genital seed of nature, because they possess it in the greatest
degree of abundance either on account of the constituting
material of the semen being vitiated or on account of the

copiousness of this material, or else on account of the vigour of
the seminal organs. But there are also many cases where men
have emitted semen in sleep contrary to their wont in
consequence of sadness of spirits or fasting, having done so
because irritated by the acridness of the material, and not
through any vigour of the seminal organs, etc.). The only pity is
that Aëtius has not preserved for us his (Philagrius’) opinion as to
gonorrhœa, and has not shown clearly exactly what belongs to
Philagrius in the Chapter; for a great deal, as indeed is stated, is
from Galen and referred by the compiler to gonorrhœa. Philagrius
in fact only lived in the latter half of the Fourth Century,—A.D.
364 according to Sprengel, 300 according to Lessing.
323 Actuarius, Meth. med. bk. IV. ch. 8., Convenit ad haec
reliqua victus ratio, quae ad siccitatem declinet, sed non sit
calidior, verum frigida. Insuper nutriendus aeger est, viresque
modice reficiendae; namque ob continuam excretionem languet
corpus et imbecillum est. Quies apta est, et balnea quae
humectent tamen alioqui non sunt idonea. Animalia agrestia,
quae refrigerantibus exsiccantibusque condiantur, sunt
accommodata et vinum pauculum tenueque. (Consistent with this
are the remaining rules of diet. This should incline towards
dryness, but must not be at all hot, but cold. Further the sufferer
must be adequately nourished, and his strength fairly well kept
up; for owing to the constant ejaculation of semen the body
grows languid and weak. Rest is desirable, and baths, in other
circumstances used for moistening the body, are not here
advisable. Game, seasoned with cooling and desiccating
condiments, is appropriate, and a little thin wine.)
324 Celsus, bk. IV. ch. 21. In hoc affectu salutares sunt
vehementes frictiones, perfusiones natationesque quam
frigidissimae. (In this complaint violent frictions are
advantageous, also aspersions and plunge baths as cold as they
can be borne).
325 Galen, De sanitate tuenda bk. VI. ch. 14. (VI. p. 444.),—
The best illustration in reference to the statements made in this
connection by Aëtius (Tetrab. III. serm. 3. ch. 33.), which indeed
is superscribed as Galen’s and draws most of its material from
him and from Aretaeus, showing however in many ways that it
was based on personal observation or that the author had before
him some better and older authority. Unfortunately the passage,
previously glanced at, was subsequently mislaid by us, and so we

are able merely to give it in a Footnote, with the request that the
reader will complete from it what is said in the text. Profluvium
igitur seminis, vasorum seminariorum affectio est, non pudendi,
q u a e d o l o r e m q u i d e m n o n i t a v a l d e i n f e r r e
s o l e t , m o l e s t i a m a u t e m n o n v u l g a r e m e t
pollutionem exhibet ob assiduum et invitis contingentem seminis
fluxum. Oboritur autem aliquando etiam ex seminariorum
vasorum fluxione, q u a n d o q u e e t i a m s a t y r i a s i
p r a e c e d e n t e p r o f l u v i u m s e m i n i s s u c c e d i t.
Contingit autem affectio maxime pubertatem transgressos citra
decimum quartum annum, imo aliis etiam aetatibus. Est autem
semen quod profluit, aquosum, tenue, citra appetentiam coeundi
et ut plurimum quidem citra sensum, quandoque vero cum
voluptate quadam promanans. Corrumpitur affectis sensim
universum corpus ac gracilescit, praesertim circa lumbos.
Consequitur et debilitas multa, non ob multitudinem seminis
profluentis sed ob locorum proprietatem. N o n s o l u m a u t e m
v i r i s s e d e t m u l i e r c u l i s h o c a c c i d i t , e t i n
f e m i n i s s a n e a e g r e t o l l i t u r. Ceterum cura communis
est cum ea quae in omni fluxione adhibetur. P r i m u m i g i t u r
i n q u i e t e e t p a u c o c i b o a c a q u a e p o t u
a f f e c t o s a s s e r v a r e o p o r t e t; deinde etiam lumbos et
pubem contegere lanis vino et rosaceo aut oenanthino aut melino
madefactis. Neque vero ineptae sunt spongiae posca imputae.
Sequentibus vero diebus cataplasmatis ex palmis, malis, acacia
hypocisthide, oenanthe, rhoe rubro et similibus. Insessibus item
adstringentibus utendum est, ex lentisci, rubi, myrti et similium in
vino austero sive mero sive diluto decocto. Cibis autem utendum
qui aegre corrumpantur et difficulter permutantur et resiccandi
vim habent. Dandum etiam cum potu et cibis, viticis ac
c a n n a b i s semen praesertim tostum. Rutae item semen ac folia,
lactucae semen et cauliculi ac nymphaeae radix. In potu vero
quotidie pro communi aqua, a q u a i n q u a f e r r u m s a e p e
e x t i n c t u m e s t praebeatur. Quidam vero corticem radicis
halicacabi ex aqua eis bibendum praebuerunt, neque ineptum
fuerit huius aliquando periculum facere. A n t i d o t u s etiam
h a e c m a g n a e c e l e b r i t a t i s tum ad hoc modo semen
profudentes, tum ad assidua in omnis profluvia commode
exhibetur. Seminis salicis ʒvjj calaminthae ʒvj seminis viticis albae
ʒv rutae ʒjv seminis cicutae ʒjj cum aqua in pastillos digerito et ex
eis ad Ponticae nucis magnitudinem cum poscae cyathis tribus
praebeto. O m n e m v e r o a c r i u m r e r u m e s u m e t
m u l t i v i n i p o t u m et olerum exhibitionem v i t a r e

o p o r t e t, diaetam vero universam resiccatoriam et
adstringentem constituere. Post prima autem mox tempora ad
unctiones et exercitatricem diaetam transeundum, per quam
totum corpus et praesertim affecta, ad sanitatem perducantur, et
plurima quidem tempora circa unctiones immorandum, paucies
vero lavandum, si aut lassitudini aut cruditati mederi velimus.
Bonum fuerit etiam, s i n i h i l p r o h i b u e r i t , a d f r i g i d a e
l a v a t i o n e m defugere, quae omnem morbum ex fluxione
obortum depellere consuevit, maxime si medicamentaria qualitate
aqua praedita sit, velut sunt in Albulis aquae, quae etiam in potu
acceptae eis summe prosunt. Sunt autem sapore subsalso et
tactu lactei teporis. Convenit item per intervalla quaedam
illitionibus et epithematis et malagmatis uti, quae rubefacere et
emollire possint, atque ea quae in profundo haerent ad
superficiem transferre. D e c u b i t u s porro f r e q u e n t e r i n
l a t u s f i a t, calaminthae foliis et rutae et viticis substratis.
Epithema autem in eis usu venit hocce. Capillum Veneris multum
contundito et terito cum aceto aut apii succo aut seridis aut psyllii
eoque cochlearum carnes coctas excipito et simul in linteolum
infarta coxendicibus imponito. Utendum vero et praescripto ad
priapismum cerato et iis quae paulo mox ad seminis in somno
profluvia dicentur. O m n e m a u t e m d e r e b u s v e n e r e i s
c o g i t a t i o n e m e x c l u d e r e o p o r t e t . (Thus we see
excessive discharge of semen is an effection of the seminal
vessels, not of the member. This complaint does not indeed as a
rule cause any very great pain, but it does occasion no ordinary
degree of inconvenience and defilement in consequence of the
constant involuntary discharge of semen. However sometimes it
may arise from a flux in the seminal vessels, and occasionally on
an antecedent attack of satyriasis profuse discharge of semen
supervenes. The malady particularly attacks those who have
passed the period of puberty but are under fourteen, but other
ages are also liable. And the semen that is discharged is watery,
thin, the discharge being unaccompanied with any desire for
coition, and indeed as a rule without any feeling whatever, though
at times taking place with a certain voluptuous sensation. The
whole body of those attacked suffers and becomes wasted,
especially in the lumbar region. There follows great weakness,
not so much owing to the amount of the semen discharged as to
the nature of the parts affected. Again, this disease is not peculiar
to men, but assails young women as well, and in the case of
females is eliminated with very great difficulty. However the
treatment is the same as that applied in all fluxes. First of all

therefore patients must observe rest and a scanty diet both in
food and drinking water; then the loins and pubis should be
covered with cloths moistened with wine, and rosaceum and
oenanthinum and melinum (oil of roses, of young vine buds, of
melilot). Sponges soaked in posca (acid drink of vinegar and
water) are also appropriate. Then on the succeeding days
cataplasms of palms, apples, acacia, hypocisthis (parasitic plant
growing on the cisthus), wild vine, red wild-poppy, and the like.
Embrocations moreover should be employed of an astringent
character, consisting of a decoction of the mastic, bramble, myrtle
and the like, in hard wine, whether unmixed or diluted. Diet
should embrace such foods as resist corruption and deterioration,
and possess a desiccative quality. Along with the food and drink
should be administered the juice of the agnus castus and of
hemp, especially after boiling. Also the juice and leaves of rue,
the juice of lettuce and colewort and the root of nymphaea
(water-lily). As to drink for daily use, instead of ordinary water,
water should be given in which iron has been repeatedly
tempered. Some practitioners indeed have administered the bark
of the root of the bladder-wort in water as a beverage for such
patients, and it will not be inappropriate to make trial of this on
occasion. Another antidote of great renown is exhibited with
advantage both for sufferers from this discharge of semen, as
well as for constant fluxes of all kinds. Take of juice of the sallow
Ʒvjj, of calamint Ʒvj, of juice of the white agnus castus Ʒv, of rue
Ʒjv, of juice of hemlock Ʒjj; compound with water into small cakes
or lozenges, and administer one of these of the size of a hazel-
nut along with three cups of posca (vinegar and water). But the
patient must avoid all eating of acrid things and the drinking of
much wine and the use of vegetables; the diet must be generally
of a desiccative and astringent type. Moreover presently after the
earlier stages embrocations and an active mode of life should be
adopted, whereby the whole body and particularly the parts
affected are brought into a healthy state; the embrocations
should be persevered in for long periods of time, but washing on
the other hand sparingly employed, if we wish to remedy the
lassitude and acrid habit of body. It will be of advantage
moreover, if there is nothing to prevent, to have recourse to cold
bathing, which has the property of expelling all diseases arising
from flux, more especially if the water is endowed with a healing
quality, such as the waters of Albulae, which also are of the
greatest use in these cases when taken as a drink. They are of a
slightly salt taste, and of a milky warmth to the touch. Further, it

is suitable to employ at intervals lotions and poultices and
plasters, such as will redden and soften the skin, and bring to the
surface those matters that lie latent underneath. Again, rest
should frequently be taken lying on the side, the leaves of
calamint and rue and agnus castus being spread as a couch. A
poultice employed in these cases is as follows. Pound a quantity
of Venus-hair and rub it up with vinegar or parsley juice or that of
endive or fleabane, add to it the cooked meat of snails, pack all
together in a linen cloth and lay upon the hips. Also the wax
plaster prescribed for priapism should be employed, and the
remedies to be mentioned presently for discharges of semen
during sleep. Lastly all thinking about love ought to be avoided.)
326 Similarly Aretaeus, Morb. chron. therap. bk. II. ch. 5., says:
εἰ δὲ καὶ σώφρων ἔοι ἐπὶ τοῖσι ἀφροδισίοισι καὶ λούοιτο ψυχρῷ,
ἐλπὶς ὡς ὤκιστα ἀνδρωθῆναι τὸν ἄνθρωπον, (And if he indulge
with moderation in love and bathe in cold water, there is good
hope that the man will rapidly recover manly vigour). This need
surprise us the less, if we remember that the notion of a
superfluitas seminis (superfluity of seed),—this was why Diogenes
practised onanism, Galen, Vol. VIII. p. 419.,—was all the time in
the background, and gonorrhœa according to Caelius Aurelianus
and other authorities actually arose from too great self-
continence. Si igitur Venerem exercere consueverit et crebriore uti
concubitu, nunc autem continentius et purius innocentiusque
degat, sine dubio a copia id sustinet cum partes illam ferre
nequeunt. (If therefore a man is in the habit of practising love
and indulging in fairly frequent cohabitation, well and good; but if
on the contrary he live a too continent, pure and innocent life,
without a doubt he endures this evil from the over-copiousness
(of semen), as the parts cannot tolerate it.) This idea owed its
origin partly to the confusion of gonorrhoea with nocturnal
pollutions,—a confusion found even in the passage from Galen
quoted a little above, and in especial was revived in the XVth. and
XVIth. Centuries under the auspices of the monks and nuns. It at
the same time gave occasion to the practice of resorting to
copulation with a maiden as a cure for gonorrhœa. At any rate it
was an opinion already found in Hippocrates, that copulation was
a desiccative measure which in diseases arising from the
phlegmatic humour (Hippocrates, Epidem. bk. VI. Vol. III. p. 609.,
Galen, XVII. A. p. 284.) is of advantage to hot and moist
constitutions (Galen, Vol. VI. p. 402.)

327 Galen, De sympt. caus. bk. III. ch. 11. (VII. p. 265.), ἀλλὰ
καὶ τὰ μοχθηρὰ διὰ τῶν ὑστερῶν ῥεύματα, καλεῖται δὲ τ ὸ
σ ύ μ π τ ω μ α ῥοῦς γυναικεῖος, ἐκκαθαιρομένου κατὰ τοῦτο τὸ
μόριον ἅπαντος τοῦ σώματος γίγνεται. (Besides there are the
troublesome fluxes by way of the womb; and the symptom of
these is known as “female discharge”, and takes place as the
whole body purges itself by this part). Nonnus, ch. 204. Paulus
Aegineta, bk. II. ch. 63. Rufus of Ephesus, bk. I ch. 44.
328 Aretaeus, De sign, chron. morb. bk. IV. ch. 11., ἄλλος ῥόος
λευκὸς ἡ ἐπιμήνιος κάθαρσις λευκὴ δριμεῖα καὶ ὀδαξώδης ἐς
ἡδονήν. ἐπὶ δὲ τοῖσι καὶ ὑγροῦ λευκοῦ, πάχεος, γονοειδέος
πρόκλησις· τόδε τὸ εἶδος γ ο ν ό ρ ῤ ῥ ο ι α ν γ υ ν α ι κ ε ί α ν
ἐ λ έ ξ α μ ε ν· ἔστι δὲ τῆς ὑστέρης φύξις, οὕνεκεν ἀκρατὴς τῶν
ὑγρῶν γίγνεται· ἀτὰρ καὶ τὸ αἷμα ἐς χροιὴν λευκὴν ἀμείβει.
(Another white discharge is the menstrual purging, white, acrid,
and provoking a pleasurable itching. But in addition to these
forms there is also a calling out of a moist, white, thick, semen-
like discharge; and this species we have named “female
gonorrhœa”; and it is an escape from the womb, because this
cannot retain the moist humours. Further, it actually changes the
blood to a white colour.) Perhaps too what Galen, De semine bk.
II. ch. 1. (IV. p. 599.), says is pertinent in this connection: ταῖς δ’
ἄλλαις ἔλαττόν τε καὶ ὑγρὸν ἐκπίπτον φαίνεται πολλάκις ἔσωθεν
ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν ὑστερῶν, ἵναπερ οὐρεῖ. (but in other women there
appears to be a smaller and moist discharge very often, inside,
coming from the womb itself, in micturition). Again Theod.
Priscianus, bk. III. 10., says: Aliquando etiam spermatis spontanei
et importuni fluxu feminae fatigantur, quod Graeci gonorrhœam
appellant. (Sometimes too women are troubled with a discharge
of involuntarily and unexpectedly emitted semen, a complaint the
Greeks call gonorrhœa.) Comp. the passage quoted above from
Aëtius.
329 Celsus, De re medica bk. VI. ch. 18., Solet etiam interdum
ad n e r v o s ulcus descendere; profluitque pituita multa sanies
tenuis malique odoris, non coacta at aquae similis, in qua caro
recens lota est; doloresque is locus et punctiones habet. Id genus
quamvis inter purulenta est, tamen lenibus medicamentis
curandum est.... Praecipueque id ulcus multa calida aqua
fovendum est, velandumque neque frigori committendum.
(Moreover the ulcer is wont sometimes to descend to the cords;
and then there is discharged a quantity of phlegm, a thin sanies

of an ill odour, not congealed but like water in which a piece of
fresh meat has been washed; and the place experiences pain and
a pricking sensation. This sort, though it comes under the head of
purulent complaints, should nevertheless be treated with mild
drugs.... And above all this form of ulcer should be fomented with
copious warm water, and should be covered and not exposed to
cold). From the last sentence it may be concluded that it is not
the acute form of blennorrhœa of the urethra that is in question
here (bk. IV), but the chronic. The words ad nervos (to the cords)
have given occasion to some very extraordinary explanations.
Simon, Krit. Gesch. Vol. I p. 23., considers it would be most
natural to refer this to the inside of the member, to the urethra in
fact, though as a matter of fact gonorrhœa of the glans penis
might just as likely be intended in the passage. But in the latter
case the interpretation is absolutely impossible, as the glans penis
is never called nervus. The corpora cavernosa it is true are
described in several places by Galen, e.g. De loc. aff. bk. VI. ch.
6., as “a pipe-like cord, for the body is cord-like in form, the
whole being hollow like a pipe”, but he adds χωρὶς τῆς
καλουμένης βαλάνου (always excepting the glans penis, as it is
called), and indeed that nervus generally signifies the penis is
evident at once from Horace, Epod. XII. 19.; even the plural
nervos is found in Petronius, Sat. 129., 134.,—so the Greeks
similarly use νεῦρον (nerve, cord) for the penis, sometimes with
the addition σπερματικὸν (spermatic, seminal), as Eustathius
points out,—Comm. on the Iliad, X. 1390. However Celsus had no
idea of this in his mind; everything shows that with him the ad
nervos points to nothing but the vasa deferentia or spermatic
cords, as he distinctly declares himself in bk. VII. ch. 18:
Dependent vero (testiculi) ab inguinibus per singulos nervos, quos
κρεμαστῆρας Graeci nominant. (But the testicles hang from the
groin by separate cords, which the Greeks call κρεμαστῆρες,—
suspenders). Similarly Columella, De re rustic. bk. VI. ch. 26.,
Testium nervos, quos Graeci κρεμαστῆρας ab eo appellant, quod
ex illis genitales partes dependent. (The cords of the testicles,
which the Greeks name κρεμαστῆρες,—suspenders, because the
genital parts hang by them); again Pollux, Onomast. bk. II. Ch.
4., κρεμαστῆρας δὲ λέγονται τὰ νεῦρα, τοῦς διδύμους ἀνέχει.
(κρεμαστῆρες,—suspenders, is the name of the cords; and they
support the testicles). The possibility of the suppuration
extending to the seed reservoir and the spermatic cords is proved
by the case lately observed and made known by Ricord.

330 Actuarius, Method. med. bk. IV. ch. 8., Caeterum non est
ignorandum, nonnunquam in interna penis parte exiguum
tuberculum oboriri, quod dum disrumpitur, sanguinem aut
exiguum puris effundit; quare quidam arbitrantur ex profundo ea
prodire, citraque rationem metuere coeperunt. Verum res ex
penis dolore deprehenditur. Venae autem sectione sola, victuque
frigidiusculo aegrum a molestia vindicavimus. Q u o d s i
v i t i u m m o r a m t r a x e r i t e t v u l n u s (ἕλκος?) a l t i u s
p e r v e n e r i t, enemata morsus expertia, qualibus in lippitudine
utimur, infundimus. Balneo ac omni mordenti evidenterque
calefaciente tum cibo tum potione abstinemus, ita namque
promptius aeger valetudinem recipit. (However it must not be
forgotten that sometimes a small tubercle is established in the
internal part of the penis, which on bursting discharges blood and
a small quantity of pus; for which reason some suppose these
symptoms to proceed from a deep-seated evil, and have been
unreasonably alarmed. But the truth may be gathered from the
pain in the penis. However by the mere opening of a vein and a
cooling diet we have saved a patient from all inconvenience. On
the other hand if the mischief has followed a protracted course
and the sore (ἕλκος?,—ulcer) has penetrated farther in, we
introduce clysters free from biting acridity, such as we make use
of for blear-eyed patients. We forbid the bath, and everything
acrid and manifestly heating whether in food or drink, for in this
way the sufferer recovers his health more rapidly).
331 Paulus Aegineta, bk. III. ch. 59., εἰ δὲ κατὰ τὸν καυλὸν
ἔνδον τῆς τοῦ αἰδοίου τρήσεως ἀφανὲς ἕλκος γένηται, γινώσκεται
ἐκ τοῦ πύον ἢ αἷμα κενοῦσθαι χωρὶς οὐρησέως. Θεραπεύεται δὲ
πρῶτον μὲν ὑδαρεῖ μελικράτῳ κ λ υ ζ ό μ ε ν ο ν, ἔπειτα δὲ γάλακτι,
κἄπειτα μίξαντες τῷ γάλακτι τὸ τοῦ ἀστήρος κολλύριον, ἢ τὸν
λευκὸν τροχίσκον, ἢ τὸν διὰ λωταριῶν ἐν μολυβδαίνῃ θυίᾳ
παραπέμπειν, ἥγουν καὶ π τ ε ρ ὸ ν βάψαντες διαχρίειν, εἶτα
λ ε π τ ὸ ν σ τ ρ ε π τ ὸ ν χρίσαντες ἐνθῆναι· κάλλιστον δὲ ἐστί καὶ
τὸ λαμβάνων κηκίδος καὶ πομφόλυγος, ἀμύλου τε καὶ ἀλόης ἶσα,
λειωθέντα ῥοδίνῳ καὶ χυλῷ ἀρνογλώσσου. (But if in the canal
within the perforation of the member an invisible ulcer arise, it is
recognized from the fact of matter or blood being discharged
without micturition. And it is treated first by being rinsed with a
weak honey-mixture, and then with milk and afterwards by
mixing with the milk the salve of the aster atticus, or the white
lozenge, or a preparation of lotus pounded in a leaden mortar; a
feather should be dipped in this and it should be rubbed on, or

else a piece of thin material made into a twist should be smeared
with it and the drug introduced by this means; but the best of all
is by taking equal parts of gall-apple, flowers of zinc, starch-flour
and aloes smeared with rose-sap and plantain-sap).
332 Caelius Aurelianus, Morb. chron. bk. II. ch. 8., In iis enim
qui ulcus habuerint, cum mictum fecerint, sanguis fluet attestante
mordicatione et dolore et aliquando egestione corpusculorum,
quae ἐφελκύδας Graeci vocaverunt. (In patients who have got an
ulcer, whenever they make water, blood will flow and the fact be
attested by accompanying biting sensation and pain and
sometimes by the ejection of small particles which the Greeks
have named ἐφελκύδες).
333 Galen, De loc. affect. bk. I. ch. 5., εἰ γοῦν ὑμενώδους
χιτῶνος ἐκκριθείη μόριον, ὅτι μὲν ἕλκωσίς ἐστὶ που, δηλώσει.... εἰ
δ’ οὐρηθείη τῆς οὐρήθρας αὐτῆς. (If for example a small portion
of the membranous coat be shed, this will show there is
ulceration somewhere.... And if in micturition particles of the
urethra itself be passed). Comp. Paulus Aegineta, loco citato.
334 Galen, De symptom. caus. bk. III. ch. 8., ἴσχονται μὲν γὰρ
ἢ ἀδυνατούσης ἐκκρίνειν τῆς κύστεως, ἢ στεγνωθέντος αὐτῆς,
τοῦ στομάχου· ταυτὶ μὲν οὖν ἄμφω τὰ νοσήματα τῆς κύστεως ἓν
κοινὸν ἔχει σύμπτωμα, τὴν ἰσχουρίαν·—αἱ μὲν οὖν
σ τ ε γ ν ώ σ ε ι ς τοῦ στομάχου δι᾽ ἔμφραξίν τε καὶ μ ύ σ ι ν
ἀποτελοῦνται· καὶ γίνεται ἡ μὲν ἔ μ φ ρ α ξ ι ς ὑπὸ θρόμβου τε καὶ
πύου παχέος καὶ λίθου καὶ πώρου καὶ διὰ β λ ά σ τ η μ ά τι
κατ’αὐτὸν ἐπιτραφὲν τὸν πόρον ὁποῖα κἀν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασιν
ἐκτὸς ὁρᾶται γινόμενα κατά τε τὰ ὦτα καὶ ῥῖνας α ἰ δ ο ῖ ά τε καὶ
ἕδραν· ἡ δὲ μ ύ σ ι ς ἤτοι δι’ὄγκον ἐπὶ φλεγμοναῖς ἀποτελεῖται καὶ
σ κ ί ῤ ῥ ο ι ς καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις οἰδήμασιν, ὅσα τε τὸν τράχηλον
ἐξαίροντα τῆς κύστεως εἰς τὸν ἐντὸς πόρον ἀποχεῖ τὸν ὄγκον.
(For they suffer either because the bladder is unable to secrete or
because its orifice is stopped; but both these complaints of the
bladder have one symptom in common, viz. retention of urine....
Now the stoppages of the orifice are produced by blocking or by
closing up; and stoppages are caused by a clot or dense matter
or a calculus or chalkstone or some growth that has formed in the
actual passage, as is also observed to occur in other, external,
organs, the ears, the nostrils, genitals, or fundament; but closure
is due either to a tumour following on phlegmonous affections or
by indurations or other swellings which dilate the neck of the

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