Figures of speech (Semantics)

• Denotation & Connotation
• Primary & Secondary
• Literal & figurative

1. Definition
2. Distinction between denotation & connotation
Denotation & Connotation

Definition
 The denotation of a word is the core,
central or referential meaning of the word
found in a dictionary. In English, a content
word may have its denotation described in
terms of a set of semantic features that
serve to identify the particular concept
associated with the word.

The connotation of a word is the
additional meaning that the word
has beyond its denotative meaning.
It shows people’s emotions and/or
attitudes towards what the word
refers to.

Ex1. Child is denotatively described as
[+human], [-mature] and [±male]
 Under a certain circumstance, child
may positively be connoted as
[+affectionate] or [+innocent]
 Under another circumstance, child
may negatively be connoted as [+noisy]
or [+irritating]

Ex2. Woman is denotatively described as
[+human], [+mature] and [+female]
 Under a certain circumstance, woman may
positively be connoted as [+devoted] or
[+patient]
 Under another circumstance, woman may
negatively be connoted as [+wicked] or
[+talkative]

 The denotation of a word can easily be found in
a dictionary while its connotation(s) may
probably depend on such factors as:
 The culture in which the word is used
 The language user’s family and/or educational
background
 The language user’s social and/or political
class
 The language user’s speech community and/or
ethnic group. Etc.
In brief, these factors are by virtue of
personal and cultural associations

Distinction between denotation & connotation
Consider the following table and
identify denotation and connotation
via their main features.

Bachelor
 Denotation: unmarried man
 Connotation:
still single after usual age for marrying
decided by himself to stay single
enjoying freedom, friendship, life, ect.
ready for his imdending marrigage

Spinster
 Denotation: unmarried woman
 Connotation:
still single after usual age for
marrying
not decided by herself to stay single
left in an unfavorable state
a symbol for some failure in life

December
 Denotation: the twelfth month of the year,
next after November
 Connotation: bad weather (usually rainy
or snowy), dark evening, grey sky, slippery
streets, holiday season, Christmas, winter
break, loneliness, separation from the
beloved

Ex1. The word fox almost always
has a negative connotation in
English when it is associated with
any person who is cunning or
deceitful

Ex2. Some English words usually have
positive connotations (+); others usually
have neutral connotations (Ø); still
others usually have negative
connotations (-)
• Mother/mom (+), woman (Ø), witch (-)
• Father/dad (+), man (Ø), the old man (-)
• Slender (+), thin (Ø), skinny (-)
• Plump (+), overweight (Ø), fat (-)

Ex3. Synonyms, words that have the same basic
meaning, do not always have the same emotional
meaning. For example, the words stingy and frugal
both mean “careful with money”.
However, to call a person stingy is an insult,
while the word frugal has a much more positive
connotation. Similarly, a person wants to be slender
but not skinny, and aggressive nut not pushy.
Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words
because many so-called synonyms are not really
synonyms at all.

•Primary meaning vs. Secondary meaning
• Literal meaning vs. Figurative meaning
Multiple senses of lexical items

Primary meaning vs. Secondary meaning
 Primary meaning : The primary meaning of
a word (or, to be more precise, a lexical item)
is the first meaning or usage that the word
will suggest to most people when it is said in
isolation.
Example : wing
The primary meaning is : either of the pair of
feathered limbs that a bird uses to fly.

 Secondary meaning : Secondary meanings of a
word are the meanings besides its primary meaning. They
are said to be not central but peripheral.
In addition, secondary meanings of a word are context-
bound whereas its primary meaning is not.
Example : He usually plays on the wing
Wing means “side part of the playing area in football,
hockey, etc”.
Secondary meaning is : derived from the context
denoted by the verb play.
Primary meaning vs. Secondary meaning

Literal meaning vs. Figurative meaning
 Literal meaning : “The basic or usual meaning of
a world” [Crowther (ed.)] is the usually referred to
as its literal meaning.
Example : wing
1. Part that projects from the side of an aircraft and
supports it in the air :
“The two wings of an airplane”.

2. Part of a building that projects from the main part :
“ The east/west wing of a house”
3. Projecting part of the body of a motor vehicle above the
wheel :
“The left wing of his car was damaged in the
collision”
4. Part of a political party that holds certain view or has a
particular function:
“The radical wing of the Labour Party”.

 Figurative meaning : The figural meaning of a word is one
which is different from its usual (literal) meaning and which
create vivid metal images to readers or listeners.
Example : wing
1. We hope college life will help him to spread his wings a bit.
(= extend his activities and interests)
2. Having a new baby to look after has clipped her wings a bit.
(= has prevented her from achieving her ambition)

3. She immediately took the new arrivals under her wing.
(= looked after the new arrivals)
4. He retires as chairman next year; his successor is
waiting in the wings.
(= is ready to replace him)
 Wing is an English word that has several closely
realated but slightly different meanings.
It is said to be polysemous.

A figure of speech is “a word or phrase
which is used for special effect, and
which does not have its usual or literal
meaning.”
What are figures of speech?

1. Simile (so sánh)
2. Metaphor (ẩn dụ)
3. Metonymy (hoán dụ)
4. Synecdoche (hoán dụ)
5. Hyperbole (nói quá)
6. Euphemism (nói tránh)
7. Litotes (nói giảm)
8. Personification (nhân hóa)
9. Irony (hài hước)
10. Sarcasm (châm biếm mỉa mai)
11. Onomatopoeia (tượng thanh)
12. Oxymoron (nghịch hợp)
13. Antithesis (đối chiếu)
Types of figures of speech

Have their
own way
to
interpret.
Metonymy
Synecdoche
Personification

The others have the same way to interpret  4 steps
• ”Devastating”Indentify
• Which means attractive.Explain
• It is Metaphor.Clarify
• This sentence means “ her
smile was attractive”.Rewrite
Ex: Her smile was devastating.

 Simile is “the use of comparison of one thing with another.
Ex: as brave as a lion, a face like a mask.
 A simile is an explicit or direct comparison in which
something is compared to something else by the use of a
function word such as like or as:
Ex:
My hands are as cold as ice. (= My hands are very cold.)
Tom eats like a horse. (= Tom eats as much as a horse does)
Simile (so sánh)

 Note:
 It is incredible to notice that not all comparisons belong to simile.
 Two unlike things are being compared.
 The words like or as are used to make the comparison.
Ex:
She is as brave as a lion.  Simile
She is as tall as her father.  Comparison
 Interpret the meaning and state what kind of figure of speech
for following sentence
Ex: My dormitory room is like a cave.
 “like a cave” is a simile which means small and uncomfortable.
This sentence means “my dormitory room is small and
uncomfortable”.

 There are 2 kinds of metaphors: Dead metaphors (idiom) & live metaphor.
 Metaphor is “the use of a word or phrase to indicate something different
from (though related in some way to) the literal meaning.
 A metaphor is an implicit or indirect comparison in which no function word
is used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be
compared.
Ex:
 She has a heart of stone. (= She has a pitiless and unfeeling nature.)
 I’ll make him eat his word. (= I’ll make him admit that what he’s said is
wrong.)
 He was a lion in the fight. (= He fought bravely and successfully just like a
lion.
Metaphor (ẩn dụ)

 Interpret the meaning and state what kind of figure of
speech for following sentence
Ex: There was a storm in Parliament last night.
 “A storm” is a metaphor which means a heated argument, a
bitter disagreement or a terrible conflict. This sentence means
“there was a terrible conflict in parliament last night”.
 Note: Simile or metaphor
 Simile: That boy is like a pig.
 Simile: That boy is as messy as a pig.
 Metaphor: That boy is a pig. (without using as or like)

Metonymy (Hoán dụ)
Metonymy is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another to which it is related/with which it is associated.
 There are 7 kinds of Metonymies: (detail at page 39)
a) A sign substitutes for the person or the object it signifies or
symbolizes.
b) An instrument substitutes for an agent.
c) A container substitutes for the thing contained.
d) The concrete, like an organ of the human body, substitutes for
the abstract such as love, hatred, sincerity, a mental ability, a
natural talent, etc.
e) The abstract substitutes for the concrete.
f) The material substitutes for the thing made.
g) An author/a producer/a place where goods are made.

Ex: When the White House called, the ambassador went at
once. (a)
“The White House”, which is [+sign], is a metonymy
meaning the US President, which is [+person]. This
sentence means “When the US President called, the
ambassador went at once.”
Note: Metonymy has its own way to interpret.

 Synecdoche is a special kind of metonymy in which “a part or
aspect of a person, object, etc… is meant to refer to the whole
person, object, etc.
 Note:
a) Synecdoche has its own way to interpret.
b) Synecdoche only has Part and Whole.
Ex: We now live under the same roof.
 “Roof” which is [+part], is synecdoche which means house, which
is [+whole]. This sentence means “we now live in the same house.”
Synecdoche
(Hoán dụ 1 phần của nóthay thế cho chính nó)

 Distinction between metonymy and synecdoche
Ex 1: The princess captures the hearts of the nation. (d)
The hearts, which is [+organ of the human body] and thus
[+concrete], is used to stand for the love, which is [+emotional
experience] and thus [+abstract]. The hearts in this case is a
metonymy. The sentence means all the people of that country love
the princess.
Ex 2: He has a kind heart.
A heart, which is [+organ of the human body], [+concrete] and
[+part], is used to stand for a person, which is [+human],
[+concrete] and [+whole]. A kind heart in this case is a
synecdoche. The sentence means he is a kind/kind-hearted person
who is concerned for others around him.

Hyperbole, which is also called overstatement, is the use of
"exaggerated statement that is made for special effect and is
not meant to be taken literally.”
Ex:
I’ve invited millions of (= a lot of) people to my party.
She sheds floods of tears (= cries a lot) whenever she is upset.
Hyperbole (nói quá)

 Interpret the meaning and state what kind of
figure of speech for following sentence
Ex: I’ve told you a thousand times not to touch
that again.
 “A thousand times” is an overstatement/a
hyperbole which means more than one time. This
sentence means “I’ve told you more than one
time not to touch that again”

Euphemism is “the use of pleasant, mild or indirect
words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct
ones.”
Ex:
Pass away is a euphemism for die.
Hard of hearing is a euphemism for deaf.
Euphemism (nói tránh)

Ex: He worked and worked until he breathed his last.
 “Breathed his last” is a euphemism which means died.
This sentence means “He worked and worked until he
died”
 Note: Read the chart“ common euphemisms and their
taboo words "at page 47

Litotes, which is also called meiosis, is the use of deliberately
gentler, milder or weaker statements to express something in
a controlled way.
Ex:
I don’t think I would agree with you. (= I disagree with you.)
I am afraid that no passenger is allowed to smoke in here. (=
You are not allowed to smoke in here.)
Litotes
(Nói giảm trong giao tiếp)

Quite often, an expression of litotes is an “ironical understatement,
especially using a negative to emphasize the contrary.”
Ex:
It’s not bad. (= It is fine.)
It wasn’t easy. (= It was very difficult)
Ex: Dick was fairly pleased when he won the brand-new car in the
contest.
 “Fairly pleased” is an ironical understatement which means very
pleased. This sentence means “Dick was very pleased when he
won the brand-new car in the contest”

Irony is the “expression of one’s meaning by saying the direct
opposite of one’s thoughts in order to be emphatic, amusing,
sarcastic, etc.
Ex:
What a lovely day it was! Everything I had went wrong.
He is so intelligent that no examiner has agreed to pass him so
far.
Irony (hài hước mỉa mai)

Interpret the meaning and state what kind of
figure of speech for following sentence
Ex: He is lucky to have such an ugly and awkward
wife
 “He is lucky” is an expression of irony which
means he isn’t lucky at all. This sentence means
“He isn’t lucky at all to have such an ugly and
awkward wife”

Personification is a special kind of metaphor in which
some human characteristic is attributed to an inanimate
object or abstract notion; that is, a lifeless thing or quality
is stated as if it were living.
Ex: Thirsty ground, pitiless cold, a sullen sky……
Personification (nhân hóa)

Ex: The wind howled angrily around the house all night.
 The wind is [−animate] and/or [−human] while howled
angrily is [+animate] and/or [+human]. Therefore, howled
angrily is an expression of personification which means blew
strongly. This sentence means “The wind blew strongly
around the house all night.”
 Note: Personification has its own way to interpret.

Onomatopoeia is the imitation of natural sounds by means of
words or groups of words.
Ex:
 We could hear the enemy guns booming (away) in the
distance.
 He felt a tap on his shoulder.
 The best part about music class is that you can bang on the
drum.
 It is not unusual for a dog to bark when visitors arrive.
Onomatopoeia (tượng thanh)
Dùng từ hoặc nhóm từ để bắt chước những âm thanh trong tự nhiên

 Oxymoron is 2 words of opposing meaning combine
grammatically.
 Ex: Honest theft, fearful joy, original copies, open secret.
Oxymoron (Nghịch hợp)
2 Từ trái nghĩa đứng cạnh nhau tạo thành 1 từ

Have their own
way to interpret
Metonymy
There are 7 kinds of
Metonymies: (detail at
page 39).
Synecdoche Synecdoche only has
Part and Whole.
Personification
[−animate] and/or
[−human] &
[+animate] and/or
[+human].
To Sum up figures of speech

Have the same way to interpret
Simile
Like & As
Metaphor
Without
Like & as
Hyperbole
Also called
Overstatement
Euphemism
Read the
chart at page
47
Litotes Irony
Saying the
direct
opposite of
one’s
thoughts
1. Identify
2. Explain
3. Clarify
4. Rewrite
“……………………”
Which means………………….
It is…………………………….
This sentence means ………….

Figures of speech (Semantics)

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