Final Fungi Lecture Notes PDF from Masters of Botany.pdf

1. Synchytrium
Causal Organism of: Black Wart disease of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)
Other important diseases by Synchytrium:
 S. endobioticum: Black Wart disease of Potato
 S. fuegens: Oenothera sp.
 S. rytzii: Lamiaceae members
 S. trichosanthoides: Cucurbits
 S. sisamicola: Sesasum indicum
 S. taraxaci: Taraxacum officinale (Asteraceae)
Important things to remember:
 Only underground parts are affected
 Unicellular, Holocarpic, Endobiotic, Parasite
 Infect in amoeba like form (protoplast); soon after infection envelop develops
Reproduction:
1. Asexual (During favorable condition)
Naked protoplast→ Infection → “Rosette of hypertrophied cell” form around central infected
cell→ Pear shaped zoospore with golden brown thick wall (summer spore formation) →
Hyperplasia around infected cell→ Prosorus formation (multinucleate protoplast; as content
transferred to cell wall less vesicle) → Summer sporangium (4-9 multinucleate chambers) →
Stage is now called as ‘sorus’→ Zoospore divide as many as nuclei → Burst open → Zoospore
released (naked, uninucleate, uniflagellate) → Swim and infect new host.
2. Sexual (Unfavorable):
Prosorus act as gametangia instead of zoosporangia → Motile gametes → 2 gametes from
different gametangia fuse → Diploid biflagellate zygote → Swim → Infect host → Hypertrophy
and Hyperplasia → Thick wall 2, 3 layered → Resting sporangium (Winter sporangium) →
Remains dormant throughout winter → Spring season (first division meiotic) → Mitosis →
Many uninucleate protoplasts → Uniflagellate zoospore → Infection.
2. Allomyces
Saprophytic, thallus has rhizoidal hyphae, pseudosepta, concentric granules.
Emerson (1941) divided the genus into 3 subgenera based on type of life cycle:
a. Euallomyces: Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled sporangia):
Thick walled sporangia → Meiosis → Zoospore → Gametophytic thallus (with male and female
gametangium) → Gametes → Zygote (2x) → Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled
sporangia).

Thin walled sporangia → Zoospores (2x) → Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled
sporangia).
Example: A. arbusculus, A. macrogynous, A. javanicus.
b. Cystogenes: Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled sporangia):
Thick walled sporangia → Meiosis → Cyst (Gametophytic stage) → Swarmers → Zygote (2x)
→ Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled sporangia).
sporangia).
Example: A. moniliformis, A. neo-moniliformis.
c. Brachyallomyces: Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and thin walled sporangia):
Thick walled sporangia → Meiosis → Zoospores (2x) → Sprophytic thallus [2x] (with thick and
thin walled sporangia).
sporangia).
Example: A. anomalus.
3. Achlya
 Water mould, coenocytic, saprophyte.
Reproduction:
a. Vegetative: Fragmentation, Chlamydospore (Gemmae) in unfavorable condition.
b. Asexual: Diplanetic (two types of zoospores- primary & secondary)
[Achlya → Zoosporangium → Primary zoospore (biflagellate) → Cyst → Secondary zoospore
(kidney-shaped) → Cyst → Achlya]
c. Sexual: Oogamous. Monoecious (A. racemosa, A. colorata). Heterothallic (A. bisexualis, A.
ambisexualis). Antheridium [in monoecious- Monoclinous (develop on same hyphae); Diclinous
(develop on different hyphae).
[ Achlya → Antherdium & Oogonium → Oospore → Germination → Germ tube → Meiosis →
Zoosporangium → Zoospore → Achlya]
4. Saprolegnia
 Aquatic saprophyte, Diplanetic. Some parasites like S. parasitica and S. ferox cause ‘Salmon
disease’.
 Thallus branched, Coenocytic.
Reproduction:
a. Vegetative: Fragmentation or Chlamydospore (Gemmae) formation.
b. Asexual: Saprolegnia → Zoosporangium → Primary zoospore → Primary cyst → Secondary
zoospore → Saprolegnia
[Distinct feature: New apex arises from old zoosporangium repeatedly].

c. Sexual: Same as that of Achlya.
5. Phytophthora
 Majority parasitic, few facultative saprophytes.
Phytophthora infestans: Late blight of Potato
P. himayensis: Late blight of Catechu
P. parasitica: Seedling blight of Castor
P. palmivora: Bud rot of palms
P. colocasiae: Blight of Colocasia
P. arecae: Koleroga or Mahli disease of areca palms
P. cactorum: Damping off, fruit rot and root rot of angiospermic plants
P. citrophthora: Gummosis of Citrus
P. erythroseptica: Pink rot of Potato
P. nicotinae: Black shank of Tobacco
 Affect whole plant. Symptom: Water sunken areas. In early stage: Symptom develop at tip and
margin. Ventral surface of leaves with white cottony structures (due to conidiophores).
 Mycelium infect tuber turns their skin brown → (humid)→ tuber became soft and dark brown
(symptom called ‘wet rot’). → (dry atmosphere) → does not rot interior part became black-
called ‘dry rot’.
 Mycelium aseptate, coenocytic. Houstoria develop as most of them are intracellular.
 Cell wall consist of ‘glucan, chitin, absent’.
Reproduction:
Asexual: Favorable condition (20—22°C, 100% atmospheric relative humidity): Hypha grows
from stomata → Sporangiophores → at tip sporangium → sympodial branched → sporangia.
Sporangia→
(i) Direct germination (High temperature, 20°—23°C; dry): Behave as conidium → Germ tube
→ Mycelium
(ii) Indirect germination (Temperature wet, 12—15°C): Behave as Zoosporangium → Zoospores
→ Germ tube → Mycelium
[Phytophthora → Sporangiophore → Sporangium → Zoospore → Germination → Phytophthora
→ Conidium → Germination → Phytophthora]
Sexual: Oogamous. Both Homothallic (P. himalayensis) and Heterothallic (P. palmivora & P.
infestans).
On the basis of development of gametangia:
Paragynous (e.g. P. cactorum) → First an Oogonium form, then from same or neaby hypha on
antheridium develops (attached laterally). Amphigynous (e.g. P. erythroseptica, P. himalayensis,
P. infestans, P. colocasiae) → First antherdium → when it is still developing, nearby hypha

emerge out by piercing the antheridium → Then Oogonium form at the tip and antheridium
appear as a collar close to the base of the Oogonium.
[Phytophthora → Antheridium & Oogonium → Fertilization → Oospore → Germ tube → Meiosis
→ Zoosporangium → Zoospore → Phytophthora]
6. Pythium
 Mainly saprophytes, few parasites.
 Causal organism of: ‘Damping off of seedlings’.
Other important diseases:
1. P. debaryanum: Damping off of seedlings of Tobacco
2. P. aphanidermatum: Fruit rot disease of Sugar beets and Cucurbits
3. P. graminicolum: Foot rot of Wheat
4. P. myretonianum: Foot rot of Ginger
Damping off → Pre-emergence phase
→ Post-emergence phase
 Infected tissue appears soft and water soaked
 Mycelium branched, aseptate, coenocytic
 Mostly intracellular (in intercellular houstorial)
Reproduction:
1. Asexual: Zoospores formed in sporangia.
2. Sexual: Oogamous. Majority homothallic, some (e.g. P. heterothallicum, P. splendens, P.
sylvaticum etc) heterothallic. Monoclinous or Diclinous. Oogonium generally terminal.
Gametangial contact.
7. Albugo=Cystopus
 Obligate parasites, endoparasites, houstorial.
 Infects Cruciferae, Convolvulaceae, Compositae, Amaranthaceae etc.
 ‘White rust or blisters of Cruicifers’.
 Mainly aerial parts of the plant infected.
 Parts become abnormal in the form of hypertrophy, fleshyness or distortation.
 Mycelium branched, Aseptate or Coenocytic.
Reproduction:
Asexual: Conidia, sporangia or zoosporangia in basipetal order on conidiophores or
sporangiophores. Disjunctor is present between two conidia.
On the basis of Waterhouse (1973) divided Albugo into two genera:
Aequales→ thin walled

Annulati→ thick walled
Sexual: Albugo → Oogonium & antheridium → Fertilization → oospore (2×) Meiosis →
Germination → Zoospore→ Albugo
Prior to fertilization the granular cytoplasm of the oogonium forms a mass of protoplasm called
‘coenocentrum’.
Subdivision-2: Zygomycotina
1. Mucor
 Commonly called as ‘Pin mould or Black mould’.
 Mainly saprophytes (some Caprophilous).
 Some causes Mucromycosis in domestic animals and humans.
 Thallus highly branched, coenocytic mycelium→ Prostrate + Erect system.
 In anaerobic liquid culture condition hypha break into yeast like bodies- ‘Torula stage’.
Reproduction:
Asexual:
(i) By fragmentation.
(ii) By chlaymydospore in unfavourable condition.
(iii) Sporangiospores or Aplanospores: Common [Hyphal tip→ Collumella→ Sporangiospores]
Sexual: Isogamous. Homothallic (e.g. M. genevensis) or Heterothallic (M. hiemalis and M.
mucedo). Mostly heterothallic.
 Heterothallism was discovered by Blakeslee (1904) in Mucorales.
Hyphal tip develops into progametangia → Coenogametangia → Wall dissolved after fusion
(Isogametangial copulation) → Zygospore or Coenozygote [→ Karygamy → All diploids nuclei
→ Meiosis] → Resting zygospore (with many haploid nuclei) → Zygospore germinate to give
off → Sporangiophore → At the tip zygosporangium.
2. Rhizopus
 Saprophytes
 R. stolonifer: “Bread Mould”. Some are weak parasites.
 Profusely branched and coenocytic hypha. Organized in stolons, rhizoids and sporangiophores.
R. artocarpi→ Fruit drop of Jackfruit
R. arrhizus→ Fruit rot of Apples
R. stolonifer→ ‘Soft rot of Sweet potato’ and ‘Leak disease of Strawberry and Tomato’.
Mucromycosis→ in Domestic animals and Humans.
Important in Industry:

R. stolonifer→ Fumaric Acid and Cortisone
R. oryzae→ Alcoholic fermentation
R. nodosus→ Lactic acid fermentation
 Food ‘Tempeh’ made from Soybeans.
Reproduction:
(i) Vegetative: Fragmentation.
(ii) Asexual: Chlamydospore or Aplanospore (Sporangiospores)
Unfavorable: Chlamydospores; Favorable: Aplanospores (Development same as that of Mucor).
(iii) Sexual: Mostly heterothallic, few homothallic (e.g. R. sexualis). Process same as that of Mucor.
The difference is reduction division takes place during zygospore germination after a period of
rest, whereas it was happened soon after karyogamy before zygospore undergoes a period of
rest in Mucor.
ASCOMYCOTINA
Commonly called ‘sac fungi’, perfect state ascospore. Yeast- unicellular, others profusely
branched, septate mycelium, perforated septa.
Fruiting bodies →→→
→ Apothecium (Plate-like), e.g. Peziza.
(Ascocarp) → Perithecium (Flask-shaped), e.g. Claviceps.
↓ → Cleistothecium (Closed), e.g. Aspergillus, Penicillium, Phyllactinia.
Endogenous in Origin
→ Ascostroma (Pseudo-parenchymatous).
Degeneration of sex in Ascomycotina. (Male: Antheridium; Female: Ascogonium).
1. Saccharomyces (Yeast)
[Hemiascomycetes (including orders- Protomycetales, Endomycetales and Taphrinales:
Majority saprophytes, few parasites. Asexual reproduction- Budding or Fission. Sexual
reproduction- Gametangial copulation. Ascogenous hyphae and ascocarps absent, i.e. asci are
naked.]
 Saccharomyces: About 40 species.
 S. cerevisiae → Baker’s yeast or Brewer yeast. Important source of Invertase and Zymase.
 Plant body- Unicellular, sometimes for pseudomycelium.
 Mitotic division ‘intranuclear’, i.e. nuclear membrane remains intact during the division.
Reproduction:

a) Vegetative:
Budding: Nucleus divide and daughter nuclei move into bud → Bud detached → Two scars we
see: one on parent ‘convex bud scar’; one on daughter cell ‘concave birth scar’.
Fission: Splitting of cell by transverse constriction.
Endospore: Thick walled endospore formation takes place in unfavorable condition.
b) Sexual: In unfavorable condition (like exhauseted food supply).
 Sexual organs absent.
 Vegetative cell or two ascospores function as copulating gametangia → Zygote → 4 or 8
ascospores.
3: Types of life cycle:
(i) Haplontic (e.g. S. octosporus): Diploid zygote only.
Haploid somatic cell → Act as gametangia → Zygote (2×) → Meiosis → Ascus → 8 Ascospores
→ Somatic cells.
(ii) Diplobiontic (e.g. S. ludwigii): Diploid long. Haploid represented by ascospores only.
[Ascospores fuse to form diploid cell of Saccharomyces → Meiosis → Ascospores].
(iii) Haplo-diplobiontic (e.g. S. cerevisiae): Both haploid and diploid phases well developed.
S. cerevisiae → Budding → Ascus mother cell → Meiosis → Ascus with ascospores → Haploid
cells → Budding → Behave as gametangia → Zygote → S. cerevisiae
Eurotiales: Mainly saprophytes, few parasites. Conidia give tint to fungus. Fruiting body-
Cleistothecium.
2.Aspergillus
 About 132 species in world, 30 species in India.
 Mainly saprophytes. Some parasites causing Crown rot of Groundnut and Boll rot of Cotton.
 Produces toxic substance: Aflatoxins.
 Economic important: Organic acids, Enzyme, Fat, Vitamins, Antibiotics. In detection of trace
elements like Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo etc.
 A. fumigatus → Antifungal property.
 Mycelium: Profusely branched, septate, multinucleate cells. Mainly homokaryotic, sometimes
heterokaryotic by anastomosis of hyphae + and — strains. Pore simple.
Reproduction:
Vegetative: By fragmentation.
Asexual: By conidia formation.

Hypha → Foot cell → Conidiophore → Vesicle (at the tip of conidiophore) → On vesicle
several finger-like projections known as ‘phialides or sterigmata’ (can be of 3 layered: primary,
secondary and tertiary) → Conidia (In basipetal chains; globose, echinulate, uninucleate; colour
different due to presence of various pigments, yellow, green, brown, black) → Germinate to
form new mycelium.
(iii) Sexual: Uncommon; mostly homothallic, few (e.g. A. fischeri, A. heterothallicus) are
heterothallic. Isogamous (A. nidulans) or anisogamous (A. repens).
Antheridium → Progressive degeneration is seen antheridia. In A. herbariorum well developed
and functional. In A. repens well developed but contents not transferred to ascogonium. In many
not functional nuclei in mature antheridia. In A. flavus, A. fischeri and A. fumigatus antheridia do
not develop at all.
Ascogonium → Spring-like structure, in this form also known as ‘archicarp’.
Fertilization, Development of Ascus & Ascocarp: Gametangia contact (help of fertilization
tube). Fusion of male and female nuclei do not take place immediately → Dikaryon formation.
Development of ascus takes place by crozier formation (fusion of nuclei, meiosis and mitosis
result in 8 ascospores in each ascus).
Asci are covered with sterile hyphal branches forming ascocarp (i.e. cleistothecium).
Breakdown of cleistothecial wall (peridium) → Release of ascospores → Germination of new
Aspergillus.
3.Penicillium
 More than 100 species. Commonly called as ‘Blue or Green mould’.
 Latin Penicillus = Artist’s brush (structure of conidiophore).
 Mainly saprophytes.
 Economic important: Antibiotic ‘Penicillin’ from P. digitatum, P. italicum and P. chrysogenum
(wonder drug of world). Antibiotic ‘Griseofulvin’ from P. griseofulvum. In hydrolysis of fat and
flavoring cheese: P. rocqueforti and P. camembertile. Source of enzyme ‘Glucose oxidase’: P.
chrysogenum and P. vitale.
 Mycelium: Profusely branched, septate. Mainly homokaryotic, sometimes heterokaryotic by
anastomosis of hyphae + and — strains. Pore simple. Some species form ‘sclerotia’.
Reproduction:

(i) Vegetative: By fragmentation.
(ii) Asexual: By conidia formation.
Hypha → Conidiophore (conidiophore divides one, two or many times; ultimate
branches called ‘Metulae’) → Metulae → At the tips of each metulae ‘phialides or sterigmata’
develop → Conidia (In basipetal chains; colour different due to presence of various pigments,
yellow, green, blue) → Germinate to form new mycelium.
[In P. expansum, metulae develop on short branches of conidiophore called ‘rami’. In P.
claviforme, many conidiophores aggregate to form fructification called ‘coremium’ (conidia
formed on the coremium are called ‘coremiospores’). Conidiophores are unbranched in P.
spinulosum and P. thomii.]
(iii) Sexual: Gradual reduction in sexuality. Both sex organs functional in most.
In P. vermiculatum→ Antheridia do not take part in sexual process.
In P. brefeldianum, P. stivitatum → Sex organs do not develop at all → Somatogamy.
Sexual reproduction in P. vermiculatum: Antheridium develop on nearby hypha and coil around
ascogonium. Mature ascogonium has 32 or 64 daughter nuclei by mitotic division.
Fertilization: Fusion takes place but nucleus do not migrate into ascogonium → Segmentation of
ascogonium → Binucleate cells → Some of the cells give rise to ascogenous hypha → Terminal
cells of ascogenous hypha functions as ascus mother cell → Karyogamy → Meiosis →
Ascospores.
Ascocarp: Sterile hypha form multilayer protective covering ‘peridium’ → Cleistothecium →
Ascospores liberated by decay of cleistothecium → Germination of ascospore.
Perfected Stages of Aspergillus and Penicillium
Fungi reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Perfect fungi reproduce both sexually and
asexually, while imperfect fungi reproduce only asexually (by mitosis).
Imperfect stage → Perfect stage
Aspergillus alliaceus → Hemicarpenteles spp.
Aspergillus athecius → Edyuillia spp.
Aspergillus fumigatus → Sartorya fumigatus
Aspergillus glaucus → Eurotium repens
Aspergillus heterothallicus → Emericella heterothallica
Aspergillus nidulans → Emericella nidulans
Penicillium vermiculatum → Talaromyces vermiculatus
Penicillium stipitatum → Talaromyces stipitatus
Penicillium javanicum → Eupenicillium javanicum
Penicillium brefeldianum → Eupenicillium brefeldianum

Ascomycotina: Erysiphales
 Ecto-obligate parasites.
 Popularly called as ‘Powdery Mildew’.
 Mature cleistothecium bears characteristic appendages:
Myceloid (e.g. in Erysiphe)
Circinoid (e.g. in Uncinula)
Dichotomously branched tips (e.g. in Microsphaera)
Bulbous (e.g. in Phyllactinia)
1. Erysiphe
 About 10 species.
 Superficial mycelium (ectophyte); branched, septate. Food material absorbed through
houstoria.
Erysiphe polygoni → Powdery mildew of peas.
E. communis → Powdery mildew of Cucurbits.
E. graminis → Infect wheat plants.
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual: By Conidia.
Hypha → Conidiophore (Stalk cell + Generative cell) → Generative cell cut off conidia in
basipetal succession → Dispersed by wind → Germination on suitable substratum.
(ii) Sexual: Majority heterothallic.
Antheridium: Terminal cell of male hypha → Nucleus divide to form 2 nuclei → Septum
formation between the two → Lower (stalk cell), terminal (antheridium).
Ascogonium: Terminal cell of female hypha → Lower (stalk cell), terminal (ascogonium).
Fertilization: Plasmogamy → Dikaryon → Penultimate cell → Ascogenous hyphae → Ascus
mother cell → Fusion of nuclei → Meiosis → Mitosis → Ascospores.
Fruiting body (Cleistothecium): Sterile hyphae form peridium (6-10 layered) → Cleistothecium
(fruiting body) with myceloid appendages.
2. Uncinula
 Powdery mildew of Grape-vines.
 Superficial mycelium (ectophyte); branched, septate.
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual: By Conidia. Conidiophore unbranched; conidia in basipetal succession.
(ii) Sexual:
Antheridium: Lower (stalk cell), terminal (antheridium).
Ascogonium: Lower (stalk cell), terminal (ascogonium).
Fertilization: Plasmogamy → Dikaryon → Fusion of nuclei → Meiosis → Mitosis → Ascospores.
Fruiting body (Cleistothecium): Cleistothecium (fruiting body) with carcinoid appendages.

Order: Sphaeriales
 Mainly saprophytes, few parasites (e.g. Phyllacora) or coprophilous (e.g. Sordaria).
 Antheridia absent or non-functional.
 Fruiting body- Perithecium (flask-shaped).
1. Neurospora
 About 12 species.
 Commonly called as ‘Drosophila of Plant Kingdom’.
 N. sitophila is commonly called as ‘Bakery mold’ or ‘Red bread mold’.
 Mycelium well-branched, multicellular, septate, hypha superficial.
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual: By Conidia. Two types of conidia: Macroconidia and Microconidia. The macroconidia
belong to the form-genus Monilia.
(ii) Sexual: Homothallic (N. terricola and N. dodgei), Heterothallic (N. crassa and N. sitophila).
Antheridium: Absent, but both macroconidia and microconidia act as ‘spermatia.
Ascogonium: Also called as ‘protoperithecia’ or ‘bulbils’.
Fertilization: Plasmogamy → Ascogenous hyphae (with dikaryon) → Crozier formation (see
Aspergillus) Fusion of nuclei → Meiosis → Mitosis → Ascospores (arranged in a single row in
ascus and have characteristically ribbed wall).
Fruiting body (Perithecium): Perithecium (fruiting body).
2. Claviceps
 About 12 species, worldwide; 8 known from India.
 Well known for ‘ergot disease’.
 Mycelium branched, septate.
 Infect gynoecium (more precisely ovary) of host plant and form ‘sclerotium’.
 Disease- ‘Ergotism’.
C. microcephala → Ergot of Pearl Millet
C. gigantia → Ergot of Corn
C. purpurea → Ergot of Rye.
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual: By Conidia. Develop in acropetal manner. Conidial stage is also called ‘sphacelial
stage’ as conidia of Claviceps was earlier described under Sphacelia segeum. Ovary secrete- Honey
dew. Insect transfer conidia while sucking honey dew.
Sclerotium: In last stage of conidia formation mycelium (called as sphacelial mycelium)
transform into sclerotium. Dormant structures, germinate in favorable conditions.
(ii) Sexual: Male and female sex organs (In perithecial cavity) → Plasmogamy → Ascogenous
hyphae (with dikaryon) → Penultimate cell function as ‘ascus mother cell’→ Meiosis → Mitosis
→ Ascospores in Perithecium (fruiting body).

3. Peziza
 Saprophyte, grow on dung (coprophilous), decaying burnt wood etc.
 Hypha branched and septate; cells uninucleate or multinucleate.
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual: By Conidia and Chlamydospore (thick walled, intercalary, resting spore).
(ii) Sexual: No definite sex organs. Plasmogamy by somatogamy (copulation of the terminal cells
of two different hypha) or autogamy (fusion of two nuclei of the same cell) → Ascogenous
hyphae (with dikaryon) → Terminal cell function as ‘ascus mother cell’→ Synkaryon → Meiosis
→ Mitosis → Ascospores in Apothecium (fruiting body form by the sterile hypha).
Basidiomycotina
 Most advanced fungi.
 Mostly parasites (e.g. Ustilago, Puccinia etc), some are saprophytes (e.g. Agaricus, Polyporus).
Teliomycetes
 Parasitic, mycelium septate, lack dolipore (simple septa), lack basidiospore, possess thick
walled binucleate resting spore called ‘teliospore’.
 Having two important order: Ustilaginales (smut fungi) & Uredinales (rust fungi).
Ustilaginales: Ustilago
 300 sp. worldwide.
 Commonly called as ‘smut fungi’.
 Not strict obligate parasites as they grow on artificial culture media. Nutrition with the help of
houstoria.
 Autoecious: Completes their life cycle on a single host.
 Affect mainly reproductive phase of plants.
 Mycelium: Branched, septate, intercellular.
 Primary mycelium (monokaryotic) → (Dikaryotization) → Secondary mycelium (dikaryotic)
[Dikaryotization: 4 processes →
(i) By fusion between primary hyphae when basidiospore germinates (e.g. U. maydis).
(ii) By fusion between germ tubes of two basidiospores (e.g. U. hordei).
(iii) By conjugation between the basidiospores (e.g. U. violacea, U. recepticularum).
(iv) By union of infection threads (e.g. U. tritici).
Reproduction:
(i) By Chlamydospores & Basidiospores : Dikaryotic mycelium divided into dikaryotic cells and
each converted into binucleate chlamydospore, also called ‘teleutospore, brandspore, smut
spore, smut ball or sorus’. Chlamydospore wall smooth in U. hordei or ornamented in U. maydis
and U. tritici. Chlamydospore germinate in favorable condition (before germination two nuclei
fuse; diploidy established) → Germ tube → Promycelium or Basidium → Meiosis → 2+ and 2—

→ 4 celled basidium by septa formation → Each divide once → One remain other passes into
basidiospore through sterigmata (all 4 basidiospores). Basidiospores may also multiply by
budding. Basidiospore germinate by infecting host and forms primary mycelium. Primary
mycelium by dikarotization form dikaryotic mycelium.
[All form basidiospore except U. nuda var. tritici, where promycelium directly produce germ
tube also known as infection thread].
Covered smut → Seedling infection
Loose smut → Blossom infection.
Smut → Loose (spores covered by thin membrane which bursts at the time of flowering).
→ Covered (spores remain covered by membrane which bursts at the time of threshing).
Remember:
Wheat and Maize infected by only ‘Loose smut’, whereas Oat and Barley infected by both.
Wheat → Ustilago nuda var. tritici (Loose) Triticum aestivum
Maize → Ustilago nuda var. maydis (Loose) Zea mays
Oat → Ustilago avenae (Loose); Ustilago kolleri (Covered). Avena sativa
Barley → Ustilago nuda var. hordei (Loose); Ustilago hordei
(Covered)
Hordeum vulgare
Doob grass → Ustilago cynodontis (Loose) Cynodon dactylon
Sugarcane → Ustilago scitamineae (Covered) Saccharum
officinarum
Uredinales
 Commonly called as ‘Rust fungi’.
 Mycelium branched, septate, intercellular, forming houstoria; septa simple.
 Autoecious (completes life cycle on only one host) or heteroecious (need more than one host to
completes its life cycle).
 Mostly polymorphic: produces more than one type of spore.
 Microcyclic (only one type of dikaryotic spore) or Macrocyclic (more than one type of dikaryotic
spore).

Teleutospore → Promycelium → Basidiospores
Puccinia
 About 1,800 species worldwide; about 147 species in India.
 Causes ‘rust disease’ in cereal crops (Wheat, Barley, Oat and Maize).
 Internal obligate parasite.
 Autoecious (P. asparagi, P. butleri, P. menthae and P. pulverulenta) or heteroecious (P. graminis, P.
coronata).
 In India on Wheat 3 species of Puccinia is reported:
(i) P. graminis: Black rust or stem rust
(ii) P. striiformis (= P. glumarum): Yellow rust or stripe rust
(iii) P. recondita (= P. tritici): Brown rust or leaf rust
Puccinia graminis
 Black rust disease of Wheat and other cereal crops, also known as stem rust.
 Earlier it was believed that the disease was caused by an insect. Persoon (1997) showed, it is
fungus.
 Obligate parasite, heteroecious fungus.
 Dikaryotic phase on primary host: Triticum aestivum; Monokaryotic (haplophase) on alternate
host: Berberis vulgaris.
 It can survive in the absence of alternate host, but life cycle copmpletes only when both hosts
are available.
 There is ‘biological specialization’, i.e. each strain infects a particular species of plant because
of metabolic specificity. Approximately 300 strains of Puccinia graminis is known till date. 6
strains are mentioned below:
(i) Puccinia graminis tritici →Wheat
(ii) Puccinia graminis secalis→ Rye
(iii) Puccinia graminis avenae →Oat
(iv) Puccinia graminis phleipratensis→ Festuca
(v) Puccinia graminis agrostis →Agrostis
(vi) Puccinia graminis poae → Poa
In India on Wheat Northern region → March
In India on Wheat Southern region → November
Vegetative features: Intercellular, septate, branched, simple pore; houstorial.
Monokaryotic → Alternate host (Berberis vulgaris)
Dikaryotic → Primary host (Triticum aestivum)
Life cycle: Macrocyclic; 5 spores.
Uredospore & Teleutospore → Primary Host (Triticum aestivum)

Basidiospore
Pycnidiospore & Aeciospores → Alternate host (Berberis vulgaris)
Aeciospores → Wheat (Triticum aestivum) → Dikaryotic mycelium (By fusion of two hypha from
different strain of growing Aeciospores) → At the tip of these dikaryotic hypha binucleate
‘Uredospore’ develop [stalked, uni-celled, binucleate, wall spiny, 4 germ pores; can re-infect Wheat
plant] → At the end of the Wheat season these dikaryotic hypha start producing ‘Teleutospores’
[stalked, bi-celled, spindle shaped, wall smooth, 2 germ pores; incapable of re-infecting Wheat plants]
instead of ‘Uredospores’ → Mature teleutospores becomes diploid, act as resting spore → In
favorable condition these germinate (No host require for germinate) → Germ tube forms
promycelium (also called epibasidium) → Diploid nuclei move into promycelium, divide my
meiosis → 4 nuclei → 4 cells after septation → Produces 4 ‘Basidiospores’ (2+ and 2—) on fine
sterigmata → Basidiospores germinate only on alternate host Berberry (Berberis vulgaris) →
Monokaryotic mycelium on Berberry form ‘spermagonia’ or ‘pycnidium’ on upper surface of
leaves → In pycnidium, ‘spermatia or pycnidiospores’ and ‘flexus hypha or receptive hypha’
develop → Pycnidiospores of one strain transferred to flexus hypha of other strain (process
called ‘spermatization) → Dikaryotic mycelium formed → On the lower surface of same leaves
‘aecidium’ formation takes place which cut offs ‘Aeciospores’.
 A detailed study on cereal rust in plains of India was done by K. C. Mehta.
 In India on Wheat 3 species of Puccinia is reported: P. graminis: Black rust or stem rust →
Alternate host: Berberis vulgaris. P. striiformis (= P. glumarum): Yellow rust or stripe rust →
Alternate host: Thalictrum flavum. P. recondita (= P. tritici): Brown rust or leaf rust → Alternate
host: Muehlenbergia hugely
3. Agaricus= Psalliota
 Saprophytic; commonly called as ‘mushrooms’; about 17 species in India.
 Agaricus campestris, A. bisporus are edible; A. silvaticus, A. xanthodermus are highly poisonous.
 Vegetative mycelium underground. Primary mycelium → By germination of basidiospore
(septate, monokaryotic). Secondary mycelium → By fusion of two different strain of primary
mycelium (having dolipore septum, binucleate). Secondary mycelium also forms
‘rhizomorphs’.
 At maturity hyphae develop fruiting bodies in circular ring; successive crops produce larger
rings, called ‘fairy rings’.
 Fruiting body is called ‘basidiocarp’, differentiated into stipe and pileus.
Reproduction:
(i) Vegetative: Fragments of dikaryotic mycelium can grow into new thallus.

(ii) Asexual: By Chlamydospore (terminal or intercalary).
(iii) Sexual: Majority heterothallic; (A. bisporus homothallic). Sex organs do not form.
Somatogamy of two different strains of primary mycelium → Secondary mycelium (by clamp
connection) → Develop into Basidiocarp → Karyogamy (in basidium) → Meiosis → 4 haploid
basidiospores, connected to basidium through sterigmata; at the junction of basidiospre and
sterigmata ‘hilar appendics’ are also present.
Deuteromycotina (Fungi imperfecti)
 Sexual reproduction absent or not known.
 They are also known as the fungi imperfecti, because of their “imperfect” lack of sex.
When the “perfect state” of one of these organisms is discovered, as happens every year,
the fungus is more properly classified with the teleomorph name. Notice that this group
is not classified as one of the phyla. It is just a loose assemblage of organisms that we
are not sure where to place accurately in the taxonomic order.
Alternaria solani → Pleospora infectoria
Colletotrichum falcatum → Physalospora tacumanensis
Cercospora personata → Mycosphaerella berkeleyii
Helminthosporium oryzae → Cochliobolus miyabeanus
Conidiophores are either free or formed in fruiting bodies: Synnemata, Acervuli,
Sporodochia, Pycnidia
Fig. Different types of conidiomata: acervula (a), pycnidia (b), synnemata (c) and
sporodochia (d)
[Picture credit: http://dbiodbs.units.it/quint/mair/info/introeng.html ]
1. Alternaria
 Saprophytes or parasites.
Alternaria solani → Early blight of potato
Alternaria tenuis → Black point disease of Wheat

 Symptoms is called ‘target board’.
 Mycelium branched, septate, multinucleate.
Reproduction: By conidia.
Conidia multicellular, muriform, both transversely and longitudinally septate.
2. Cercospora
 Saprophytes or parasites.
 Disease caused is known as ‘leaf spot or tikka disease’.
 Conidiophores are developed in concentric rings.
Cercospora personata→ Tikka disease of Groundnut
Cercospora indica → Leaf spot disease of Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea)
Cercospora hibiscus → Leaf spot disease of Lady’s finger
 Mycelium branched, septate; houstoria branched.
Conidiophores unbranched, born on stroma; only transversely septate.
3. Helminthosporium
 Mainly parasites.
Helminthosporium gramineum → Leaf stripe of Barley
Helminthosporium oryzae → Leaf spot of Rice
Helminthosporium sativum → Foot rot of Barley
Helminthosporium sigmoideum → Stem rot of Paddy
Helminthosporium teres → Net blotch of Barley
 Mycelium profusely branched, septate; no houstoria.
Conidiophores characteristically bent and have knee-joints, conidia 3-10 transversely
septate; characteristically germinate from both ends.
4. Fusarium
 Mainly facultative parasites.
 Causes damping off of seedlings, root rot and wilt disease.
 Block the vessels, interferes water transport, thus wilt.
Fusarium oxysporum f. udum → Wilt of Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)

Fusarium lini → Wilt of Flax (Linum usitatissimum)
Fusarium oxysporum f. vasinfectum → Wilt of Cotton (Gossypium spp.)
Fusarium solani→ Wilt of Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense→ Panama disease of Banana.
 Mycelium profusely branched, septate.
Reproduction: By conidia and Chlamydospores.
Chlamydospores are resting spores; borne terminally or intercalary.
Conidia two types:
Macroconidia → Develop on sporodochia, on the surface of host; 3-4 septate.
Microconidia → Develop on short conidiophores; within large vessels; 1-2 septate.
5. Colletotrichum
 Mainly parasites.
 Causes anthracnose disease; infected tissue develops necrosis and hypoplasia.
 Block the vessels, interferes water transport, thus wilt.
Colletotrichum falcatum → Red rot of Sugarcane.
Colletotrichum corchorum → Anthracnose of Jute.
Colletotrichum laegenarium → Anthracnose of Cucurbits.
Colletotrichum graminicola → Red leaf spot of Sorghum.
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum → Anthracnose of Beans.
Colletotrichum capsici → Die back of Chillies.
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides → Anthracnose of Citrus and Banana.
Red rot of Sugarcane
[Caused by Colletotrichum falcatum (imperfect stage); Glomerella tucumanensis (perfect
stage) = Syn. Physalospora tucumanensis]
 Early symptom: Yellowing and drooping of leaves.
 Late symptom: Cane splitting; inside red blotch.
 Mycelium profusely branched, septate.
Reproduction: By conidia and Chlamydospores.
Chlamydospores are resting spores; borne terminally or intercalary.
Conidia: Fruiting body ‘acervulus’; conidiospores unbranched; many setae also present
with conidiophores; conidia non-septate, sickle shaped.

MCQs
1. ‘White rust disease’ is caused by ?
A. Ascobolus
B. Rhizopous
C. Albugo
D. Puccinia
Correct Answer : C. Albugo
2. The fungus without mycelium is ?
A. Puccinia
B. Phytophthora
C. Rhizopous
D. Saccharomyces
Correct Answer : D. Saccharomyces
3. Cleistothecia are found in ?
A. Aspergillus and Penicillium
B. Rhizopus and Mucor
C. Ustilago and Puccinia
D. Yeasts
Correct Answer : A. Aspergillus and Penicillium
4. Which of the following rust diseased is not caused by a Basidiomycete ?
A. Brown rust
B. Yellow stripe rust

C. White rust
D. Black rust
Correct Answer : C. White rust
5. Black rust of wheat is caused by ?
A. Rhizopus
B. Yeast
C. Penicillium
D. Puccinia
Correct Answer : D. Puccinia
6. Which kinds of spores of Puccinia are produced in infected barberry leaf ?
A. Teleutospores
B. Ascospores
C. Uredospores
D. Aeciospores
Correct Answer : D. Aeciospores
7. Which one of the following spores of Puccinia is haploid ?
A. Uredospore
B. Teleutospore
C. Aeciospore
D. Basidiospore
Correct Answer : D. Basidiospore
8. Which stage of Puccinia is found on its alternative host ?
A. Pycnidiospores
B. Uredospore
C. Teleutospore
D. Basidiospore
Correct Answer : A. Pycnidiospores
9. In black stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) of wheat, the following infection
strategy is observed ?
A. Haploid teliospore infect wheat, dikaryotic basidiospore infect barberry
B. Haploid basidiospore infect wheat, dikaryotic aeciospores infect barberry
C. Haploid basidiospore infect barberry, dikaryotic aeciospores infect wheat
D. Haploid aeciospores infect wheat, dikaryotic basidiospores infect barberry
Correct Answer : C. Haploid basidiospore infect barberry, dikaryotic aeciospores
infect wheat
10. The spores of Puccinia graminis that infect Berberis vulgaris are ?
A. Aeciospores
B. Teliospores
C. Basidiospores
D. Uredospores
Correct Answer : C. Basidiospores

11. The name ‘Smut diseases’ is given to those production by Ustilago because ?
A. Its mycelium is black in colour
B. It parasitizes cereals
C. The host becomes completely black
D. The fungus produces black sooty spore masses
Correct Answer : D. The fungus produces black sooty spore masses
12. The covered smut disease of sugarcane is due to ?
A. Ustilago nuda
B. Ustilago avenae
C. Ustilago cyanodontis
D. Ustilago scitamineae
Correct Answer : D. Ustilago scitamineae
13. ‘Covered smut of barley is caused by ?
A. Ustilago hordei
B. Ustilago avenae
C. Ustilago nuda
D. Tilletia caries
Correct Answer : A. Ustilago hordei
14. Loose smut of barley is caused by ?
A. Ustilago hordei
B. Ustilago nuda
C. Ustilago tritici
D. Ustilago maydis
Correct Answer : B. Ustilago nuda
15. Smut of maize is caused by ?
A. Ustilago avenae
B. Ustilago maydis
C. Ustilago hordei
D. Ustilago nuda
Correct Answer : B. Ustilago maydis
16. Corn smut disease is caused by ?
A. Ustilago nuda
B. Ustilago hordei
C. Ustilago scitaminae
D. Ustilago maydis
Correct Answer : D. Ustilago maydis
MCQs

1. Fruiting body is perithecium (flask-shaped) in?
a) Aspergillus
b) Penicillium
c) Claviceps
d) Saccharomyces
Ans- c) Claviceps
2. Which one of the following is commonly called as ‘Drosophila of Plant Kingdom’?
a) Arabdiopsis
b) Drosophila
c) Neurospora
d) Aspergillus
Ans- c) Neurospora
3. Neurospora sitophila is commonly called as ‘Bakery mold’ or ‘Red bread mold’
belongs to?
a) Ascomycotina
b) Basidiomycotina
c) Zygomycotina
d) Mastigomycotina
Ans- a) Ascomycotina
4. Two types of conidia: Macroconidia and Microconidia are formed in the life cycle
of?
a) Taphrina
b) Albugo
c) Agaricus
d) Neurospora
Ans- d) Neurospora
5. Which one of the following is Heterothallic species of Neurospora?
a) N. terricola
b) N. dodgei
c) N. sitophila
d) N. crassa
Ans- c) N. sitophila & d) N. crassa
6. Ascospores arranged in a single row in ascus and have characteristically ribbed
wall in?
a) Taphrina
b) Albugo
c) Agaricus
d) Neurospora
Ans- d) Neurospora
7. Which one of the following is well known for ‘ergot disease’?
a) Rhizopus
b) Cleviceps

c) Albugo
d) Dactylaria
Ans- b) Cleviceps
8. Which of the following infect ovary of host plant?
a) Taphrina
b) Albugo
c) Claviceps
d) Neurospora
Ans- c) Claviceps
9. Which one of the following species of Claviceps causes ‘Ergot of Rye’?
a) C. gigantia
b) C. purpurea
c) C. microcephala
d) None of the above
Ans- b) C. purpurea
10. ‘Sphacelial stage’ is found in the life cycle of?
a) Alternaria
b) Claviceps
c) Phytophthora
d) Synchytrium
Ans- b) Claviceps
MCQs
1. Which one of the following gropu is popularly called as ‘Powdery Mildew’?
a) Eurotiales
b) Erysiphales
c) Peronosporales
d) Agaricales
Ans-b
2. Mature cleistothecium bears myceloid appendages in?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia
Ans-a
3. Mature cleistothecium bears circinoid appendages in?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia

Ans-b
4. Mature cleistothecium bears dichotomously branched appendages in?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia
Ans-c
5. Mature cleistothecium bears bulbous appendages in?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia
Ans-d
6. Powdery mildew of peas is caused by?
a) Erysiphe polygoni
b) Erysiphe communis
c) Erysiphe graminis
d) Both a and b
Ans-a
7. Cleistothecium (fruiting body) with myceloid appendages is found in?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia
Ans-a
8. Powdery mildew of Grape-vines is caused by?
a) Erysiphe
b) Uncinula
c) Microsphaera
d) Phyllactinia
Ans-b
MCQs Based on Previous Lectures on Fungi (Part-A)
1. Which fungi causes black wart disease of potato?
a) Saprolegnia parasitica
b) Synchytrium endobioticum
c) Rhizopus stolonifer
d) Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Answer: b
2. Zygomycetes have which type of mycelia?
a) nonseptate
b) septate with uninucleate
c) septate with multi muclei
d) white, nonseptate
Answer: d
3. In the life cycle of Rhizopus stolonifer,when the protoplasts and nuclei of both
gametangia coalesce, the structure is known as ________________?
a) progametangia
b) coenozygote
c) zygospore
d) zygote
Answer: b
4. What do you mean by hypertrophy?
a) repeated cell division
b) infection by zoospore
c) increase in cell volume
d) decrease in cell volume
Answer: c
5. Which of the following fungi causes severe epidemic of disease among fish in the
natural environment?
a) Saprolegnia ferax
b) Saprolegnia parasitica
c) Neurospora crassa
d) Neurospora sitophila
Answer: b
6. Rhizopus produces clusters of rootlike holdfasts called _____________?
a) stolons
b) hyphae
c) runners
d) rhizoids
Answer: d
7. Rhizoid is present in which of the genera?
a) Rhizopus
b) Cleviceps
c) Albugo
d) Dactylaria

Ans. A
8. Haustoria are found in which of the genera?
a) Powdery mildew fungi
b) Downy mildew fungi
c) Albugo and Magnaporthe
d) All of the above
Ans. D
9. Motile sporangiospores (Zoospores) produced by which group of fungi?
a) Olpidium and Synchytrium
b) Pythium and Phytophthora
c) Albugo and Downy mildew fungi
d) All of the above
Ans. D
10. Amotile sporangiospores (aplanospores) are produced in ______?
a) Rhizopus
b) Mucor
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above
Ans. C
11. Presence of Rhizoids, stolons and columellate sporangia is a typical feature of
which fungus?
a) Rhizopus
b) Mucor
c) Rhizomucor
d) Both A and B
Ans. A
12. Which of the following group/s of fungi is/are known as aquatic fungi?
a) Chytridiomycetes (Olpidium, Synchytrium)
b) Hyphochytridiomycetes
c) Oomycetes (Pythium, Phytophthora)
d) All of the above
Ans. D
13. The organism which derive nutrient from living cells (host) for their growth are
called parasite. Those organisms which derive nutrient always from living host/
tissues/ cells on which they complete their life cycle are called ______?
a) Obligate parasite (Biotrophs)
b) Saprophytes
c) Hemibiotrophas (Facultative saprophytes)
d) Perthotroph/Necrotrophas
Ans. A

Final Fungi Lecture Notes PDF from Masters of Botany.pdf

More Related Content

Similar to Final Fungi Lecture Notes PDF from Masters of Botany.pdf (20)

More from Arif Majid (6)

Recently uploaded (20)

Final Fungi Lecture Notes PDF from Masters of Botany.pdf