project on research methodology n data analysis

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As long journey of B.M.S.course draws to an end we are over whelmed with
feelings of gratitude for all those who have made it possible for us to reach this
stage. Some have helped us directly and some indirectly but one and all of them we
are of our success in completing this course.

There have been many speed breakers in route but all these people have helped
to make the road sooth, helped us to speed on towards the goal. It is faith that gives
us strength, it is faith that leads us onwards, it is faith that brings us success, and
we bow to the GOD who is the inner self and seek his blessings for completing this
course.

First and foremost our heartfelt thanks go to our guide Prof. R.R.shah, Shri
M.D. shah Mahila College, T.S. Bafna road, Malad west, Mumbai400064. For his
guidance in the subject and technical knowledge this task would have remained
incomplete.

For inspiration, constant motivation and unceasing support, positive thinking,
encouragement at all times, our special thanks goes to Smt.Bharati Akshay Naik,
director of Janseva Samiti, c/o Shri M. D. Shah Mahila college, Malad West
Mumbai 400064, who has been a pillar of strength through the ups and downs
throughout our life also who have been a source of inspiration to me my team and
to move further to meet my academic aims.

Our further thank to the following staff of Shri.M.D.Shah Mahila College, The
management of janseva samiti. Dr.Deepa Sharma, Principal the teaching, library,
administrative staff, support staff and students.

Similarly, we express our gratitude to the Management, coordinator Professor
R.R.SHAH SIR Smt. Bharti A Naik and all the staff of Shri m.d. shah mahila
college, malad west Mumbai 400064.

1

INTRODUCTION
It is the emotional and psychological relationship you have with your customers. Strong brands
elicit thoughts, emotions, and sometimes physiological responses from customers. Examine the
following logos:

Simply looking at these logos elicits an emotional response. You had thoughts and feelings about
each company. In fact, when you looked at the A flac logo, you probably heard the duck in your
mind saying "Ah Flack." When starting your own business, one of your most important concerns
is to develop your company's face to the world. This is your brand. It is the company's name,
how that name is visually expressed through a logo, and how that name and logo extend
throughout an organization's communications. A brand is also how the company is perceived by
its customers — the associations and inherent value they place on your business.

A brand is also a kind of promise. It is a set of fundamental principles as understood by anyone
who comes into contact with a company. A brand is an organization's "reason for being"; it is
how that reason is expressed through the various communications to its key audiences, including
customers, shareholders, employees, and analysts. A brand should also represent the desired
attributes of a company's products, services, and initiatives. Apple's brand is a great example.
The Apple logo is clean, elegant, and easily implemented. Notice that the company has altered
the use of the apple logo from rainbow-striped to monochromatic. In this way they keep their
brand and signal in a new era for their expansive enterprise. Think about how you've seen the
brand in advertising, trade shows, packaging, product design, and so on. It's distinctive and it all
adds up to a particular promise. The Apple brand stands for quality of design and ease of use.

2

Products and services have become so alike that they fail to distinguish themselves by their
quality, efficacy, reliability, assurance and care. Brands add emotion and trust to these products
and services, thus providing clues that simplify consumers’ choice.

(2) These added emotions and trust help create a relationship between brands and consumers,
which ensures consumers’ loyalty to the brands.

(3) Brands create aspiration lifestyles based on these consumer relationships. Associating oneself
with a brand transfers these lifestyles onto consumers.

(4) The branded lifestyles extol values over and above the brands’ product or service category
that allow the brands to be extended into other product and service categories. Thus, saving
companies, the trouble and costs of developing new brands while entering new lucrative markets.

(5) The combination of emotions, relationships, lifestyles and values allows brand owners to
charge a price premium for their products and services, which otherwise are barely
distinguishable from generics.

A brand is a product, service, or concept that is publicly distinguished from other products,
services, or concepts so that it can be easily communicated and usually marketed. A brand name
is the name of the distinctive product, service, or concept. Branding is the process of creating and
disseminating the brand name. Branding can be applied to the entire corporate identity as well as
to individual product and service names.

Brands are usually protected from use by others by securing a trademark or service mark from an
authorized agency, usually a government agency. Before applying for a trademark or service
mark, you need to establish that someone else hasn't already obtained one for your name. Brands
are often expressed in the form of logos, graphic representations of the brand. In computers, a
recent example of widespread brand application was the "Intel Inside" label provided to
manufacturers that use Intel's microchips .A company's brands and the public's awareness of
them is often used as a factor in evaluating a company. Corporations sometimes hire market
research firms to study public recognition of brand names as well as attitudes toward the brands.

Brand management is the application of marketing techniques to a specific product, product line,
or brand. It seeks to increase the product's perceived value to the customer and thereby increase
brand franchise and brand equity. Marketers see a brand as an implied promise that the level of
quality people have come to expect from a brand will continue with future purchases of the same
product. This may increase sales by making a comparison with competing products more
favorable. It may also enable the manufacturer to charge more for the product. The value of the
brand is determined by the amount of profit it generates for the manufacturer. This can result
from a combination of increased sales and increased price, and/or reduced COGS (cost of goods
sold), and/or reduced or more efficient marketing investment. All of these enhancements may
improve the profitability of a brand, and thus, "Brand Managers" often carry line-management
accountability for a brand's P&L (Profit and Loss) profitability, in contrast to marketing staff

3

manager roles, which are allocated budgets from above, to manage and execute. In this regard,
Brand Management is often viewed in organizations as a broader and more strategic role than
Marketing alone.

Brand evaluation in the process of building and sustaining brands

A new role for brands—at the core of business
4

The time has come to recognize a new role for brands—and the brand team—at the core of
business. As shown in the Brand Core Model below, brand building is moving to a crucial
position at the strategic center of business operations. At this vital confluence of company,
product and customer, the brand team provides the vision and the platforms to create new forms
of value, and to create and grow the customers that will drive the business forward.

Brand Core Model

Creating value at the core

The Brand Core Model illustrates how brands have moved from symbols and slogans at the
periphery of business to a value-creating activity at the heart of the enterprise. Brand practice
belongs at the company core because the brand logic of creating customers shapes the allied
fields of marketing, product development and customer development. From this central position,
the brand team emerges as a key player in determining how customers are created, and how
customers can be grown into new market opportunities.

Brand as the hub of a value network

5

Within the brand-centric enterprise, the brand is the core of a value creation process and the hub
of a value network, feeding the innovation pipeline within the company, and between the
company and its customers. This new brand environment differs radically from that of traditional
brands. The brands produced are action-based. They’ve moved beyond the symbols, gestures and
identities of conventional brand campaigns. These new brands are digitally enabled platforms
and programs of value innovation. They pump value through the company, into the customer,
and back again, gaining power and reach via network effects. While old brands beg for attention,
these new brands join their customers as allies, directly adding pop and pulse to their lives.

Brands move from periphery to core

For most companies, this will be a dramatic new role for brands and the brand team. It marks the
progress of brands from a communication layer on the periphery of business to a value
innovation engine at the core.

In this process, brands are finally emerging as a strategic business practice in their own right.
They’re no longer a subset of marketing, advertising, design, packaging or communications.
Brand strategy can drive the business. Brand practice brings its own vision, platform logic,
customer creation process, methodology, tools and resources.

Brands reinvented

From their new locus, brands are situated to reinvent themselves, sloughing off antiquated, top-
down approaches for a new fusion of culture, technology and social software. They’re free to
morph to customer needs, large or small, from a panorama of the possible to pocket-size, a pin,
or a pixel. As we’ve said before: “Brands are tools that enable customers to interoperate with the
universe. The genius of brands is that they have no limits. The value of brands is that through
them, customers have no limits.”

A new role for the brand team

The Brand Core Model illustrates the central importance of the brand team. Through a
collaborative process, the brand team brings together company vision, business priorities,
platform logic and freewheeling creativity, all focused on creating and growing customers. The
role of the team is to guide and augment value innovation through the company, and then
through the customer, insuring that resulting customer growth can return new forms of value
back to the business.

Brand central: how it works

6

The Brand Core Model illustrates how innovation and value are co-created by groups inside and
outside the company, mediated by the brand. The brand provides a collaborative framework for
value innovation, cutting across internal divisions and other boundaries, and speeding innovation
to market.

At the intersection of Company and Product, the brand shapes Marketing by defining the
platforms and programs that will create and grow the customers to grow the business. Brand
platforms and programs become the structure for marketing imagination.

At the intersection of Product and Customer, the brand shapes Innovation in three ways: 1) by
providing clear brand platform and customer platform direction to R&D, product development
and engineering; 2) by helping develop cost-effective, high-value prototypes, and 3) by enlisting
customer initiative and intelligence to augment the innovation process.

At the intersection of Customer And Company, the brand shapes Value by using collaborative
methods and value networks to establish an exclusive context of mutual (company/customer)
value. This helps synchronize brand platform deliverables with customer platform needs.
Because the brand is committed to creating customer freedoms, it does not lead to backwater
pools where innovation stagnates in an attempt to contain customers.

7

Product
The most common brand is that associated with a tangible product, such as a car or drink. This
can be very specific or may indicate a range of products. In any case, there is always a unifying
element that is the 'brand' being referred to in the given case.

Individual product

Product brands can be very specific, indicating a single product, such as classic Coca-Cola. It can
also include particular physical forms, such as Coca-cola in a traditional bottle or a can.

Product range

Product brands can also be associated with a range, such as the Mercedes S-class cars or all
varieties of Colgate toothpaste.

Service

As companies move from manufacturing products to delivering complete solutions and
intangible services, the brand is about the 'service'.

Service brands are about what is done, when it is done, who does it, etc. It is much more variable
than products brands, where variation can be eliminated on the production line. Even in
companies such as McDonald's where the service has been standardized down to the eye contact
and smile, variation still occurs.

Consistency can be a problem in service: we expect some variation, and the same smile every
time can turn into an annoyance as we feel we are being manipulated. Service brands need a lot
more understanding than product brands.
8

Organization

Organizations are brands, whether it is a company that delivers products and services or some
other group. Thus Greenpeace, Mercedes and the US Senate are all defined organizations and
each has qualities associated with them that constitute the brand.

In once sense, the brand of the organization is created as the sum of its products and services.
After all, this is all we can see and experience of the organization. Looking at it another way, the
flow also goes the other way: the intent of the managers of the organization permeates
downwards into the products and the services which project a common element of that intent.

Person

The person brand is focused on one or a few individuals, where the branding is associated with
personality.

Individual

A pure individual brand is based on one person, such as celebrity actor or singer. The brand can
be their natural person or a carefully crafted projection.

Politicians work had to project a brand that is attractive to their electorate (and also work hard to
keep their skeletons firmly in the cupboard). In a similar way, rock stars who want to appear cool
also are playing to a stereotype.

Group

Not much higher in detail than an individual is the brand of a group. In particular when this is a
small group and the individuals are known, the group brand and the individual brand overlap, for
example in the way that the brand of a pop group and the brand of its known members are
strongly connected.

Organizations can also be linked closely with the brand of an individual, for example Virgin is
closely linked with Richard Branson.

Event

Events have brands too, whether they are rock concerts, the Olympics, a space-rocket launch or a
town-hall dance.

Event brands are strongly connected with the experience of the people attending, for example
with musical pleasure or amazement at human feats.

9

Product, service and other brands realize the power of event brands and seek to have their brands
associated with the event brands. Thus sponsorship of events is now big business as one brand
tries to get leverage from the essence of the event, such as excitement and danger of car racing.

Geography

Areas of the world also have essential qualities that are seen as characterizations, and hence also
have brand. These areas can range from countries to state to cities to streets and buildings.

Those who govern or represent these geographies will work hard to develop the brand. Cities, for
example, may have de-facto brands of being dangerous or safe, cultural or bland, which will be
used by potential tourists in their decisions to visit and by companies in their decisions on where
to set up places of employment.

Brand equity refers to the marketing effects or outcomes that accrue to a product with its brand
name compared with those that would accrue if the same product did not have the brand name.
And, at the root of these marketing effects is consumers' knowledge. In other words, consumers'
knowledge about a brand makes manufacturers/advertisers respond differently or adopt
appropriately adept measures for the marketing of the brand The study of brand equity is
increasingly popular as some marketing researchers have concluded that brands are one of the
most valuable assets that a company has Brand equity is one of the factors which can increase
the financial value of a brand to the brand owner, although not the only one

Measurement

10

There are many ways to measure a brand. Some measurements approaches are at the firm level,
some at the product level and still others are at the consumer level.

Firm Level: Firm level approaches measure the brand as a financial asset. In short, a calculation
is made regarding how much the brand is worth as an intangible asset. For example, if you were
to take the value of the firm, as derived by its market capitalization - and then subtract tangible
assets and "measurable" intangible assets- the residual would be the brand equity. One high
profile firm level approach is by the consulting firm Inter brand. To do its calculation, Inter
brand estimates brand value on the basis of projected profits discounted to a present value. The
discount rate is a subjective rate determined by Inter brand and Wall Street equity specialists and
reflects the risk profile, market leadership, stability and global reach of the brand

Product Level: The classic product level brand measurement example is to compare the price of
a no-name or private label product to an "equivalent" branded product. The difference in price,
assuming all things equal, is due to the brand. More recently a revenue premium approach has
been advocated

Consumer Level: This approach seeks to map the mind of the consumer to find out what
associations with the brand that the consumer has. This approach seeks to measure the awareness
(recall and recognition) and brand image (the overall associations that the brand has). Free
association tests and projective techniques are commonly used to uncover the tangible and
intangible attributes, attitudes, and intentions about a brand. Brands with high levels of awareness
and strong, favorable and unique associations are high equity brands

11

Define the vision. Before moving ahead with the web site, create a brand positioning statement.
“This isn’t just, ‘What kind of web site do we want to be?’ This is ‘Who are we?’” says Harley
Manning, vice president at Forrester Research in Cambridge, Mass., a technology and market
research firm that advises on the effects technology has on consumers and businesses. Good
brand statements typically include the company’s mission, vision and values. “It’s succinct. It’s
typically something that will fit on a page easily,” he says.
Build a brand worth believing in. “Do you so believe in what you’re creating that you would
trademark it?” says Andrea Fitch, president and CEO of Red Carpet Creations, Inc., and national
president of the Society for Marketing Professional Services, both based out of Alexandria, Va.
Really consider what kind of brand could represent the business through the next decade. “Don’t
have a logo that in five years you’re going to be tired of and discard for another,” she says.
Remember, the web site is the brand. “A web site is not just a communication medium,”
Manning says. “It is actually a channel that must deliver on the promise.” Essentially, a web site
should embody the promise that it makes to customers. If, for instance, a business claims to be
innovative, the web site should look fresh and modern.
Create a cohesive experience between all mediums. Before she launched her company’s new
web site, Fitch made sure it would be an event that her potential clients would never forget. Red
Carpet Creations mailed 4,000 silver tubes containing scrolls that looked like rolled-up carpet.
Inside the scrolls was an announcement about the web site’s launch. Once online, the web site
was an extension of the invitations because it followed through on the themes of red carpet
imagery and references to visitors being treated like a VIP. Customers should easily be able to
recognize the company’s brand, whether it is print, online or some other form of media, Manning
says.
Don’t sacrifice creativity. Once the brand’s guidelines are established, creative choices must
bring those attributes to life, Manning says. Don’t let the company’s brand become so
dominating that there is no room for new thoughts and ideas. Brand should be the jumping-off
point for interesting ideas, not the place where every new idea dead-ends. Fitch stresses that a
sense of fun and whimsy will only enhance the likelihood that people will take an interest in the
web site.
Don’t communicate brand at the expense of delivering. While a web site can be a significant
tool for building brand awareness, clarity and functionality are paramount. “Just be careful not to
let the communication about your brand get in the way of delivering your message,” Manning
says. People should be able to understand how to navigate the site without knowing a thing about
the company’s catch phrases. “You can’t frustrate and annoy people into liking your brand,” he
says.
Listen to the customers: They determine a brand’s true value. Pay attention to customer
feedback about the site because, ultimately, it’s the customers’ opinion that counts. When it
comes to building a brand, a company can incorporate everything from signature colors to catch
phrases, but at the end of the day, it’s the consumer who decides what a brand is really worth.
“It’s not what you say [about] yourself, it’s what others say of you,” Fitch says.

IMPORTANCE OF BRAND
12

Branding is a very powerful component in business. The brand must have a logo to make
branding easier and more possible. The consumers decide if they will buy a product or use a
service based on how they view the brand. The brand itself tells us or let us imagine how good or
bad the product is even if we never tasted it before! All that brand promotion and advertising
really do tell us how great a brand can be (like Nike). Once a customer likes your brand he/she
will definitely come back for repeated services or products. The qualities of the product or
services are ensured through the customers minds from the brand image. Brand is not only
convenient for businesses for repeated customer purchase but also easier for customers to filter
out the countless generic items. Brand gives consumers the reason to buy it and wastes less time
for consumer to choose. There are ways to improve a brand from advertising such as viral
campaign (more trustworthy), online ads, print ads and commercials. Another way is to improve
your product or services that will reinforce the brand. This is a good way to promote your brand
by always being in the cutting edge or “customer’s first image”. The qualities of your products
and services will reinforce the brand. Advertise as much as possible to spread that message and
make it into a cult brand. Branding doesn’t only benefit the business but you as well (yes I mean
it). The brand you choose reflects who you are and expresses yourself on what you like to do and
be able to join the community of like minded people. Branding is a win: win situation for both
the businesses and the loyal customers.

Advantages of Brands
A strong brand offers many advantages for marketers including:

• Brands provide multiple sensory stimuli to enhance customer recognition. For example, a
brand can be visually recognizable from its packaging, logo, shape, etc. It can also be
recognizable via sound, such as hearing the name on a radio advertisement or talking
with someone who mentions the product.
• Customers who are frequent and enthusiastic purchasers of a particular brand are likely to
become Brand Loyal. Cultivating brand loyalty among customers is the ultimate reward
for successful marketers since these customers are far less likely to be enticed to switch
to other brands compared to non-loyal customers.
• Well-developed and promoted brands make product positioning efforts more effective.
The result is that upon exposure to a brand (e.g., hearing it, seeing it) customers conjure
up mental images or feelings of the benefits they receive from using that brand. The
reverse is even better.
• This “benefit = brand” association provides a significant advantage for the brand that the
customer associates with the benefit sought.
• Firms that establish a successful brand can extend the brand by adding new products
under the same “family” brand. Such branding may allow companies to introduce new
products more easily since the brand is already recognized within the market.

Brand Limitations
13

Ideally, a good brand serves to enhance a sound infrastructure with a solid reputation. Branding
is not a magic wand; it cannot provide a quick fix to a company’s problems or compensate for
any shortcomings. Branding will help very little if your internal operations and cultural
personality are opposite what you are trying to convey to the outside audience. Your internal
brand personality is just as important as the external message. The average customer is not going
to purchase a product or service without feeling comfortable with the company offering it.

Consumers have become alert to the “fluff” in advertising. They are also on the lookout for
companies that outright lie. When-not if – the public finds out it has been deceived, the company
in question will have to deal with a backlash-and the damage may very well be permanent. The
best way to maintain good public relations during the brand building process is to run an ethical
business. Public relations involve sharing information with the public, and that creates problems
when you have something to hide. So…make sure you’re not running your brand in a way that
requires you to keep secrets from any of your publics-customers, employees, shareholders, and
so on.

No matter how persuasive your ad campaign or how hard-working your sales staff may be,
neither can move an inferior product, coupled by a poor image, off the shelves. If a company
does not does not live up to consumer expectations, negative word-of-mouth will eventually be
its undoing. An eye-catching logo that represents an uninspired company or a substandard
product will be quickly sniffed out by savvy buyers. In this case, branding can work to drive
customers away.

Consumer brand preference
The essence of being in business by any business outfits is to produce for sales and profits. In
order to remain in business an organization must generate enough sales from its products to
cover operating costs and post reasonable profits. For many organizations, sales estimate is the
starting point in budgeting or profit planning. It is so because it must be determined, in most
cases, before production units could be arrived at while production units will in turn affect
material purchases. However, taking decision on sales is the most difficult tasks facing many
business executives. This is because it is difficult to predict, estimate or determine with accuracy,
potential customers’ demands as they are uncontrollable factors external to an organization.
Considering, therefore, the importance of sales on business survival and the connection between
customers and sales, it is expedient for organizations to engage in programmes that can influence
consumers’ decision to purchase its products. This is where advertising and brand management
are relevant. Advertising is a subset of promotion mix which is one of the 4ps in the marketing
mix i.e. product, price, place and promotion. As a promotional strategy, advertising serve as a
major tool in creating product awareness and condition the mind of a potential consumer to take
eventual purchase decision. Advertiser’s primary mission is to reach prospective customers and
influence their awareness, attitudes and buying behaviour. They spend a lot of money to keep
individuals (markets) interested in their products. To succeed, they need to understand what
makes potential customers behave the way they do. The advertisers goals is to get enough
relevant market data to develop accurate profiles of buyers-to-find the common group (and
symbols) for communications this involves the study of consumers behaviour: the mental and

14

emotional processes and the physical activities of people who purchase and use goods and
services to satisfy particular needs and wants (Arens, 1996). Proctor et al. (1982) noted that the
principal aim of consumer behaviour analysis is to explain why consumers act in particular ways
under certain circumstances. It tries to determine the factors that influence consumer behaviour,
especially the economic, social and psychological aspects which can indicate the most favoured
marketing mix that management should select. Consumer behaviour analysis helps to determine
the direction that consumer behaviour is likely to make and to give preferred trends in product
development, attributes of the alternative communication method etc. consumer behaviours
analysis views the consumer as another variable in the marketing sequence, a variable that
cannot be controlled and that will interpreted the product or service not only in terms of the
physical characteristics, but in the context of this image according to the social and
psychological makeup of that individual consumer (or group of consumers). Economic theory
has sought to establish relationships between selling prices, sales achieved and consumer’s
income; similarly, advertising expenditure is frequently compared with sales. On other
occasion’s financial accounting principles maybe applied to analyses profit and losses.
Management ratios, net profit before tax, liquidity and solvency ratios can all be investigated.
Under the situations the importance of the consumer’s motivations, perceptions, attitudes and
beliefs are largely ignored. The consumer is assumed to be “rational” that is, to react in the
direction that would be suggested by economic theory and financial principles. However, it is
often apparent that consumer behaviours does not fall neatly into these expected patterns. It is for
these reasons that consumer behaviour analysis is conducted as yet another tool to assess the
complexities of marketing operations. The proliferation of assorted brands of food drinks in the
country has led to the cut-throat competition for increased market share being witnessed
currently among the operations in the food drink industry. Today, in Nigeria, there exists more
than twenty brands of food drink both local and foreign, out of which two, namely Cadbury
Nigeria Plc’s Bournvita and Nestle Nigeria Plc’sMilo keenly compete for market leadership.
There are quite a host of up-coming and low-price localized brands in small sachets with “Vita
“suffixes springing up in every nook and cranny of the country. Existing and popular brands,
therefore, face intense competition with the “affordable” localized” “Vitas” with high sugar
content targeted at the low-income groups. It is, therefore, imperative for the more established
brands like Bournvita to employ brilliant advertising and branding strategies to influence
consumers’ behaviours in order to continue to enjoy and maintain market leadership. Given the
competitive environment in the food and beverages sub sector of the economy and the high
potential of advertising in helping companies realize and retain their position this paper examine
the influence of advertising on a leading company in the food and beverages subsector as a case
study.

RURAL BRAND PREFERENCE DETERMINANTS IN
INDIA

15

This study was done in two Indian states with the objective of exploring the dynamics of
branding in rural India. The study was done through sample survey using structured
questionnaire. The sample size for the study was 354. The measurement was done on brand
preference at overall level for three product families namely FMCG (Fast moving consumer
goods), consumer durables and agro inputs. Preference for various aspects of brands was also
measured. The objective was to establish the determinants of brand preference in rural India for
FMCG, durables and agro inputs and to find out whether any differential exists across product
families. The collected data was analyzed using regression analysis. Findings indicated that good
quality, value for money and sense of identity with brand were likely to act as key determinants
of a FMCG brand in rural India. Better finish and good looks, recommendations from retailers
were found be key determinants of a consumer durable brand in rural India. Only value for
money emerged as significant determinant for an agro input brand in rural India. The paper
discusses why a brand preference in rural India is limited to these attributes only and what rural
branding means in the current context.

Brand loyalty
Brand loyalty, in marketing, consists of a consumer's commitment to repurchase or otherwise
continue using the brand and can be demonstrated by repeated buying of a product or service or
other positive behaviors such as word of mouth advocacy.

Brand loyalty is more than simple repurchasing, however. Customers may repurchase a brand
due to situational constraints (such as vendor lock-in), a lack of viable alternatives, or out of
convenience. Such loyalty is referred to as "spurious loyalty". True brand loyalty exists when
customers have a high relative attitude toward the brand which is then exhibited through
repurchase behavior. This type of loyalty can be a great asset to the firm: customers are willing
to pay higher prices, they may cost less to serve, and can bring new customers to the firm. For
example, if Joe has brand loyalty to Company A he will purchase Company A's products even if
Company B's are cheaper and/or of a higher quality.

An example of a major brand loyalty program that extended for several years and spread
worldwide is Pepsi Stuff. Perhaps the most significant contemporary example of brand loyalty is
the dedication that many Mac users show to the Apple Company and its products.

From the point of view of many marketers, loyalty to the brand — in terms of consumer usage
— is a key factor:

Factors influencing brand loyalty

16

It has been suggested that loyalty includes some degree of pre-dispositional commitment toward
a brand. Brand loyalty is viewed as multidimensional construct. It is determined by several
distinct psychological processes and it entails multivariate measurements. Customers' perceived
value, brand trust, customers' satisfaction, repeat purchase behaviour, and commitment are found
to be the key influencing factors of brand loyalty. Commitment and repeated purchase behaviour
are considered as necessary conditions for brand loyalty followed by perceived value,
satisfaction, and brand trust. Fred Reichheld, one of the most influential writers on brand loyalty,
claimed that enhancing customer loyalty could have dramatic effects on profitability. Among the
benefits from brand loyalty — specifically, longer tenure or staying as a customer for longer —
was said to be lower sensitivity to price. This claim had not been empirically tested until
recently. Recent research found evidence that longer-term customers were indeed less sensitive
to price increases.

Industrial markets
In industrial markets, organizations regard the 'heavy users' as 'major accounts' to be handled by
senior sales personnel and even managers; whereas the 'light users' may be handled by the
general sales force or by a dealer.
Portfolios of brands
Andrew Ehrenberg, then of the London Business School said that consumers buy 'portfolios of
brands'. They switch regularly between brands, often because they simply want a change. Thus,
'brand penetration' or 'brand share' reflects only a statistical chance that the majority of customers
will buy that brand next time as part of a portfolio of brands they favour. It does not guarantee
that they will stay loyal.

Market inertia
One of the most prominent features of many markets is their overall stability — or inertia. Thus,
in their essential characteristics they change very slowly, often over decades — sometimes
centuries — rather than over months. This stability has two very important implications. The first
is that those who are clear brand leaders are especially well placed in relation to their competitors
and should want to further the inertia which lies behind that stable position. This, however, still
demands a continuing pattern of minor changes to keep up with the marginal changes in
consumer taste (which may be minor to the theorist but will still be crucial in terms of those
consumers' purchasing patterns as markets do not favour the over-complacent). These minor
investments are a small price to pay for the long term profits which brand leaders usually enjoy.

The second, and more important, is that someone who wishes to overturn this stability and
change the market (or significantly change one's position in it), massive investments must be
expected to be made in order to succeed. Even though stability is the natural state of markets,
sudden changes can still occur, and the environment must be constantly scanned for signs of
these.

17

WHAT IS PRODUCT

In marketing, a product is anything that can be offered to a market that might satisfy a want or
need In retailing, products are called merchandise. In manufacturing, products are purchased as
raw materials and sold as finished goods. Commodities are usually raw materials such as metals
and agricultural products, but a commodity can also be anything widely available in the open
market. In project management, products are the formal definition of the project deliverables that
make up or contribute to delivering the objectives of the project. In general usage, product may
refer to a single item or unit, a group of equivalent products, a grouping of goods or services, or
an industrial classification for the goods or services. A related concept is sub product, a
secondary but useful result of a production process.

Tangible and Intangible Products
18

Products can be classified as tangible or intangible. A tangible product is any physical product
that can be touched like a computer, automobile, etc. An intangible product is a non-physical
product like an insurance policy.
In its online product catalog, retailer Sears, Roebuck and Company divides its products into
departments, and then presents products to shoppers according to (1) function or (2) brand. Each
product has a Sears’s item number and a manufacturer's model number. The departments and
product groupings that Sears’s uses are intended to help customers browse products by function
or brand within a traditional department store structure.

Sizes and colors

A catalog number, especially for clothing, may group sizes and colors. When ordering the
product, the customer specifies size, color and other variables. Example: you walk into a store
and see a group of shoes and in that group are sections of different colors of that type of shoe and
sizes for that shoe to satisfy your need.

Product line

A product line is "a group of products that are closely related, either because they function in a
similar manner, are sold to the same customer groups, are marketed through the same types of
outlets, or fall within given price ranges."

Many businesses offer a range of product lines which may be unique to a single organization or
may be common across the business's industry. In 2002 the US Census compiled revenue figures
for the finance and insurance industry by various product lines such as "accident, health and
medical insurance premiums" and "income from secured consumer loans". Within the insurance
industry, product lines are indicated by the type of risk coverage, such as auto insurance,
commercial insurance and life insurance.

19

The Product Life Cycle
A new product progresses through a sequence of stages from introduction to growth, maturity,
and decline. This sequence is known as the product life cycle and is associated with changes in
the marketing situation, thus impacting the marketing strategy and the marketing mix.

The product revenue and profits can be plotted as a function of the life-cycle stages as shown in
the graph below:

Product Life Cycle Diagram

Introduction Stage

In the introduction stage, the firm seeks to build product awareness and develop a market for the
product. The impact on the marketing mix is as follows:

• Product branding and quality level is established and intellectual property protection
such as patents and trademarks are obtained.
• Pricing may be low penetration pricing to build market share rapidly, or high skim
pricing to recover development costs.

• Distribution is selective until consumers show acceptance of the product.

• Promotion is aimed at innovators and early adopters. Marketing communications seeks
to build product awareness and to educate potential consumers about the product.

20

Growth Stage

In the growth stage, the firm seeks to build brand preference and increase market share.

• Product quality is maintained and additional features and support services may be added.
• Pricing is maintained as the firm enjoys increasing demand with little competition.

• Distribution channels are added as demand increases and customers accept the product.

• Promotion is aimed at a broader audience.

Maturity Stage

At maturity, the strong growth in sales diminishes. Competition may appear with similar
products. The primary objective at this point is to defend market share while maximizing profit.

• Product features may be enhanced to differentiate the product from that of competitors.
• Pricing may be lower because of the new competition.

• Distribution becomes more intensive and incentives may be offered to encourage
preference over competing products.

• Promotion emphasizes product differentiation.

Decline Stage

As sales decline, the firm has several options:

• Maintain the product, possibly rejuvenating it by adding new features and finding new
uses.
• Harvest the product - reduce costs and continue to offer it, possibly to a loyal niche
segment.

• Discontinue the product, liquidating remaining inventory or selling it to another firm that
is willing to continue the product.

Product Positioning Strategies
Positioning is what the customer believes about your product’s value, features, and benefits; it is
a comparison to the other available alternatives offered by the competition. These beliefs tend to
based on customer experiences and evidence, rather than awareness created by advertising or
promotion.

21

Marketers manage product positioning by focusing their marketing activities on a positioning
strategy. Pricing, promotion, channels of distribution, and advertising all are geared to maximize
the chosen positioning strategy.

Generally, there are six basic strategies for product positioning:

1. By attribute or benefit- This is the most frequently used positioning strategy. For a light beer,
it might be that it tastes great or that it is less filling. For toothpaste, it might be the mint taste or
tartar control.

2. By use or application- The users of Apple computers can design and use graphics more easily
than with Windows or UNIX. Apple positions its computers based on how the computer will be
used.

3. By user- Face book is a social networking site used exclusively by college students. Face book
is too cool for MySpace and serves a smaller, more sophisticated cohort. Only college students
may participate with their campus e-mail IDs.

4. By product or service class- Margarine competes as an alternative to butter. Margarine is
positioned as a lower cost and healthier alternative to butter, while butter provides better taste
and wholesome ingredients.

5. By competitor- BMW and Mercedes often compare themselves to each other segmenting the
market to just the crème de la crème of the automobile market. Ford and Chevy need not apply.

6. By price or quality- Tiffany and Costco both sell diamonds. Tiffany wants us to believe that
their diamonds are of the highest quality, while Costco tells us that diamonds are diamonds and
that only a chump will pay Tiffany prices.

Positioning is what the customer believes and not what the provider wants them to believe.
Positioning can change due the counter measures taken at the competition. Managing your
product positioning requires that you know your customer and that you understand your
competition; generally, this is the job of market research not just what the entrepreneur thinks is
true.

PRODUCT DESIGN
Changes in design are largely dictated by whether they would improve the prospects of greater
sales, and this, over the accompanying costs. Changes in design are also subject to cultural
pressures. The more culture-bound the product is, for example food, the more adaptation is
necessary. Most products fall in between the spectrum of "standardization" to "adaptation"
extremes. The application the product is put to also affect the design. In the UK, railway engines
were designed from the outset to be sophisticated because of the degree of competition, but in
the US this was not the case. In order to burn the abundant wood and move the prairie debris,
large smoke stacks and cowcatchers were necessary. In agricultural implements a mechanized
cultivator may be a convenience item in a UK garden, but in India and Africa it may be essential

22

equipment. As stated earlier "perceptions" of the product's benefits may also dictate the design.
A refrigerator in Africa is a very necessary and functional item, kept in the kitchen or the bar. In
Mexico, the same item is a status symbol and, therefore, kept in the living room.

Factors encouraging standardization are:

i) economies of scale in production and marketing
ii) consumer mobility - the more consumers travel the more is the demand
iii) technology
iv) image, for example "Japanese", "made in".

The latter can be a factor both to aid or to hinder global marketing development. Nagashima1
(1977) found the "made in USA" image has lost ground to the "made in Japan" image. In some
cases "foreign made" gives advantage over domestic products. In Zimbabwe one sees many
advertisements for "imported", which gives the product, advertised a perceived advantage over
domestic products. Often a price premium is charged to reinforce the "imported means quality"
image. If the foreign source is negative in effect, attempts are made to disguise or hide the fact
through, say, packaging or labelling. Mexicans are loathing taking products from Brazil. By
putting a "made in elsewhere" label on the product this can be overcome, provided the products
are manufactured elsewhere even though its company maybe Brazilian.

Factors encouraging adaptation are:

i) Differing usage conditions. These may be due to climate, skills, level of literacy, culture or
physical conditions. Maize, for example, would never sell in Europe rolled and milled as in
Africa. It is only eaten whole, on or off the cob. In Zimbabwe, kapenta fish can be used as a
relish, but wilt always be eaten as a "starter" to a meal in the developed countries.

ii) General market factors - incomes, tastes etc. Canned asparagus may be very affordable in the
developed world, but may not sell well in the developing world.

iii) Government - taxation, import quotas, non tariff barriers, labelling, health requirements. Non
tariff barriers are an attempt, despite their supposed impartiality, at restricting or eliminating
competition. A good example of this is the Florida tomato growers, cited earlier, who
successfully got the US Department of Agriculture to issue regulations establishing a minimum
size of tomatoes marketed in the United States. The effect of this was to eliminate the Mexican
tomato industry which grew a tomato that fell under the minimum size specified. Some non-tariff
barriers may be legitimate attempts to protect the consumer, for example the ever stricter
restrictions on horticultural produce insecticides and pesticides use may cause African growers a
headache, but they are deemed to be for the public good.

iv) History. Sometimes, as a result of colonialism, production facilities have been established
overseas. Eastern and Southern Africa is littered with examples. In Kenya, the tea industry is a
colonial legacy, as is the sugar industry of Zimbabwe and the coffee industry of Malawi. These
facilities have long been adapted to local conditions.

23

v) Financial considerations. In order to maximize sales or profits the organization may have no
choice but to adapt its products to local conditions.

vi) Pressure. Sometimes, as in the case of the EU, suppliers are forced to adapt to the rules and
regulations imposed on them if they wish to enter into the market.

PRODUCT DECSION
In decisions on producing or providing products and services in the international market it is
essential that the production of the product or service is well planned and coordinated, both
within and with other functional area of the firm, particularly marketing. For example, in
horticulture, it is essential that any supplier or any of his "out grower" (sub-contractor) can
supply what he says he can. This is especially vital when contracts for supply are finalized, as
failure to supply could incur large penalties. The main elements to consider are the production
process itself, specifications, culture, the physical product, packaging, labelling, branding,
warranty and service.

Production process

The key question is, can we ensure continuity of supply? In manufactured products this may
include decisions on the type of manufacturing process - artisanal, job, batch, and flow line or

24

group technology. However in many agricultural commodities factors like seasonality,
perishability and supply and demand have to be taken into consideration. A checklist of
questions on product requirements for horticultural products as an example Quantity and quality
of horticultural crops are affected by a number of things. These include input supplies (or lack of
them), finance and credit availability, variety (choice), sowing dates, product range and
investment advice. Many of these items will be catered for in the contract of supply.

Specification

Specification is very important in agricultural products. Some markets will not take produce
unless it is within their specification. Specifications are often set by the customer, but agents,
standard authorities (like the EU or ITC Geneva) and trade associations can be useful sources.
Quality requirements often vary considerably. In the Middle East, red apples are preferred over
green apples. In one example French red apples, well boxed, are sold at 55 dinars per box, whilst
not so attractive Iranian greens are sold for 28 dinars per box. In export the quality standards are
set by the importer. In Africa, Maritim (1991), found, generally, that there are no consistent
standards for product quality and grading, making it difficult to do international trade regionally.

Culture

Product packaging, labeling, physical characteristics and marketing have to adapt to the cultural
requirements when necessary. Religion, values, aesthetics, language and material culture all
affect production decisions. Effects of culture on production decisions have been dealt with
already in chapter three.

Physical product

The physical product is made up of a variety of elements. These elements include the physical
product and the subjective image of the product. Consumers are looking for benefits and these
must be conveyed in the total product package. Physical characteristics include range, shape,
size, color, quality, quantity and compatibility. Subjective attributes are determined by
advertising, self image, labelling and packaging. In manufacturing or selling produce,
cognizance has to be taken of cost and country legal requirements.

Again a number of these characteristics is governed by the customer or agent. For example, in
beef products sold to the EU there are very strict quality requirements to be observed. In fish
products, the Japanese demand more "exotic" types than, say, would be sold in the UK. None of
the dried fish products produced by the Zambians on Lake Kariba, and sold into the Lusaka
market, would ever pass the hygiene laws if sold internationally. In sophisticated markets like
seeds, the variety and range is so large that constant watch has to be kept on the new strains and
varieties in order to be competitive.

Packaging

Packaging serves many purposes. It protects the product from damage which could be incurred
in handling and transportation and also has a promotional aspect. It can be very expensive. Size,

25

unit type, weight and volume are very important in packaging. For aircraft cargo the package
needs to be light but strong, for sea cargo containers are often the best form. The customer may
also decide the best form of packaging. In horticultural produce, the developed countries often
demand blister packs for mange touts, beans, strawberries and so on, whilst for products like
pineapples a sea container may suffice. Costs of packaging have always to be weighed against
the advantage gained by it.

Increasingly, environmental aspects are coming into play. Packaging which is non-degradable -
plastic, for example - is less in demanded. Bio-degradable, recyclable, reusable packaging is now
the order of the day. This can be both expensive and demanding for many developing countries.

Labelling

Labelling not only serves to express the contents of the product, but may be promotional
(symbols for example Cashel Valley Zimbabwe; HJ Heinz, Africafe, Tanzania). The EU is now
putting very stringent regulations in force on labelling, even to the degree that the pesticides and
insecticides used on horticultural produce have to be listed. This could be very demanding for
producers, especially small scale, ones where production techniques may not be standardized.
Government labelling regulations vary from country to country. Bar codes are not widespread in
Africa, but do assist in stock control. Labels may have to be multilingual, especially if the
product is a world brand. Translation could be a problem with many words being translated with
difficulty. Again labelling is expensive, and in promotion terms non-standard labels are more
expensive than standard ones. Requirements for crate labelling, etc. for international
transportation will be dealt with later under documentation.

Product Strategy
Product Strategy is perhaps the most important function of a company. It must take in account
the capabilities in terms of engineering, of production, of distribution (sales) existing in the
company or of time to acquire them (by hiring or by mergers). It must evaluate the customer’s
expectations at the time of delivery. It must guest mate the competition (including new entrants)
probable moves to enter the same market.

Product strategy by Bull appeared sometimes erratic and not coordinated, especially during the
periods where product lines run independently. However, it has been dominated by very old
trends rooted in the Sales Network during the 1950s defining Bull's market around the business
applications, and fighting against the sole IBM as competitor.

So, the company adopted its version of IBM's business model, following IBM with a variable
delay, in the domain of products, price and market following. Sometimes new opportunities
appeared and some innovative products were developed, (e.g. time-sharing in GE time, smart
card applications) but they faded as marginalized by the Sales Network. In fact, the Sales
Network was not conscious of the pressure it exerted on Planning and Engineering. Often, it
focalized on IBM's short term moves, ignoring the reasons for those moves (sometimes due to
legal constraints, sometimes by internal fighting inside IBM, other times because other
competitors move).

26

While IBM's influence on Bull was extremely important, the reverse existed sometimes (1).
Dispute between IBM World Trade and IBM US domestic may have been fueled by some worry
of IBM European salesmen about some Bull's (and GE's or Honeywell's) products.

The capability of Bull to match IBM's offer on the market never existed. Before the GE's merger,
Bull did not address the US market directly and by consequence excluded itself from the market
segments needing the quantities only addressed by a worldwide market (such as large scientific
computers). Another market that was ignored (knowledgeably) early was the small scientific
market; its margins did not match the corporate model.

Bull never did a comparable investment to IBM's in the technology area. Each time it (or its
American associates) tries a significant move, the success did not reward it. The reasons of the
failure were multiple: overestimation of the return on investment, lack of a long term perspective
(that existed in architecture and software), size of market. Some more specific problems were
due to the lack of experience in fundamental physics, themselves related to the isolation of the
engineers.

For historical reasons related to the acquisition of a park of customers and for "political" reasons,
Bull did not succeed to shut down a product line before the 1990s. Its resource limitations did not
allow to embark in the simultaneous developments of more than one or a couple of compatible
processors at the same time. Product Planning had to prepare several product line plans and to
invent models within each product line to match the competition prices and performances.
Models were developed from a single engineering design with the same manufacturing cost by
slowing down the processor clock or adding dummy cycles and/or by reducing the
"connectivity" of the system.
When the performances exceeded IBM's target, the system was not sold at full speed to avoid the
risk of undercutting IBM future announcements' price and keeping some reserve power to react
against a competition "mid-life kicker".
New higher models were also created by unleashing the design constraints after one year. New
lower models were created by slowing down a bit already shipped processors.

This strategy worked well as far as the manufacturer controlled completely the customer
configuration by leasing the systems. The first evolution of the model was the advent of clone’s
manufacturers. They obviously attacked IBM's market but GE, Honeywell and Bull strategists
ordered to take all measures, sometimes detrimental to product and service costs, to
escape cloners. The architecture or the assembler of the machines remained confidential, source
and object code of programs was secrete, network architecture was not available even to
peripheral suppliers, peripheral interfaces were modified and the differences kept in vaults... Bull
argued to the persons objecting the strategy (suppliers, other manufacturers, customers ) that it
would respect the "de jure" standards (such as ISO's or ANSI's) but that it did not have to follow
the "de facto" standards (such as IBM's). That changed in the 1980s when "Open Systems"
became Bull's religion.

Another IBM decision impacted the business model, it was unbundling. While the IBM pricing
was more or less related to development and manufacturing costs, adopting the same price for
Bull's items where software, for instance, was reproduced in far smaller number of copies, lead

27

to a disconnect between decisions to produce and customers acceptation. Especially in the late
1970s and the 1980s, Bull embarked in many developments with a very low production rate, but
they were asked to match the IBM's catalog. Later, in the late 1980s, the competition with open
systems, lead to some re-bundling of the offer (the word was "packaging") where for instance
associate a purchased data base system with a memory bank and even an additional processor.

Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or any systematic investigation to establish
facts. The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research)
is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of
human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research
can use the scientific method, but need not do so.

Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and
the properties of the world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research
is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including
many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to
their academic and application disciplines.

28

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is an often-misused term, its usage in everyday language very different from the strict
scientific meaning. In the field of science, it is important to move away from the looser meaning
and use it only in its proper context. Scientific research adheres to a set of strict protocols and
long established structures. Often, we will talk about conducting internet research or say that we
are researching in the library. In everyday language, it is perfectly correct grammatically, but
in science, it gives a misleading impression. The correct and most common term used in science
is that we are conducting a literature review.

Research must be systematic and follow a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol. These
rules are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of science.

Scientific research must be organized and undergo planning, including performing literature
reviews of past research and evaluating what questions need to be answered.

29

Any type of ‘real’ research, whether scientific, economic or historical, requires some kind of
interpretation and an opinion from the researcher. This opinion is the underlying principle, or
question, that establishes the nature and type of experiment.

The scientific definition of research generally states that a variable must be manipulated,
although case studies and purely observational science do not always comply with this norm.

Types of Research

There are many different types of research methods, also called research designs that are used by
psychologists in trying to find things out about behavior. This is just a quick aid to the
identification of research designs. In real life, some studies may combine the features of several
research designs or may contain elements not included below.

Experiment: Participants randomly assigned to different groups being studied. Groups are
treated differently in one or a few very specific ways--the independent variable. Behavior
resulting from this treatment difference is measured--the dependent variable. If one group gets a
specific treatment and ones does not, usually the treated group is called the experimental group
and other groups are called control groups. Conditions other than the independent variable are
held as constant as possible for all groups. These constant conditions are called controls. If

30

participants are their own control group, that is, they receive both research treatments; the design
is called a within-subjects experiment. Conclusions can be taken to indicate a cause and effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Because of this, the experiment
is in a class by itself and it is a very special type of research procedure.

Quasi-experiment: Participants achieve membership in different groups as a result of
characteristics other than random assignment, for example: gender, age, socioeconomic status,
athletic ability, or ethnic identification. A link may be found between one or more of these
characteristics and some outcome variables, but cause and effect relationships are not clearly
identified. Without random assignment to groups, a researcher cannot clearly demonstrate cause.

Correlation study: In the most general sense, a correlation study investigates the relationship
between two variables. Usually the data are reported as correlation coefficients. Strength and
direction (positive or negative) of relationships can be demonstrated by correlation studies but
causal links remain an open question.

Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study follows a group composed of the same people across
a period of the life span. The behavior of these individuals is observed and/or measured at
several intervals over time in an attempt to study the changes in their behavior. Longitudinal
studies may cover a short time, such as a few weeks, or a long time, such as the entire life span.
Longitudinal studies may additionally employ other methods, such as quasi-experimental or co
relational approaches, but the defining characteristic is that the same people are studied
repeatedly across time.

Cross sectional study: A cross sectional study usually examines groups of different people who
belong to different age groups as a means of studying behavior development across part or all of
the life span. These studies can usually be done more easily and quickly than longitudinal studies
but the resulting data may be of lower quality. More rarely, the term cross sectional may be used
to describe studies which divide and examine segments of society based on variables other than
age, such as income, educational level or family size.

Survey: A survey is a structured list of questions presented to people. Surveys may be written
or oral, face to face or over the phone. It is possible to cheaply survey large numbers of people,
but the data quality may be lower than some other methods because people do not always answer
questions accurately.

Interview: An interview may be highly structured or it may involve less structured narrative. It
may include survey methodology. It usually involves people responding orally to questions or
talking about their thoughts on a topic.

Case study: A case study involves extensive observations of a few individuals. Data collection
may include watching behavior, interviews and record searching. Case studies may be

31

retrospective and/or prospective. Usually case studies are employed where the behavior or
situation is so rare that other methods, involving larger groups of participants, are not possible.

Naturalistic observation: Naturalistic observations can range from unstructured observations
of humans or other animals to situations involving hypothesis testing or some manipulations of a
natural setting. If you wanted to know if males are likely to hold doors open for females, you
could watch until you had seen a number of natural occurrences of this, or you could get a
female helper to follow males into buildings and watch to see what happens. It can be difficult to
precisely define the natural setting, particularly when the participants are humans. Placing an
actual research procedure into this category or others can involve a judgment call which might be
debatable.

Demonstration: An unsystematically engineered observation of behavior, sometimes involving
only one participant. The demonstration is remarkably common in the history of psychology,
even though it provides only very weak evidence. It is not a recognized research method but it is
a term which can be quite useful as a descriptor for studies that seem to employ no established
method.

RESEARCH METHODS
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms
(although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):

 Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems
 Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem

 Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types:

 Primary research
 Secondary research

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be
applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research:

 Qualitative research
 Quantitative research

32

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through
the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the
form of discussion and results.

1) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry appropriated in many different academic disciplines,
traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative
researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that
govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making,
not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather
than large samples.

Data Collection

qualitative researchers may use different approaches in collecting data, such as the grounded
theory practice, narratology, storytelling, classical ethnography, or shadowing. Qualitative
methods are also loosely present in other methodological approaches, such as action research or
actor-network theory. Forms of the data collected can include interviews and group discussions,
observation and reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and other materials.

Qualitative research often categorizes data into patterns as the primary basis for organizing and
reporting results. Qualitative researchers typically rely on the following methods for gathering
information: Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation, Field Notes, Reflexive
Journals, Structured Interview, Unstructured Interview, Analysis of documents and materials

In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitative research approaches include
the following:

1. Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting and describing data that
is intended to help in the development of a theory. This method is also called “ethno
methodology” or "methodology of the people". An example of applied ethnographic research is
the study of a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular disease in their
cultural framework.

2. Critical Social Research, used by a researcher to understand how people communicate and
develop symbolic meanings.

33

3. Ethical Inquiry, an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes the study of ethics as
related to obligation, rights, duty, right and wrong, choice etc.

4. Foundational Research, examines the foundations for a science, analyses the beliefs and
develops ways to specify how a knowledge base should change in light of new information.

5. Historical Research, allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the
present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and
problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come
from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?

6. Grounded Theory is an inductive type of research, based or “grounded” in the observations
or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative
data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys.

7. Phenomenological Research, describes the “subjective reality” of an event, as perceived by
the study population; it is the study of a phenomenon.

8. Philosophical Research, is conducted by field experts within the boundaries of a specific
field of study or profession, the best qualified individual in any field of study to use an
intellectual analyses, in order to clarify definitions, identify ethics, or make a value judgment
concerning an issue in their field of study.
2) Quantitative marketing research
Quantitative marketing research is the application of quantitative research techniques to the
field of marketing. It has roots in both the positivist view of the world, and the modern marketing
viewpoint that marketing is an interactive process in which both the buyer and seller reach a
satisfying agreement on the "four Ps" of marketing: Product, Price, Place (location) and
Promotion.

As a social research method, it typically involves the construction of questionnaires and scales
People who respond (respondents) are asked to complete the survey. Marketers use the
information so obtained to understand the needs of individuals in the marketplace, and to create
strategies and marketing plans.

Typical general procedure

Simply, there are five major and important steps involved in the research process:

1. Defining the Problem.
2. Research Design.
3. Data Collection.

34

4. Analysis.
5. Report Writing & presentation.

A brief discussion on these steps is:

1. Problem audit and problem definition - What is the problem? What are the various
aspects of the problem? What information is needed?
2. Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we define the concepts
involved? How do we translate these concepts into observable and measurable
behaviours?
3. Hypothesis specification - What claim(s) do we want to test?
4. Research design specification - What type of methodology to use? - examples:
questionnaire, survey
5. Question specification - What questions to ask? In what order?

6. Scale specification - How will preferences be rated?

7. Sampling design specification - What is the total population? What sample size is
necessary for this population? What sampling method to use?- examples: Probability
Sampling:- (cluster sampling, stratified sampling, simple random sampling, multistage
sampling, systematic sampling) & Non probability sampling:- (Convenience Sampling,
Judgment Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling, Snowball Sampling, etc. )
8. Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts
9. Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw data so it is compatible
with statistical techniques and with the objectives of the research - examples: assigning
numbers, consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy variables, scale
transformations, scale standardization
10. Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential techniques (see below)
on the raw data. Make inferences from the sample to the whole population. Test the
results for statistical significance.
11. Interpret and integrate findings - What do the results mean? What conclusions can be
drawn? How do these findings relate to similar research?
12. Write the research report - Report usually has headings such as: 1) executive summary; 2)
objectives; 3) methodology; 4) main findings; 5) detailed charts and diagrams. Present
the report to the client in a 10 minute presentation. Be prepared for questions.

Research methods
35

1. Causal Research

When most people think of scientific experimentation, research on cause and effect is most often
brought to mind. Experiments on causal relationships investigate the effect of one or more
variables on one or more outcome variables. This type of research also determines if one variable
causes another variable to occur or change. An example of this type of research would be
altering the amount of a treatment and measuring the effect on study participants.

2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to depict what already exists in a group or population. An example
of this type of research would be an opinion poll to determine which Presidential candidate
people plan to vote for in the next election. Descriptive studies do not seek to measure the effect
of a variable; they seek only to describe.

3. Relational Research

A study that investigates the connection between two or more variables is considered relational
research. The variables that are compared are generally already present in the group or
population. For example, a study that looked at the proportion of males and females that would
purchase either a classical CD or a jazz CD would be studying the relationship between gender
and music preference.

SCOPE OF RESEARCH
1. National innovative capacity: modeling, measuring and comparing national capacities

2. Designing efficient incentive systems for invention and innovation: intellectual property
rights, prizes, public subsidies

3. Research in EPFL labs: new economics of science

4. New R&D methods and the production of reliable knowledge in sectors which lagged
behind

5. New models of innovation: open, distributed systems and the role of users

6. Other issues to be developed

36

1 - National innovative capacity: modeling, measuring and comparing
national capacities

National innovative capacity is the ability of a country to produce and commercialize a flow of
innovative technology over the long term. It depends on:

• The strength of a nation's common infrastructure (basic research, education and training,
intellectual property protection, R&D tax policies, venture capital, and so forth);
• The cluster-specific innovation environment (one or many clusters involving particular
factor (input) conditions; a local context that encourages investment in innovation-related
activity; vigourous competition among locally based rivals; sophisticated local
customers; presence of capable local suppliers and related companies).
• The quality of linkages (relationship between the common innovation infrastructure and
industrial clusters).

This research strand aims at building innovation indexes and measuring various dimensions
of national innovation capacities. For instance:

• Strategic capacity: it deals with the ability to mobilize and concentrate resources under
some centralized decision making processes to achieve a critical scientific or
technological objective.
• Revolutionary capacities: it deals with the ability to shift resources out of areas of lower
and into areas of higher productivity and greater yield. This is a capacity to manage
transitions. The difficulty is that such a capacity involves various dimensions which can
be conflicting (see Mowery and Simoe, 2001).

2 - Designing efficient incentive systems for invention and innovation:
intellectual property rights, prizes, public subsidies

One central problem in the economics of knowledge is the design of incentive systems that both
reward inventors/knowledge producers and encourage dissemination of their output. Several
scholars have described the two regimes that allocate resources for the creation of new
knowledge: one is the system of granting intellectual property rights, as exemplified by modern
patent and copyright systems, the other is the open science regime, as often found in the realm of
pure scientific research and sometimes in the realm of commercial technological innovation,
often in infant industries

A large range of issues have to be addressed to elucidate the problem of designing efficient
incentive systems:

• What is the best solution in case of particular kind of new technologies (genomics,
software, data bases)?

37

• What is the nature of the tension that arises when the two systems come up against each
other?
• How designing proper incentive systems to encourage research and innovation in areas of
high social return and low private profitability (orphan drugs, malaria and other tropical
diseases)?
• In what condition a prize-based reward system provides a more efficient solution than
granting intellectual property rights?
• Is there an economic case for granting intellectual property rights in the domain of
research tools, instruments, basic knowledge?

3 – Research in EPFL labs: new economics of science

CEMI will be at the forefront of the College to develop and undertake research in the field of
"economics of science" with EPFL as the main case. In this perspective, several topics are
obvious:

• Assessing the impact of organizational practice on the productivity of university
technology transfer offices
• Measuring the social value of basic research and the local spillovers (regional impact).
Accounting for the effects associated with mobility
• Scale, scope and spillovers: the determinants of research productivity in several fields

• Exploring the role of patents in knowledge transfer from EPFL

• Exploring the effect of the patenting of research tools and biomedical innovation: transfer
opportunities and social costs
• Access policy for large scale research instrument, data bases.

All these topic should give rise to research design (research question, data collection, analysis) in
close collaboration with the other EPFL Schools (life science, basic science, computer science,
engineering science) in order to benefit from the great opportunity to be located in an Institute of
Technology. These projects will be designed in close collaboration with Jan-Anders Manson,
vice-president for Innovation and Knowledge Transfer.

4 - New R&D methods and the production of reliable knowledge in
sectors which lagged behind

Unequal access to pertinent knowledge bases may well constitute an important condition
underlying perceptible differences in the success with which different areas of Endeavour are
pursued within the same society and the pace at which productivity advances in different sectors

38

of the economy during a given historical epoch. Today, it remains astonishing to observe the
contrast between fields of economic activity where improvements in practice are closely
reflecting rapid advances in human knowledge - such as is the case for information technologies,
transportation, and certain areas of medical care (surgery and drug therapy) - and other areas
where the state of knowledge appears to be far more constraining. The fact is that knowledge is
not being developed to the same degree in every sector. A major policy concern is to understand
the factors at the origin of such uneven development, and to implement a proper strategy in order
to fill the gap between sectors with fast knowledge accumulation processes and those in which
these processes remain weak.

To summarize, rapid and effective creation of know-how is most likely to occur when the
following conditions converge (Nelson, Seminar at CREA, Paris, 2004):

• Practice in the field needs to be well specified, sustainable, replicable, imitable;
• There needs to be ability to learn from experience and experiment;

• The ability to experiment offline, with less expense than that would be involved in online
experimentation, and to gain reliable information relevant to online use, greatly facilitates
progress.
• A strong body of "scientific" knowledge greatly facilitates effective offline
experimentation, and also quick and reliable evaluation of varying practice online.

Part of the problem in sectors which are lagging behind deals with the limited ability to conduct
experiments. The main research issue here is to analyze the impact of new experimental methods
and design (essentially based on random assignment), which have the potential to profoundly
transform the way reliable knowledge is produced in these sectors. For instance, one of the most
significant developments in modern medicine has been the randomized controlled trial (RCT),
the significance and use of which grew rapidly after its application to tuberculosis in the 1940s.
Today the RCT is widely treated as the evidential 'gold standard' for demonstrating 'what works'
and what is medical 'best practice'. Education might be the next sector to be profoundly
transformed through the application of RCTs. The growth of RCTs as an approach in educational
research has been pushed forward by three important factors: computers, statistical techniques
(effect sizes and meta-analyses) and demand for accountability in both practice and research.
There is, therefore, a favorable context. The question is whether this new feature can change and
transform the way knowledge is produced and distributed in a sector like education.

5 – New models of innovation: open, distributed systems and the role of
users

This project involves the contribution of users in the innovation process not only in terms of
sending market signals (which is normally what users are supposed to do to help producer-
innovators), but also in terms of actively contributing to the modification of the product.

39

This project emphasizes, therefore, the functional source of innovation: while an innovation is
considered a manufacturer's innovation when the developer expects to benefit by selling it, an
innovation is a user innovation when the user expects to benefit by using it.

This research aims at understanding the capabilities and limitations of user innovation processes,
which involve quite often an open and distributed system (in which innovations may be freely
revealed to other users). Its advocates claim that user innovation, involving freely revealing, is an
efficient means of producing socially desirable innovation and maximizing "spillovers," or
knowledge transfer / leakage. The generation of innovation by users may be a complement or it
may compete with innovations produced by manufacturers. In its role as a complement, user
innovation may extend the diversity of products without endangering market positions of
manufacturers and may help manufacturing firms to mitigate information asymmetry problems
vis-à-vis future market needs. As a competitor, user innovation may offer products that better
meet user needs.

The model involves two major deviations from the private investment model of innovation,
which assumes that manufacturers innovate in products and processes to improve their
competitive position and that returns to innovation result from excluding other manufacturers
from adopting it. First, users of technologies, rather than manufacturers, are often the innovators.
Second, user-innovators often freely reveal the proprietary knowledge they have developed at
their private expense.

A host of empirical studies, mainly conducted by Eric von Hippel, his research group at MIT and
his colleagues, show that user innovation is an important economic phenomenon. It constitutes
the main source of knowledge in some sectors or an important contributor in others.

Deepening our understanding of the conditions leading to user innovation and of its economic
impact is, therefore, a relevant issue: (i) for a better assessment both of intangibles and
intellectual capital at the firm level and of innovation capacities at the national level; and (ii) for
a better understanding of some new organizational forms, such as user communities, which
appear to be becoming more relevant in a knowledge society. Thus our main research questions
are the following:

• What are the different channels through which user innovations influence the economy
and how should manufacturers adapt and respond to user innovations?
• What kinds of learning processes / dynamic capabilities do user innovations enable across
product / technological generations?
• What kind of policy issues and challenges pertain to user innovation? Given the fact that
user innovations contribute significantly to productivity growth and national
competitiveness, what kinds of policy should be devised to promote them.

40

6 - Other issues to be developed

The economics of knowledge policy:
While it is relatively easy to provide a long list of policy recommendations which are of some
relevance in the context of the knowledge economy (on patent, ICT, education), it is far more
difficult to develop the welfare economics of knowledge investment in order to build a
framework for addressing policy issues.

Methodology for the optimal allocation of R&D funds to new technologies:
How does the R&D manager maximize the probability of developing a commercial able
technology over a specific period.

Tea is the most popular non-intoxicating beverage in the world enjoyed by the rich and poor
alike. Tea drinking was quite common in China as early as the 6th century B.C. Over a period of
time this habit was picked up by neighboring countries in South East Asia, such as Japan.
Western nations started importing tea from China only in the 17th century. The British
developed India as a sourcing base in the 19th century to reduce their dependence on China.
During the late 19th century and early 20th century, tea cultivation became popular in other
colonies like Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Malawi, Kenya, etc. In the last four decades, world production
had a growth of 3% pa, which decelerated to 1.5% pa in the last decade. Tea is a caffeinated hot
beverage, an infusion made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the shrub Camellia sinensis in
hot water. In addition, tea may also include other herbs, spices, or fruit flavors.

The word "tea" is also used, by extension, for any fruit or herb infusion; for example, "rosehip
tea" or "camomile tea". In cases where
they contain no tea leaves, some people
prefer to call these beverages "tisanes"
or "herbal teas" to avoid confusion.
This article is concerned with the "true"
tea, Camellia sinensis. The tea plant is
one of the Camellia family (Camellia
Sinensis) which is indigenous to China
and India. The leaves are stiff, shiny
and pointed, and the flowers, which
resemble the buttercup in shape, are
white with golden stems. The plant
requires a warm, wet climate with at
least 50 inches (135mm) of rain a year
and well-drained soil. It grows at
varying altitudes up to 7,000 feet. The

41

quality of tea depends on climatic conditions. At higher altitudes the growth of the plants is
slower and the crops smaller, but the quality will generally be better. Only the bud and two top
leaves from each stalk are picked for processing.

Like wine, each crop reflects the character of the region in which it is grown. Soil, climate, the
amount of rain and time of the year the tea is plucked influences its character. China is credited
with originating tea cultivation, and tea plants now grow in about30countries. However the best
quality teas come from India.

Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves, leaf buds, and internodes of the Camellia
sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various methods. "Tea" also refers to the
aromatic beverage prepared from the cured leaves by
combination with hot or boiling water, and is the
common name for the Camellia sinensis plant itself.
After water, tea is the most widely-consumed
beverage in the world. The four types of tea most
commonly found on the market are black tea, oolong
tea, green tea and white tea, all of which can be made
from the same bushes, processed differently, and, in

42

the case of fine white tea, grown differently. Pu-erh tea, a post- fermented tea, is also often used
medicinally. The term "herbal tea" usually refers to an infusion or tisane o leaves , flowers,
fruit, herbs or other plant material that contains no Camellia sinensis. The term "red tea" either
refers to an infusion made from the South African rooibos plant; there are over 3000 varieties of
tea, not including botanicals and fruit infusions. To be a tea, it must come from the camellia
sinensis plant. There are several varieties of this plant, producing many types of teas. Types
depend on the manufacturing and crafting of the leaf. The flavor profiles and quality change year
to year, like wine, and is influenced by soil, temperature, rainfall, elevation and other elements in
nature. Even the botanicals growing nearby can affect the flavors of the tea.

First introduced to India, by the silk caravans travelling from the Orient to Europe, tea has
become an intrinsic part of daily life. As it turned out, Camellia sinensis also grew wild in India,
and natives had long cultivated and consumed it as a nourishing part of their daily diet, both in
pickled form as a vegetable, and as a sort of soup. Eventually they combined the leaves with
buffalo or yak's milk, and added ginger and spices such as cardamom.

In the seventeenth century, the native's use of the plant
was reported by a European traveler who wrote of his
refreshments while in India: "we took only tea which
is commonly used all over the Indies, not only among
those of the country, but also among the Dutch and the
English who take it as a drug".
Discovery of the Indian tea bush was regarded by the
British as exciting news. Envious of China's monopoly
on tea, and resentful of the money they had to spend on their habit, the British had long wished

43

to be able to grow their own tea. The British saw the Indian jat as
inferior to the Chinese bush, but thought that the evidence of local
plants indicated good soil for transplanting Chinese seedlings. They
immediately procured some seedlings of the Chinese variety and
undertook to grow them in the Assam valley and the mountainous
Darjeeling region. Fourteen years later, and after many unsuccessful
attempts were made, the British resigned themselves to growing the
native jat.

Popularly known as 'Chai
Today, the upper classes drink tea with milk and sugar, in the British
colonial manner, while the most common type of tea consumed is a blend of black tea,
buffalo milk, sugar, and spices such as Cardamom, Cinnamon, Ginger and Cloves. The
addition of milk and spices was initially intended to enhance the flavor of poor tea. During
colonial times, almost all of the good grade tea was intended for export, or at least reserved
for British subjects, and the Indians got only what was left-over. India's busy city streets
are lined with tea stalls, where people sit on low benches, drinking chai from small glass
cups, and chatting with their neighbors. At train stations, vendors or chai wallahas, hawk
small clay cups of spiced, milky to weary travelers. When empty, the clay cups are dashed
on the ground, both returning the offering to the earth, and ensuring that no one from
different castes will drink from the same cup.
The Origins of Indian Tea

44

Long before the commercial production of tea started in India in the late 1830s, the tea plant was
growing wild in the jungles of north east Assam. In 1598, a Dutch traveller, Jan Huyghen van
Linschoten, noted in a book about his adventures that the Indians ate the leaves as a vegetable
with garlic and oil and boiled the leaves to make a brew. In 1788, the British botanist, Joseph
Banks, reported to the British East India Company that the climate in certain British-controlled
parts of north east India was ideal for tea growing. However, he seems to have missed the fact
that the plant was a native to Bengal and suggested transplanting tea bushes from China. But his
idea was ignored. In 1823 and 1831, Robert Bruce and his brother Charles, an employee of the
East India Company, confirmed that the tea plant was indeed a native of the Assam area and sent
seeds and specimen plants to officials at the newly established Botanical Gardens in Calcutta.
But again, nothing was done - perhaps because the East India Company had a monopoly on the
trading of tea from China and, as they were doing very nicely, probably saw no reason to spend
time and money elsewhere. But in 1833, everything changed. The company lost its monopoly
and suddenly woke up to the fact that India might prove a profitable alternative. A committee
was set up, Charles Bruce was given the task of establishing the first nurseries, and the secretary
of the committee was sent off to China to collect 80,000 tea seeds. Because they were still not
sure that the tea plant really was indigenous to India, committee members insisted on importing
the Chinese variety.
The seeds were planted in the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta and nurtured until they were sturdy
enough to travel 1000 miles to the newly prepared tea gardens. Meanwhile, up in Assam, Charles
Bruce and the other pioneers were clearing suitable areas of land on which to develop
plantations, pruning existing tea trees to encourage new growth, and experimenting with the
freshly plucked leaves from the native bushes to manufacture black tea. Bruce had recruited two
tea makers from China and, with their help, he steadily learnt the secrets of successful tea
production the conditions were incredibly harsh. The area was remote and hostile, cold in winter
and steamy hot in summer. Tigers, leopards and wolves constantly threatened the lives of the
workers, and the primitive settlements of the tea workers were subject to regular raids by local
hill tribes. But they persevered and gradually the jungle was opened up, the best tea tracts
cultivated under the light shade of surrounding trees, and new seedlings planted to fill gaps and
create true tea gardens.
The first twelve chests of manufactured tea to be made from indigenous Assam leaf were
shipped to London in 1838 and were sold at the London auctions. The East India Company wrote
to Assam to say that the teas had been well received by some "houses of character", and there
was a similar response to the next shipment, some buyers declaring it "excellent". Having
established a successful industry in Assam's Brahmaputra valley, with factories and housing
settlements, the Assam Tea Company began to expand into other districts of north east India.
Cultivation started around the town of Darjeeling in the foothills of the Himalayas in the mid
1850s. By 1857, between 60 and 70 acres were under tea and, whereas the China variety of the
tea plant had not liked the conditions in Assam, here at elevations of 2500 to 6000 feet, it grew
well. The company pushed on into Terai and Dooars and even into the remote Kangra valley,
800 miles west of Darjeeling.In the south western tip of the country, experimental plantings had
been made in 1835, while the first nurseries were being established in Assam, and by the mid
1850s tea was growing successfully alongside coffee. The climate of the Nilgiri Hills, or Blue
Mountains, seemed to suit the plant, and the area under tea steadily expanded in 1853, India
exported 183.4 tons of tea. By 1870, figure had increased to 6,700 tons and by 1885, 35,274 tons.

45

Today, India is one of the world's largest producers of tea with 13,000 gardens and a workforce
of more than 2 million people.

In one popular Chinese legend, Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor
of agriculture and Chinese medicine was drinking a bowl of boiling water some time around
2737 BC when a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his water, changing the color.
The emperor took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative
properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various
herbs on him self, some of them poisonous, and found tea to work as an antidote. Shennong is
also mentioned in Lu Yu's famous early work on the subject, Cha Jing. A similar Chinese legend
goes that the god of agriculture would chew the leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to
discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to
counteract the poison.

A rather gruesome legend dates back to the Tang Dynasty. In the legend, Bodhi dharma, the
founder of Chan Buddhism, accidentally fell asleep after meditating in front of a wall for nine
years. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his own eyelids. They fell to
the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes. Sometimes, another version of the story is
told with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhi dharma.

46

Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian
culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and a status symbol. It is not surprising,
therefore, that theories of its origin are often religious or royal in nature.

1717 Thomas Twining converted Toim’s Coffee House into the golden Lyon, the
first teashop in London.

1776 England sent the first opium to China. Opium addiction in China funded the
escalating demand for tea in England. Cash trade for the drug increased until the
opium wars began in 1839.

1835 The East India Company established experimental tea plantations in Assam,
India.

1834 An Imperial Edict from the Chinese Emperor closed all Chinese ports to
foreign vessels until the end of the First Opium War in 1842.

1838 A small amount of Indian tea sent to England was eagerly consumed due to
its novelty.

1840 After noon tea was "invented" by Anna, Duchess of Bedford (1783 – 1857),
wife of the 7th Duke as "a way to quell the inevitable hunger pangs between lunch
and dinner".

1856 Tea was planted in many areas of Darjeeling.

1857 Tea plantations were started in Ceylon, though their tea would not be
exported until the 1870’s.

1869 A deadly fungus wiped out the coffee crop in Ceylon, shifting preference from
coffee to tea.

1869 The Suez Canal opened, making the trip to China shorter and more
economical by steamship.

47

1870 Twinning’s of England began to blend tea for consistency.

1876 Glasgow grocer, Thomas Lipton opens his first teashop.

1953 World’s first instant tea is introduced

TYPES OF TEA
WHITE TEA

This tea is the unopened bud of the tealeaf. After the bud is picked, it is withered and the
moisture is allowed to evaporate and dry. It is very high in
antioxidants and low in caffeine. When the buds are picked, the tea
farmers lose the leaves that make popular and marketable teas.
This is why white tea is rare and expensive. A true white tea is only
produced in Fujian China and has a silvery and fuzzy appearance.

YELLOW TEA

This tea is rarely found in the states. It is a green tea with yellow
leaves that were encouraged to turn yellow by the stir-frying
stage of the tea making process. We now carry yellow tea.

GREEN TEA

This tea is high in antioxidants, Vitamin C and other vitamins and
minerals. The freshly picked leaves are allowed to dry, then are
heated to stop the oxidation. This tea has antioxidants and more
caffeine than white tea. China greens have a smoky or toasty flavor and green teas
from Japan have a grassy or herbal taste

OOLONG

Pronounced woo long. Oolongs or Black Dragon, which is its literal
translation, is sometimes referred to as semi-fermented and is
manufactured in China and Taiwan. The leaves are processed
immediately after plucking. They are wilted in the sunlight, shaken in
bamboo baskets to bruise the edges, then shaken again and spread
out to dry until the leaf turns slightly yellow. We have two categories of
oolong- fragrant and amber. Fragrant is closer to a green tea and has notes of flowers and

48

Amber is closer to a black tea with notes of riped fruit. Our Bao Zhong is a fragrant oolong and
our Amber and Plum are Amber oolongs.
PUERH

This is a compressed tea produced only in China. This tea has
health benefits reputed to aid in digestion and weight loss. It also
helps to lower cholesterol Puerh is shaped into nests, bricks, and
balls or sold loose. We carry Tu cha, shaped like bird’s nest.
This tea is actually a living organism and improves with age. It
has an earthy flavor and the recipe is highly guarded. During the
Ming dynasty, anyone found trespassing where the tea was
produced would be killed.

BLACK

The methods of producing a black tea vary greatly from country
to country. This tea is fully oxidized and is very high in caffeine.
There are 4 steps involved in the production of this tea;
withering, rolling, oxidizing and firing or drying. It loses some of
its vitamins, trace minerals and antioxidants from the
manufacturing process.

SCENTED

These teas are scented with the addition of flowers or herbs
and can be a white, green, oolong or black tea. We carry a
White Jasmine that has been scented multiple times with the
fresh blossoms of jasmine. To scent the tea, the tealeaves are
layered with jasmine, orchids or other blossoms and herbs.
They are left overnight and the next day the blossoms are
removed. The tealeaf is very porous and picks up the scent of
the blossom.

FLAVORED
Most teas varieties can be flavored, but a rare and complex
tea should be enjoyed with no flavors added. Flavors can
come from the addition of fruits, essence and herbs.

MATE

This plant grows in Argentina and is consumed throughout South
America. It is high in caffeine and slightly bitter. The traditional
way of consuming this beverage is in a gourd with a bombilla
straw. Many people can be seen in the streets of Buenos Aries
sipping on their bombilla.

49

ART TEA

These are unusual teas produced in the tiny villages in
China. It takes an entire day just to make 20 pieces. The
shape can be balls or flowers made with many leaves tied
together with silk thread. Ours opens up like a flower when
steeped in hot water, revealing 3 chrysanthemums.
The following blends are called infusions. These are
concoctions from herbs and fruits and are also referred to
as tisanes. These do not have actual tealeaves from the
camellia sinensis plant.

HERBAL INFUSIONS

An herbal can be a blend of roots, bark, flowers, leaves,
and stems to produce a beverage with many health
benefits. Most are caffeine-free.

ROOIBOS

This is a beverage made from the red bush from the
legume family that grows in the Cedarburg Mountain
Region 150 West of Cape Town, South Africa.
Rooibos is Dutch for red bush and is pronounced
ROY BOSS. It has the most antioxidants known to
man and is rich in minerals and vitamins. It has
antiviral and antibacterial properties and helps to
protect the DNA from free radicals.

FRUIT INFUSIONS

These tisanes were developed in Europe and
consist of apples, rosehips, hibiscus and a myriad of
other fruits and botanicals. This is a great beverage
for kids because it is high in vitamin c and is
caffeine-free. Fruit infusion can be enjoyed hot or
iced and you can even freeze into pops.

50

MANUFACTURE OF TEA COMPANY IN INDIA
India is one the largest Tea producer in the world. Indian tea is the finest quality in the
world. Tea is being cultivated in the high ranges of North and South India and the best
quality known as CTC and Orthodox Assam Tea respectively. The consumption is above 600
Million Kg mark per year. The market consists of both Leaf Teas and Dust Teas both in the
CTC and Orthodox Grades, with the Southern markets consuming more Dust Teas. The export
market for Indian Teas is mainly in the Russian and CIS countries with 90 Million Kgs of the
total exports in 1998 going to these countries. This is equivalent to 43% of India's Tea exports.
The other countries for India's Tea exports include most of the European Countries, U.S.A.,
Japan, West Asia and the Asia Pacific Region. In fact there is hardly any country where Indian
Tea is not found.

Girnar Group Tea exporters.

Dharampal Satyapal
Tea
Group

Shivnath Rai Harnarain Exporters of rice, tea

K Manibhai & Co Producer and exporter of tea

Kangra Offering hand picked Kangra Green Gold tea.

Cygnet India Pvt. Ltd Blenders and exporters of tea.

Aarkay Industries Manufactures and exports of tea

Jayalakshmi Group Processors and exporters tea

QuickSpice Offers online ordering of Indian teas

Tea Trend Home page of the Indian tea business

Tata Tea Limited Instantant tea in Tata brand-name.

Bharti Global Industries
International trading in tea
Pvt. Ltd

Manjushree Plantations Producer and exporter of tea

Prasad Business Services A exporter and trader in Indian coffee.

International Export
Manufacturers and traders of tea.
Corporation

Apple Valley Tea
Manufacturers and exporters of assam tea
Industries

51

Premier's Tea India Ltd. Manufacturer and exporter of tea from India.

New Horizon Cafe & Pub Serving South Indian food, tea, coffee.

India Coffee House Metro area Indian community business and activity.

Darjeeling Tea Network Containing details on Darjeeling Tea and estates.

Nand Impex Private
Provides a selection of consumer and bulk teas.
Limited

Saint Augustine Tea
sells cassina tea, a traditional Southeast Indian tea
Company

Wholesaler and distributor of premium Ceylon and
Elmstock Tea Company
Indian teas.

Producer, blender, packer, and exporter of North and
D.C. Ghose & Co.
South Indian teas

Exporters of basmati and long grain rice, tea, spices,
Shrilalmahal Group
and agro products

Offers Genie's Tea, blended authentic Indian tea with an
Vivant International
array of flavours

Sinar Mas Agro Resources
& Technology Corp. Manufacturer and exporter of tea
(SMART)

Aarkay Group Manufacturer of tea machinery

Agarmet Tea Exporter of Darjeeling, Assam & Nilgiri tea

Asian Tea Exports Manufacturer of green & black tea

Balmer Lawrie & Co Tea garden management agents

Carritt Moran Tea brokers

Dhunseri Tea Tea processor & exporter

Goodricke Tea producer

Jalinga Tea Estate Manufacturer and exporter of organic tea & herbal

52

tea

Saharia Group Tea processors, traders and plywood producer

Limtex Tea producer and exporter

PRODUCTION OF TEA
In 2003, world tea production was 3.15 million tonnes annually. The largest producer was India,
followed by China, followed by Kenya and Sri Lanka.

Percentage of total tea production in 2003
Tea not grown in significant quantities
Less than 5%. From 5 to 10%. More than 10%
Plantation and processing

Botanically, tea is a tree. For commercial farming, tea is grown as a bonsai, by repeated pruning
and clipping. Tea bushes get ready for commercial plucking in 5 years and takes about 7 years to
reach maturity. Tea bushes have a life span of over 100 years. Productivity is high in the first 30-
50 years. The processing involves the crushing of leaves, which leads to controlled fermentation
of the present liquor. The processed tea (referred to as "made tea" in the industry) is sold either
loose or in packets.

53

Value Addition

The most popular form of value addition is selling branded tea. This involves not only the
packing of tea but also blending of other varieties to maintain consistency of taste. To arrive at a
blend, expert tea tasters sample hundreds of liquors.

Convenient drinks like instant tea (soluble tea powder), tea bags (bags are dipped in hot water),
ready to drink (served in cans) and flavored tea (with vanilla, strawberry flavor) are becoming
popular in developed countries like the USA and Japan.

Tea production certification

There are a number of bodies that independently certify the production of tea. Tea from
certified estates can be sold with a certification label on pack. The most important
certification schemes are Rainforest Alliance,Fairtrade, UTZ Certified, and Organic. All
these schemes certify other crops (like coffee, cocoa and fruit) as well. Rainforest
Alliance certified tea is sold by Unilever brands Lipton and PG Tips in Western Europe,
Australia and the US. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large number of suppliers
around the world. UTZ Certified announces a partnership in 2008 with Sara Lee
brand Pickwick tea.

Production of organic tea is rising; 3,500 tonnes of organic tea were grown in 2003. The
majority of this tea (about 75%) is sold in France, Germany, Japan, the United
Kingdom and the United States.

54

The Benefits of Tea
The amazing health benefits of tea. So much in fact, that it's often difficult to separate fact from
fiction. What are the scientifically recognized benefits of tea? The following is a brief synopsis
of the latest findings.

Aging
If you are the type to fret over the appearance of wrinkles, age spots and other signs of growing
old, oolong tea may be the answer to your worries. In a recent experiment carried out jointly by
researchers from the US, Taiwan and Japan, mice which were fed tea displayed fewer signs of
aging than mice that were fed water. The Straits Times, Sept. 24, 01

Allergies
The wonder cup just got even more wonderful. Green tea, rich in antioxidant treasures that
protect against heart disease and cancer, now shows promise as an allergy fighter. In laboratory
tests, Japanese researchers have found that the antioxidants in green tea block the biochemical

55

process involved in producing an allergic response. Green tea may be useful against a wide range
of sneeze-starting allergens, including pollen, pet dander, and dust. Prevention, April 2003

Arthritis
Green tea cate chins are chondro protective and consumption of green tea may be prophylactic
for arthritis and may benefit the arthritis patient by reducing inflammation and slowing cartilage
breakdown. The Journal of Nutrition, Mar 2002
Green tea may be useful in controlling inflammation from injury or diseases such as arthritis.
Boston Globe, April 26, 99
Bone Strength
Tea flavonoids may be bone builders. A report in this week's Archives of Internal Medicine
looked at about 500 Chinese men and women who regularly drank black, green, or oolong tea for
more than 10 years. Compared with non habitual tea drinkers, tea regulars had higher bone
mineral densities, even after exercise and calcium-which strengthen bones-were taken into
account. U.S. News & World Report, May 20, 2002
Cancer
"Tea is one of the single best cancer fighters you can put in your body," according to Mitchell
Gaynor, MD, director of medical oncology at the world-renowned Strong Cancer Prevention
Center in New York City and co-author of Dr. Gaynor's Cancer Prevention Program. People who
drink about 4 cups of green tea a day seem to get less cancer. Now we may know why. In recent
test-tube studies, a compound called EGCG, a powerful antioxidant in tea, inhibited an enzyme
that cancer cells need in order to grow. The cancer cells that couldn't grow big enough to divide
self-destructed. It would take about 4 cups of green tea a day to get the blood levels of EGCG
that inhibited cancer in the study. Black tea also contains EGCG, but at much lower
concentrations. Prevention, Aug 1999
Cholesterol
Tea can lower 'bad' cholesterol levels. Researchers at the Beltsville Human Nutrition Research
Center in Beltsville, Maryland, asked test subjects to eat low-fat, low-calorie prepared meals and
drink five cups of caffeinated tea or caffeinated and non-caffeinated placebos that mimicked the
look of tea. Levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol dropped 10 percent among the
test subjects who drank tea. Vegetarian Times, Jan 2003
Heart Disease
Drinking black tea may lower the risk of heart disease because it prevents blood from clumping
and forming clots. In a recent study, researchers found that while drinking black tea, the
participants had lower levels of the blood protein associated with coagulation. Better Nutrition,
Jan 2002
Better to be deprived of food for three days than tea for one,Ã“ says a Chinese proverb. Research
is showing it may just be true. Dr. Kenneth Mukamal of Boston's Beth Israel Deaconess Medical
Center reported that out of 1,900 heart-attack patients, those who drank two or more cups a day
reduced their risks of dying over the next 3.8 years by 44 percent. Newsweek, May 20, 2002
Weight Loss
Trying to lose weight? Reach for a cup of green tea instead of a diet beverage. Compared to the
placebo and caffeine, green tea extract consumption produced a significant 4% increase in 24-
hour energy expenditure. If you consume 2,000 calories per day and don't gain or lose weight
(you're in energy balance), an increase of 4% would translate roughly into an 80-calorie daily

56

difference. Over a year, this could result in 89 pounds of weight loss. American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, Nov 1999
Recent evidence shows that in the battle of fat loss, green tea may be superior to plain caffeine.

Disadvantages:

• if overconsumption, may cause kidney damage
• can irritate your stomach
• drinking eight or nine daily duplicates the symptoms of ulcer
• slows the digestion process
• creates gas
• causes diarrhea and constipation
• affects respiratory and heart function
• overexcites the nervous system and causes palpitations
If the level of caffeine is very high in our body, then it can cause insomnia, nausea or frequent
urination. Frequently taking the tea can affect the liver and also kidney. The products derived
from the tea contains large amount of polyphenols which are harmful to our health. It is
advisable to reduce the intake of such tea or completely eliminate from the diet especially for the
pregnant women. Sometimes it may cause problem in the growth of the child and may develop
complications. This is because the compound EGCG is very harmful to the body. There is
another component named methotrexate in the tea which is also harmful to the body as it is very
reactive with the enzyme named as DHFR. This enzyme is very useful to fight against the
cancerous cells.

EXPORT AND IMPORT
Tea is one of the most refreshing and popular beverages of the world. India is one the largest Tea
producer, exporter and consumer in the world. Indian tea is the finest quality in the world. It is
being cultivated in the high ranges of Northern and Southern India and the best quality tea are
CTC and Orthodox Assam Tea. The consumption is above 600 Million kgs per year. The market
consists of both Leaf and Dust Teas both in the CTC and Orthodox Grades. There have been
considerable rise in the domestic production as well as export figures since the past few years.

Tea production and exports
Jan-Apr 2005 Jan-Apr 2004 yoy %
(mn kg)
Production Exports Production Exports Production Exports
North India 94.1 20.2 76.1 23.1 23.7 (12.6)

57

South India 55.7 32.6 51.2 26.0 8.8 25.4
All India 149.8 52.8 127.3 49.1 17.7 7.5
Source: Indian Tea Association
Exports
India is the largest producer of tea and ranks fourth in terms of total tea exporters in the world.

Tea Exports from India
(Rs mn) Jan-Apr 05 Jan-Apr 04 yoy (%)
North India 2,448 2,568 (4.7)
South India 2,136 1,684 26.9
All India 4,585 4,252 7.8

Country-wise export of tea from India during 2005-06

Imports

During Jan-Mar 2005, tea imports into India increased to 4.56mn kg from 2.91mn kg in Jan-Mar
2004. Vietnam was the major exporter at 1.78mn kg.

58

Tea Imports to India
Jan-Mar 05 Jan-Mar 04 Inc/Dec
Countries
(mn kg) (Rs/kg) (mn kg) (Rs/kg) (mn kg)

Indonesia 0.47 58.42 0.59 62.88 (0.12)
Nepal 0.22 55.55 0.73 50.47 (0.51)
Sri Lanka 0.05 92.74 0.40 97.72 (0.35)
Vietnam 1.78 36.44 0.60 26.88 1.18
Kenya 0.45 68.95 0.57 80.98 (0.12)
Others 1.59 50.08 0.02 N/A N/A
Total 4.56 45.53 2.91 59.39 1.65
Source: Indian Tea Association

The special incentives to boost the tea exports of Rs 930 mn will bring in the much needed
support for the tea industry, which was currently facing oversupply. The fund would be released
from the corpus of Rs 1.4bn created from collection of additional excise duty (AED) over two
and a half years.

Global Tea Production: In 2007, China was the largest producer of tea followed by India, Kenya,
and Sri Lanka. Graph 1 on the next page shows the production volume of the world’s major tea
producers

Global Tea Exports: In 2007, Kenya was the largest exporter of tea followed by Sri Lanka,
China, and India. The following graph shows the export statistics for the world’s major tea
exporters.

59

Though, India is the second largest producer of tea in the world, the domestic consumption of tea
is quite high, resulting in India’s exports being only the fourth largest.

Highest Per Capita Consumption Markets for Tea in 2007: Turkey, Ireland, U.K., Poland,
Russia, and Japan had the highest per capita consumption rates for tea in 2007. As can be seen
from Graph 5 below, the average per capita consumption of tea in Russia was 1.3 kg, which was
far greater than the average per capita consumption of tea both globally (0.3 kg) and in India (0.7
kg).

Global Tea Industry

Tea, as a farm crop, is more subject to geographical and natural environment. Worldwide, more
than 60 countries produce tea. According to the statistics form the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO), global tea planting area totaled around 2.90M hectares by the end of 2008,
and is growing at an annual rate of 3.0%. In 2008, the total production of tea stood at 3.75M

60

within global reach, about 80.0% of which was produced by five countries -- India, China,
Kenya, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

At present, black tea accounts for a 70.0% or so market share of all kinds of tea in the world. Its
output is expected to increase annually by 1.9% worldwide to 3.10M tons per year in 2017
according to FAO forecast. In the meanwhile, green tea is likely to enjoy a more rapid annual
output growth rate of 4.5% to 1.57M tons per year.

Washing and everything related to washing has developed significantly since the beginning of
history. Now a day’s people are using laundry detergents, synthetic detergents, washing
machines, dryers and there are plants to treat the wastewater of washing. While in the prehistory
people used to have only water and used rivers and streams as water supply, defecated in nature

61

and their wastes had a low impact on the environment. Even though all these developments seem
very familiar and normal to us nowadays, you may have asked this already to yourself: “How did
we come to this level in washing?”

The answer to this question is a long and interesting story, the “History of Washing”, starting
from prehistory till the21st century. Frescoes in Pompeii show how important laundry was for
the Romans. Laundry was not done at home, at least not by the wealthier Romans. It was done at
the public “fulleries” – the equivalent of the modern Laundromat – by workers called “fullones.”
“The large fulleries have several features in common. They contain a large hall with very large
basins in the floor, communicating with one another. In these basins clothes were put to soak and
cleaned. Along three sides of the hall are pressing-bowls, usually made of terracotta, often the
lower half of a dolium. Here the material was further cleaned, by workers who ’jumped‘or
’danced‘on the clothes (the so-called saltus fullonicus; Seneca, Epistulae 15,4), while they leaned
on small walls on either side. Detergents were used, such as the creta fullonica (fuller’s earth)
that was stored in small bowls. It helped remove the grease and enhanced the colours. Urine,
collected in public urinals, was used for bleaching, and so was sulphur, which was burned under
wooden frames over which the cloth was suspended. After the pressing, the material was taken to
the basins again, for the removal of the detergents. Fullers were organized into powerful Guilds.
Clothes were cleaned by treading (fulling) in stone bowls containing clay and ammoniated water.
After rinsing once, the bowls were filled once more and the clothes were rinsed again. Drying
took place on bell-shaped wire frames under which sulphur was burned.” (From the Ostia
Anctica web site). The Roman laundries were not a healthy work Environment: workers were
constantly exposed to polluted, foul-smelling air and their skin was in constant contact with
chemicals in the water. As a result they ran a high risk of developing work-related illnesses. The
ancient Greeks used only water, with out soap, for laundry.

62

The middle of the 19th century witnessed the appearance of the first mechanical washing
machines. Typically a closed tub with wooden paddles (agitators later made of metal) allowed
laundresses to work In an upright position and not get their hands wet so much. Laundry was no
longer the laborious and Time consuming ritual it had been in the past. The dirt and bad smells
that accompanied overcrowding in the cities were less and less acceptable to people, and this led
to steady scientific progress. But before Washing machines were generally in use, large towns
installed large public wash-houses or laundries. The fixed tub with a hand-propelled rotating
agitator was the forerunner of the rotating tub (gyrator) machine. The forerunner of the modern
drum machine that extracts the water during a rapid spin cycle would not appear until into the
20th century. Laundry remained a ritual in the U.S. throughout the 19th century. A written
testimony by a late-19th century author in Practical Housekeeping reads: “Laundry and cooking
go hand in hand . . . On washing and ironing days, it is inadvisable to cook steak or fry fish, due
to the smell. In addition, no spinach, split peas, green beans (which need stringing), or stewed
apples [should be prepared] because these all take too long to prepare and time should be given
to the laundry. More suitable dishes would be potatoes, pasta, rice and corn, with a dessert of
baked apples with cream: Quick, easy and very tasty.” Developments in laundry products didn’t
keep pace with the technological advances in washing machines: Until the end of the 19th
century, people still washed their clothes with soap flakes. Synthetic detergents would not appear
for another 10 to 20 years, during World War I. The first electric washing machine was produced
in the U.S.in 1908. It featured a top-mounted electric motor-driven agitator. Towards 1920, new
machines were fitted with a horizontal cylinder. But this did not prevent manual machines from
prospering. At the end of the 1940s, electric machines were fitted with an impeller. During the
1950s, a heating element and automatic spin cycle were added (some machines had separate
spinners, alongside the wash drum). The 1960s saw the advent of automatic machines which, at
the touch of a button, wash, rinse and spin in the same drum, at first mounted vertically, and later
horizontally (“front loaders”).By the end of the 20th century, washing machine technology had
continued to evolve. Electromechanical controls (knobs) had been replaced by electronic ones
(push-buttons). The newer machines required less water and newer laundry products worked
better at lower temperatures, rendering the laundry process more energy-efficient. Concentrated
laundry products required less transport, less shelf-space and less packaging. New wash cycles
appeared, such as. Those for silk, wool and delicates, and short wash. In some developing
countries, even today, manual practices still exist, as shown in these photographs of people in
India, doing the laundry on the banks of the Ganges, and of people on the African continent.

Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a substance which is a type of detergent (cleaning
agent) that is added when one is washing laundry to aid in getting the laundry cleaner. Laundry
detergent has traditionally been a powdered or solid granular, but the use of liquid laundry

63

detergents has gradually increased over the years, and the popularity of liquid detergent now
rivals that of solid detergent. Some brands also manufacture laundry soap in tablets and
dissolvable packets, so as to eliminate the need to measure soap for each load of laundry. In
some countries where washing clothes by hand is more popular, detergent bars are more popular.
Recently, environmentally friendly detergents have experienced a surge in popularity. Detergent
may also be sold in pellets in some brands of laundry ball, although many others do not contain
detergent. Soap substitute plants are also used as laundry detergents.

Proctor & Gamble India
Procter & Gamble Co. (P&G) is an American company based in Cincinnati, Ohio that manufactures a
wide range of consumer goods. In India Proctor & Gamble has two subsidiaries: P&G Hygiene and
Health Care Ltd. and P&G Home Products Ltd. P&G Hygiene and Health Care Limited is one of India's
fastest growing Fast Moving Consumer Goods Companies with a turnover of more than Rs. 500 crores. It
has in its portfolio famous brands like Vicks & Whisper. P&G Home Products Limited deals in Fabric
Care segment and Hair Care segment. It has in its kitty global brands such as Ariel and Tide in the Fabric
Care segment, and Head & Shoulders, Pantene, and Rejoice in the Hair Care segment.

Procter & Gamble's relationship with India started in 1951 when Vicks Product Inc. India, a branch of
Vicks Product Inc. USA entered Indian market. In 1964, a public limited company, Richardson Hindustan
Limited (RHL) was formed which obtained an Industrial License to undertake manufacture of Menthol
and de mentholated peppermint oil and VICKS range of products such as Vicks VapoRub, Vicks Cough
Drops and Vicks Inhaler. In May 1967, RHL introduced Clearasil, then America's number one pimple
cream in Indian market. In 1979, RHL launches Vicks Action 500 and in 1984 it set up an Ayurvedic
Research Laboratory to address the common ailments of the people such as cough and cold.

In October 1985, RHL became an affiliate of The Procter & Gamble Company, USA and its name was
changed to Procter & Gamble India. In 1989, Procter & Gamble India launched Whisper - the
breakthrough technology sanitary napkin. In 1991, P&G India launched Ariel detergent. In 1992, The
Procter & Gamble Company, US increased its stake in Procter & Gamble India to 51% and then to 65%.
In 1993, Procter & Gamble India divested the Detergents business to Procter & Gamble Home Products
and started marketing Old Spice Brand of products. In 1999 Procter & Gamble India Limited changed the
name of the Company to Procter & Gamble Hygiene and Health Care Limited.

P&G Home Products Limited was incorporated as 100% subsidiary of The Procter & Gamble Company,
USA in 1993 and it launched launches Ariel Super Soaker. In the same year Procter & Gamble India
divested the Detergents business to Procter & Gamble Home Products. In 1995, Procter & Gamble Home
Products entered the Hair care Category with the launch of Pantene Pro-V shampoo. In 1997 Procter &
Gamble Home Products launches Head & Shoulders shampoo. In 2000, Procter & Gamble Home
Products introduced Tide Detergent Powder - the largest selling detergent in the world. In 2003, Procter
& Gamble Home Products Limited launched Pampers - world's number one selling diaper brand.

Today, Proctor & Gamble is the second largest FMCG Company in India after Hindustan Lever Limited.

64

Type of detergent

Laundry detergent: Laundry detergent, or washing powder, is a substance which is a type of
detergent (cleaning agent) that is added when one is washing laundry to aid in getting the laundry
cleaner. Laundry detergent has traditionally been a powdered or solid granular, but the use of
liquid laundry detergents has gradually increased over the years, and the popularity of liquid
detergent now rivals that of solid detergent. Some brands also manufacture laundry soap in
tablets and dissolvable packets, so as to eliminate the need to measure soap for each load of
laundry. In some countries where washing clothes by hand is more popular, detergent bars are
more popular. Detergent may also be sold in pellets in some brands of laundry ball, although
many others do not contain detergent. Soap substitute plants are also used as laundry detergents.
olid laundry detergent is commonly sold in paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes and
plastic tubs as a powder, although compressed tablets are also available. In many parts of the
world, laundry detergent is also sold in single-use packets or sachets. This single use allows the
consumer to buy the detergent they need for the day rather than having to spend a larger amount
upfront. The size of the boxes can vary from small single-use boxes sold from vending machines
in land romats to large economy-size boxes. For domestic use, powder detergent is generally sold
by volume in box sizes of around 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) and 3 kilograms (6.6 lb). In some cases,
plastic measuring scoops have been included inside the boxes.

quid detergent is sold in plastic bottles, usually high-density polyethylene or sometimes PET or
other kinds. Again, various sizes are available. On large-size bottles, a handle to carry the bottle
is often pre-formed as part of the bottle. The bottle caps are often made large enough so they can
be used as cups for measuring out the liquid detergent; however this can make the cap very large
as the dosage can be as much as 120 millilitres

DIFFERENT TYPE OF DETERGENT

65

FENA (P) LIMITED (Formerly known as Syndet & Chemical Industries
Limited) is a professionally managed, fast growing company engaged in
manufacturing, marketing and exporting leading brands of Detergents, Scourers
and Personal products. FENA (P) LIMITED's high quality standards and
competitive pricing provide outstanding value for money to the customer
through over 1, 000 Redistribution Stockists servicing approximately 700, 000
retail outlets nation -wide backed by multi -location manufacturing facilities.
Our products enjoy an excellent presence in the popular segment of detergents
industry in India as per the latest retail audit survey reports available.
Established in 1976 as a first generation entrepreneurial venture , the
organization has achieved a consistently high rate of growth year after year -
today providing employment to over 1, 000 personnel. The organization is
forever committed to building core strengths of superior qualities, competitive
prices, wide distribution and servicing, scientific approach, commitment to
R&D and modern professional management practices.

We are offering detergent powders which ensure superior cleaning
actions. These have special active dirt removing agents that keep dirt in
suspension and avoid redeposit ion of dirt stuck on the clothes. Our
powders can be provided to our clients in attractive packaging at
competitive prices.

Tide is the name of a popular laundry detergent on the market in
Canada, the United States, Morocco and other countries. It is
manufactured by Procter & Gamble. Tide is marketed under various
sub-brands, such as 2x Ultra Tide. First introduced in test markets in
1946 with national distribution reached in 1949, Tide was voted as
"America's Washday Favorite". It quickly gained dominance in the
detergent market, dwarfing the sales of other P&G products, such as
Ivory Snow, as well as the competition from Rinso.

Nirma is one of the most recognizable Indian brands. Its story is a classic example of the success
of Indian entrepreneurship in the face of stiff competition. Nirma took
on the might of giant multinationals and wrote a new chapter in the
Indian corporate history. Starting as a one-man operation in 1969,
today, Nirma has about 14, 000 employee-base and annual turnover of
more than Rs. 25, 00 crores.

Rin is a very old and famous brand name for the detergent soups and

66

even the detergent powder. It cleans all the clothes nicely and has a very
good smell. Now there is a new detergent powder introduced by the same
company and it is called as Rin Super detergent powder. This detergent
powder is much better than the previous one and is very effective for
cleaning the dirty clothes.a product by HUL.

Superior cleaning in a choice of Two Fragrances – Ariel Spring
Clean & Ariel Fresh Clean another Breakthrough Innovation from
Ariel for the Indian Family Ever wished that your clothes could
smell mesmerizing and fragrant like your perfumes? Procter &
Gamble, the makers of leading international fragrances such as
Hugo Boss, Lacoste, Old Spice and Valentino now make your wish
come true, with the launch of Ariel in a choice of two exciting
fragrances – Ariel Spring Clean with a floral fragrance, and Ariel
Fresh Clean with a refreshing fragrance. The two unique fragrances of Ariel now offers Indian
consumers an unbeatable combination of ‘superior cleaning’ and ‘a choice of fragrances’ with
the launch of Ariel Spring Clean and Ariel Fresh Clean

NEW DELHI, Dec 22: The country's leading detergent maker Hindustan Lever Ltd (HLL) has
admitted that its `Wheel' brand of detergent and cake contains no lemon
(nimbu), despite its aggressive ad campaign `nimbu ke saath'. Wheel, which
has been advertised with the punch line "Nimbu ke saath. Bedaag safai,
super safai" (with lemon, spotless cleanliness, super cleanliness), comes
packaged in a distinct green and yellow wrapper, with a lemon prominently
displayed on it. Interestingly, HLL had earlier maintained that "lemon has
been part of the brand (Wheel) since 1992 and as such consumers
instantaneously associate this key ingredient as part of their brand, as
evidenced through consumer research."

Kanpur Trading Company's Ghadi detergent which has a dominant 40 per cent share in Uttar
Pradesh [Images ] and 10 per cent nationally, sending shivers
down the spines of executives at both Nirma and Hindustan Lever.
Or look at Jyothi Laboratories, the makers of Jiva herbal soap and
Ujjala fabric whitener. The herbal soap is cleaning up in the
marketplace even as HLL's Ayush herbal offerings are
floundering. And Ujjala is beating Reckitt Benckiser's Robin Blue
black and blue. And CavinKare's brands -- Chik and Fairever -- continue their forward march

A wide range of detergent powder, which is suitable for both hand and machine washing of
cotton, synthetic, blended and other type of clothes. Composed from harmless chemicals, our

67

ranges of detergent powder have outstanding stain removability and meet with European
benchmarks. We provide these detergent powders in different sizes and appropriate packaging’s
to meet the requirements of our clients.

Surf Excel, launched in 1954, is one of the oldest detergent powders in India. Initially, the brand
was positioned on the clean proposition of “washes whitest”. However, with the emergence of
numerous local detergent manufacturers and the entry of other global brands, This is in line with
the global communication platform of Dirt Is Good, which is a communication strategy of
Unilever for its premium detergent products, sold under various brand names; such as Omo in
Brazil and Persil in UK and France. Today, Surf Excel leads the Premium Fabric Wash Category
in India. Some of the other major detergent products of Unilever in India

Mr. White was introduced in India in the mid range category as "White Giant" by the Indian
subsidiary of Henkel AG & Co. KGaA, Germany's No.1 detergent company. After the re launch,
the brand grew in volumes significantly because of greater consumer interest.
The product was even more enhanced by adding green speckles to the existing blue speckles.
The purpose of green speckles was to push the dirt from clothes down to the bottom of the
bucket while that of blue speckles was to enhance whiteness.

VANISH Shakti O2 and VANISH Whites are international brand names of
stain removers. They work with the bleaching action of oxygen that is
released when VANISH is mixed in water. VANISH is mild on cloths yet
very effective in removing most types of stains on laundry.

Henko an Eco-friendly detergent powder and seems to be a special
formulation of Henkel of Germany. This is now made in India for Indian market and Henkel Spic markets
it. Henko Stain Champion is with power pearls to add value to the product.
Power pearls is nothing but an additive to improve detergency of the
product. It’s pretty good especially for all types of cloth. We are using this
detergent for our normal use since long, from the day it is available in our
town.

68

We found the most authoritative toothpaste recommendations at Consumer Reports, where
editors test 41 toothpastes for stain removal, abrasiveness and fluoride content. the Australian
equivalent to Consumer Reports, compares toothpastes only for their whitening ability. Much
more informal comparison reviews at Grist and Slate magazines evaluate toothpastes mostly for
taste, texture and the way the mouth feels after brushing - as do most consumer-written reviews
published at sites such as Drugstore.com and Amazon.com. We also found good information
from dentists who post articles and recommendations to blogs and oral-health websites. Reading
toothpaste reviews quickly reveals that consumers and dentists seem to have different priorities
when choosing toothpaste. Most people look for good flavor, thickness (neither too runny nor too
hard) and pleasant texture. People also want the mouth to feel clean after brushing, with sweet
breath, and for teeth to look not only unstained, but as white as possible. Dentists, on the other
hand, say the best toothpaste is the one that protects teeth from cavities, softened enamel and
plaque. If not removed at least every 24 hours, plaque hardens into tartar, which builds up and
makes teeth and gums even more susceptible to decay - resulting in a negative cycle that can
cause first gingivitis, then serious periodontal disease. In turn, quite a few experts believe that
periodontal disease may cause systemic problems, including heart problems.

Where dentists and consumers do agree is that the best toothpaste should do no harm. We found
quite a few complaints from sufferers with sensitive teeth, canker sores or problems with the soft
tissues of the mouth. Just because toothpaste prevents cavities does not mean it won't irritate
your teeth, gums or the lining of your mouth. Crest Pro-Health toothpaste , designed to control
tartar, gets an especially high number of complaints from users. Some complain that the stannous
fluoride stains their teeth, while others are sensitive to its tartar-control ingredient, sodium
hexameta phosphate. Quite a few dentists recommend avoiding tartar-control toothpastes since
they can contribute to oral problems. In most mouths, tartar only builds up if plaque is left on the
teeth for 24 hours or longer.

69

Toothpaste -- we use it every single day. In fact, Americans brush their teeth nearly 200 billion
times a year and spend more than 1.6 billion dollars on it. But, have you ever wondered exactly
how it helps our teeth? And how do we go about choosing which one's right for us? Toothpaste
is not a relatively modern phenomenon. In fact, as long ago as 3000-5000 BC Egyptians made a
dental cream by mixing powdered ashes of oxen hooves with myrrh, burned egg shells, pumice,
and water. Unfortunately, these early Egyptians didn't have toothbrushes but used chew sticks to
apply their dental cream. In 1000 AD Persians added burnt shells of snails and oysters along with
gypsum. Unfortunately, at this point, toothpaste was still reserved for the rich. In 18th century
England a tooth cleaning "powder" containing borax was sold in ceramic pots. One of the
problems, which lasted well into the twentieth century, was that they were often very abrasive,
causing damage to teeth.

Prior to WWII, toothpaste was packaged in small lead/tin alloy tubes. The inside of the tube was
coated with wax, however, it was discovered that lead from the tubes leached into the product. It
was the shortage of lead and tin during WWII that led to the use of laminated (aluminum, paper,
and plastic combination) tubes. At the end of the twentieth century pure plastic tubes were used.
The breakthrough that transformed toothpaste into the crucial weapon against tooth decay was
the finding that fluoride could dramatically reduce cavities. Dr. William Engler tested 400
preschool children and discovered a dramatic reduction in dental cavities among children treated
with fluoride. This study, along with many others done around the world, led to the widespread
introduction of fluoride in the 1950s.

70

Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush to clean and maintain the aesthetics
and health of teeth. Toothpaste is used to promote oral hygiene: it can aid in the removal
of dental plaque and food from the teeth, aid in
the elimination and/or masking of halitosis and
deliver active ingredients such as
fluoride or xylitol to prevent tooth and gum
disease (gingivitis).
Some dentist recommendations include
brushing your teeth at least twice a day, if not
more. In most or all developed countries,
usage after each meal is encouraged by
dentists. However when cleaning teeth with
a toothbrush with toothpaste, the essential cleaning is done by the mechanical brushing, and not
by the active toothpaste chemicals. Most toothpaste contains trace amounts of chemicals which
may be toxic when ingested; it is not intended to be swallowed

The development of toothpaste began as long ago as 300/500BC in China and India. According
to Chinese history, a learned man, Huang-Ti, studied the care of teeth and claimed different types
of pain felt in the mouth could be cured by sticking gold and silver needles into different parts of
the jaw and gum. It was theories such as these
that led to the development of dental cream. First
attempts at tooth cleaning included using
abrasives such as crushed bone, crushed egg and
oyster shells, which were used to clean debris
from teeth. Tooth powders were the first
noticeable advance and were made up of
elements like powdered charcoal, powdered bark
and some flavouring agents. This would be
applied to teeth using a simple stick.

Toothpowder or dentifrice was first available in Britain in the late eighteenth century. It came in
a ceramic pot and was available either as a powder or paste. The rich applied it with brushes and
the poor with their fingers.

Modern toothpastes were developed in the 1800s. A dentist called Peabody was the first to add
soap to toothpaste in 1824. Chalk was first added to toothpaste by John Harris in the 1850s. In

71

1873, toothpaste was first mass-produced into nice smelling toothpaste in a jar. In 1892, Dr.
Washington Sheffield of Connecticut was the first to put toothpaste into a collapsible tube.
Sheffield's toothpaste was called Dr. Sheffield's Creme Dentifrice. Advancements in synthetic
detergents (after World War II) replaced the soap used in toothpaste with emulsifying agents
such as Sodium Lauryl Sulphate and Sodium Ricinoleate.

The 1960's saw the introduction of fluoride into toothpaste. This development was followed in
the 1980's with the addition of soluble calcium fluoride to fluoride toothpastes. It is therefore
within the last thirty years that toothpastes contain the two ingredients - calcium and fluoride.
Nowadays, there are controversial views on the effectiveness and safety of fluoride toothpaste.
For those who are safety conscious, the use of natural toothpaste might be a better choice.
Early toothpastes
The earliest known reference to toothpaste is in a manuscript from Egypt in the 4th century A.D.,
which prescribes a mixture of iris flowers However, toothpastes or powders did not come into
general use until the 19th century. The Greeks, and then the Romans, improved the recipes for
toothpaste by adding abrasives such as crushed bones and oyster shells. In the 9th century,
the Persian musician and fashion designer Ziryab is known to have invented a type of toothpaste,
which he popularized throughout Islamic Spain. The exact ingredients of this toothpaste are
currently unknown, but it was reported to have been both "functional and pleasant to taste". It is
not known whether these early toothpastes were used alone, were to be rubbed onto the teeth
with rags, or were to be used with early toothbrushes such as neem tree twigs or miswak. It is
known that these twigs were used by Indians from ancient times. Neem tree twigs are said to
have good medicinal effects.
Tooth powder
Tooth powders for use with toothbrushes came into general use in the 19th century in Britain.
Most were homemade, with chalk, pulverized brick, or salt as ingredients. An 1866 Home
Encyclopedia recommended pulverized charcoal, and cautioned that many patented tooth
powders that were commercially marketed did more harm than good. Recently, homemade tooth
powders are made by mixing 3 parts baking soda(cleanser) thoroughly with 1 part salt (the
abrasive). A homemade version of toothpaste can be made by mixing 3 parts baking soda and 1
part salt with: 3 teaspoons of glycerin, 10-20 drops of flavoring and 1 drop of food coloring.

MODERN TOOTHPASTE

72

An 18th century American and British toothpaste recipe containing burnt bread has been found.
Another formula around this time called for dragon's blood (a resin),cinnamon, and burnt alum.

By 1900, a paste made of hydrogen peroxide and baking soda was recommended for use with
toothbrushes. Pre-mixed toothpastes were first marketed in the 19th century, but did not surpass
the popularity of tooth-powder until World War I. In 1892, Dr. Washington Sheffield of New
London, Connecticut, manufactured toothpaste into a collapsible tube. Sheffield's toothpaste was
called Dr. Sheffield's Creme Dentifrice. He had the idea after his son traveled to Paris and saw
painters using paint from tubes. In New York City in 1896, Colgate & Company Dental Cream
was packaged in collapsible tubes imitating Sheffield. Fluoride was first added to toothpastes in
1914, and was criticized by the American Dental Association (ADA) in 1937. Fluoride
toothpastes developed in the 1950s received the ADA's approval. To develop the first ADA-
approved fluoride toothpaste, Procter & Gamble started a research program in the early 1940s. In
1950, Procter & Gamble developed a joint research project team headed by Dr. Joseph Muhler at
Indiana University to study new toothpaste with fluoride. In 1955, Procter & Gamble's Crest
launched its first clinically proven fluoride toothpaste. On August 1, 1960, the ADA reported
that "Crest has been shown to be an effective anti cavity (decay preventative) dentifrice that can
be of significant value when used in a conscientiously applied program of oral hygiene and
regular professional care." Countries limit and suggest different amounts of fluoride acceptable
for health. Much of Africa has a slightly higher percentage than the U.S.

Toothpaste in India

73

Aim toothpaste
Aquafresh
BlanX
Close-Up
Colgate
Complete toothpaste
Crest
Cuprident
Darlie
Druide
Elmex
Euthymol
Fluoride
Fresh Breath
Gleem
Ipana
Janina Whitening Toothpaste
Macleans
Mentadent
Oral-B
Pepsodent
Rembrandt (whitening)
Sensodyne (marketed for individuals with sensitive teeth; trademark of GlaxoSmithKline)
Shane toothpaste
Signal
Squigle
The Natural Dentist
Thera Breath
Tom's of Maine
Ultra Brite
Zendium
Zephyr
Toothpaste Brands in Other Countries:

Dabur, Vicco vajradanti, India
Close-Up
HiGeen Toothpastes
Meridol, Israel
Perla, Cuba
NanosensitiveHCA, Germany
Solidox, Norway
Stomatol, Sweden
Vademecum, Sweden
Happee, Philippines
Beam, Philippines
Candida, Switzerland
Lion, Japan
Plidenta, Croatia
Zirodent, Croatia

74

Hygienic Toothpaste
Daxal Cosmetics Private Ltd., An Iso 9001:2000
Company Is The Manufacturer Of An Array Of
Health Care ...

Supplier : Daxal Cosmetics Private Limited

Lovedent
Bhavi Recently Introduced `Lovedent`
Brand Toothpaste Range To Cater The
Needs Of Those Volume Buyers, Who
Are Not Interested In A Part...

Supplier : Bhavi Group Of Companies

Meswak Toothpaste
Bajaj Groups Is A Renowned Name In
International Trade And The Leading
Manufacturer And Exporter Of An
Extensive Range Of Herbal Cosmet...

Supplier : Surya International

Toothpaste

Choice Laboratories Is An Indian Company,
Which Offers Personal Hygiene Products. It
Manufactures A Complete Range Of
Toothpaste For Ad...

Supplier : Choice Laboratories

75

Ajanta Tooth Paste

Ajanta Associates Pvt. Ltd. Offers Ajanta Tooth Paste.
They Offer Toothpastes, Which Are Used To Clean
The Teeth. This Product Can Prom...

Supplier : Ajanta Associates Pvt. Ltd.,

Herbal Tooth Powder

Shri Sanmati Udhyog Offers Herbal Tooth Powder. The Company
Manufactures Natural Tooth Powder From 100% Natural
Ingredients With No Syn...

Supplier : Shri Sanmati Udhyog

Tooth Paste With Ems Salts

J.L Morison [India] Ltd Offers Tooth Paste
With Ems Salts. J.L Morison [India] Ltd
Supplies Health Car...

Supplier : J.L Morison (India) Ltd.

76

Kids Toothpaste
Colgate - Palmolive Offers Kids Toothpaste. This
Toothpaste Strengthens Teeth And Fights Cavity. Its
Light Foaming Action Makes Brushin...

Supplier : Colgate - Palmolive (India) Ltd.

Calcium Enriched Herbal Toothpaste

Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Offers Calcium Enriched Herbal Toothpaste.
Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Is Iso 9001:2000 ...

Supplier : Goran Pharma P. Ltd.

Toothpaste With Decay Protection
Properties

Colgate - Palmolive Offers Colgate Strong
Toothpaste. The Features Of The Toothpaste
Are As Follows:
Spreads Around And Penetrates...

Supplier : Colgate - Palmolive (India) Ltd.

77

Dental Cream Or Toothpaste

The Himalaya Drug Company
Manufactures Dental Cream Or
Toothpaste. The Himalaya Drug
Company Is An Iso...

Supplier : The Himalaya Drug Co.

Private Label Toothpaste

Bhavi Manufactures And Supply A Range Of
Toothpaste [Dental Cream]. They Offers The
Private Label Toothpaste. They Are Basically
Manufa...

Supplier : Bhavi Group Of Companies

Nimboo Toothpaste

S. K. G. Cosmetices Offers Nimboo Toothpaste. The Company
Manufactures Toothpaste Under The Brand Name "Nimboo". This
Toothpaste Is Mad...

Supplier : S. K. G. Cosmetices

78

Toothpaste With Advanced
Whitening Formula
Colgate - Palmolive Offers Toothpaste
For White And Healthy Teeth. Colgate
Advanced Whitening Formula
Contains Microcrystals That Gentl...

Supplier : Colgate - Palmolive (India)
Ltd.

• Product: Crest Pro-Health Enamel
Shield toothpaste, Key
ingredient: Stannous fluoride
Supplier: Crest Pro-Health Enamel

79

Amar Clove Gel
Amar Clove Gel: Clove has always been
Natures best gift for the well being of teeth.
Amar brings for you all the goodness of clove
in gel toothpaste with all its natural anti
bacterial, anti septic and disinfectant
properties. Clove based Amar gel provides
resistance against plaque and cavity
formation..

Supplier: AMAR Remedies Limited

Vicco Vajradanti Paste

In 1952 by late Shri K.V.Pendharkar , the
VICCO Group has em erged today as makers
of the best internationally known products of
the Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of
natural medicines. Having production units
at Dombivli , Nagpur and Goa in India
Supplier: vicco pvt ltd

Neem Gel Toothpaste
Herbal protection for gums and teeth
Indication: Herbal protection for gums and teeth.

Supplier: BAPS Swaminarayan Herbal Care

80

Anchor toothpaste
Tooth Paste Manufacturers Anchor,
Tooth Paste Manufacturers
Supplier:Anchor Health & Beautycare Pvt Ltd,

Pepsodent toothpaste

Pepsodent Complete Care
toothpastes
Supplier : Hindustan unilever
pvt .ltd

Glister
toothpaste
Glister Toothpaste is a
revolutionary that offers seven
benefits. Multi-action
Multi-Action Toothpaste with
Sylodent fluoride toothpaste

Amway Glister
supplier :
Toothpaste

Babool Toothpaste
dabur India Limited Is The Manufacturer Of Babool Toothpaste.
Dabur India Limited Is An Iso 9002 Certified Company. T...

Supplier : Dabur India Limited

81

Babool Toothpowder
Balsara Group Offers Babool Toothpowder. This Is An
Attractively Packaged Tooth Powder With The
Ayurvedic And Medicinal Properties Of The Babul Tree
`...


Promise Clove Toothpaste

Balsara Group Offers Promise Clove Toothpaste.
Promise Toothpaste Is Unique Toothpaste Containing
Natural And Time-tested Clove Oil. The Scientificall...


Non-Fluoridated Calcium Toothpaste

Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Offers Non-Fluoridated
Calcium Toothpaste. Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Is Iso
9001:2000 ...


Herbal Tooth Gel Paste
Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Manufactures Herbal Tooth Gel
Paste. Goran Pharma P. Ltd. Is Iso 9001:2000 And
Ha...


Herbal Red Toothpowder
Dabur India Limited Offers Herbal Red Toothpowder.
Dabur India Limited Is An Iso 9002 Certified Compan...


82

Natural Herbal Toothpaste
Dabur Offers Babool. A Natural Herbal Tooth Paste
Containing The Ayurvedic And Medicinal Value Of
The Babool Tree. The Babool Extracts Prevent
Promise Anti-Cavity Toothpaste
Sweelin...


Dabur India Limited Is The Manufacturer Of Promise
Anti-Cavity Toothpaste. Dabur India Limited Is An I...


BENEFITS OF USING ORGANIC TOOTHPASTE

- Through cleansing -- essential oils like mint or menthol provides an antibacterial effect that promote
greater dental hygiene. This makes it far superior to the over the counter toothpastes.

- Dental Protection -- tooth decay slows down the clay purifies the mouth with continued use creates a
barrier to Viruses and harmful corrosive bacteria.

83

- Superior Whitening - Clay toothpaste whitens teeth to a near brilliant shine in a very short period of
time.

- Healing properties - People who suffer from gingivitis, mouth ulcers and wounds in the mouth may
find that using organic tooth paste helps diminish these problems.

- Fresh breath - People often worry that organic products don’t work as well as mainstream ones. The
fact is, in many cases the opposite is true. For example, the wonderful natural ingredients found in
organic toothpaste can freshen the breath and keep it that way for hours.

Data analysis
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the
goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.
Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a
variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.

Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on modeling and knowledge
discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes. Business intelligence covers
data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing on business information. In statistical
applications, some people divide data analysis into descriptive statistics, exploratory data
analysis, and confirmatory data analysis. EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data
and CDA on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on
application of statistical or structural models for predictive forecasting or classification, while
text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify
information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All are varieties of data
analysis. Data analysis is a practice in which raw data is ordered and organized so that useful
information can be extracted from it. The process of organizing and thinking about data is key to
understanding what the data does and does not contain. There are a variety of ways in which
people can approach data analysis, and it is notoriously easy to manipulate data during the
analysis phase to push certain conclusions or agendas. For this reason, it is important to pay
attention when data analysis is presented, and to think critically about the data and the
conclusions which were drawn. Raw data can take a variety of forms, including measurements,
survey responses, and observations. In its raw form, this information can be incredibly useful,
but also overwhelming. Over the course of the data analysis process, the raw data is ordered in a

84

way which will be useful. For example, survey results may be tallied, so that people can see at a
glance how many people answered the survey, and how people responded to specific questions.

In the course of organizing the data, trends often emerge, and these trends can be highlighted in
the write-up of the data to ensure that readers take note. In a casual survey of ice cream
preferences, for example, more women than men might express a fondness for chocolate, and
this could be a point of interest for the researcher. Modeling the data with the use of mathematics
and other tools can sometimes exaggerate such points of interest in the data, making them easier
for the researcher to see. Charts, graphs, and textual write-ups of data are all forms of data
analysis. These methods are designed to refine and distill the data so that readers can glean
interesting information without needing to sort through all of the data on their own. Summarizing
data is often critical to supporting arguments made with that data, as is presenting the data in a
clear and understandable way. The raw data may also be included in the form of an appendix so
that people can look up specifics for themselves.

When people encounter summarized data and conclusions, they should view them critically.
Asking where the data is from is important, as is asking about the sampling method used to
collect the data, and the size of the sample. If the source of the data appears to have a conflict of
interest with the type of data being gathered, this can call the results into question. Likewise, data
gathered from a small sample or a sample which is not truly random may be of questionable
utility. Reputable researchers will always provide information about the data gathering
techniques used, the source of funding, and the point of the data collection in the beginning of
the analysis so that readers can think about this information while they review the analysis. Data
is a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to data visualization and data
dissemination. The term data analysis is sometimes used as a synonym for data modeling, which
is unrelated to the subject of this article.

The process of data analysis
Data analysis is a process, within which several phases can be distinguished.

• Data cleaning
• Initial data analysis (assessment of data quality)

• Main data analysis (answer the original research question)

• Final data analysis (necessary additional analyses and report)

Data collection
We face problems in various fields of our life, which force us to think and discover their
solutions. When we are genuinely serious about the solution of a problem faced, a thinking
process starts. Statistical Thinking or Statistical Inquiry is one kind of thinking process which
requires evidence in the form of some information, preferably quantitative, which is known as
data/statistical information. In a statistical inquiry, the first step is to procure or collect data.

85

Every time the investigator may not start k r n the very beginning. He must try to use what others
have' already discovered, l'his will save us in cost, efforts and time. As discussed in data imply
related quantitative information. They are collections of number of related observations with a
predetermined goal. We can collect information on the number of T.V. sets sold by a particular
salesman or a group of salesmen, on weekdays in different parts of Delhi to study the pattern of
sales, lean days, and effect of competitive products, income behavior and other related matters.
The information thus collected is called a data set and’ a single observation a data point. All
types of information collected without proper aim or objective is of no use. For example, John's
height is 5'6" or monthly wage of Mr. X on 1st January 2004were Rs. 15000/- are not data. Not
all quantitative information is statistical. Isolated measurements are not statistical data. Statistics
(that is in singular sense) Concerned with collection of data relevant to the solution of a
particular problem. According to Simpson and Kafka (Basic Statistics),"Data have no standing in
themselves; they have n basis for existence only where there is a problem".

PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION
By now you have known that data could be classified in the following three ways:
a) Quantitative' and Qualitative Data.
b) Sample and Census Data.
c) Primary and Secondary data.
(ij Quantitative and Qualitative data: Quantitative data are those set of information which are
quantifiable and can be expressed in some standard units like rupees, kilograms, liters, etc. For
example, pocket money of students of a class and income of their parents can be expressed in so
many rupees; production or import of wheat can be expressed in so many kilograms or lakh
quintals; consumption of petrol and diesel in India as so many lakh liters in
One year and so on. Qualitative data, on the other hand, are not quantifiable, that is, cannot be
expressed in standard units of measurement like rupees, kilograms, litres, etc.This is because
they are 'features', 'qualities' or 'characteristics' like eye colours, skin complexion, honesty, good
or bad, etc. These are also referred to as attributes. In this case, however, it is possible to count
the number of individuals (or items) possessing a particular attribute.

b) Sample and Census Data: It was discussed in Section 1.2.3 of Unit 1 that data can be collected
either by census method or sample method. Formation collected through sample inquiry is called
sample data and the one collected through census inquiry is called census data. Population
census data are collected every ten years in India.

c) Primary and Secondary Data: As discussed very briefly in Section 1.2.2, primary data are
collected by the investigator through field survey. Such data are in raw form and must be refined
before use. On the other hand, secondary data are extracted from the existing published or
unpublished sources, that i% from the data already collected by others. Collection of data is the

86

first basic step towards the statistical analysis of any problem. The collected data are suitably
transformed and analyses to draw conclusions about the population.

COLLECTION OF DATA

Collection of reliable and sacient data statistical information is a pre-requisite of Any statistical
inquiry. This and the subsequent Sections of this Unit are devoted to data collection techniques.

Statistical Inquiry - Planning’ and Conduct
Collection of reliable and sacient data requires a carell planning and execution
of a statistical survey. If this is not so then the result obtained may be misleading or incomplete
and hence useless. They may even do more harm than good. In the following Section an attempt
is made to explain planning aspect. Statistical data can be collected Gather by a survey or by
performing an experiment. Surveys are more popular in social sciences like economics and
business. In Physical sciences experimentation is more commonly used method of investigation.
Data collected by observing various individuals or items, included in a survey, are of Yachted by
a large number of uncontrollable factors. For example, wages in a country are affected by a lot of
factors like skill, education and sex of worker; training and experience; and in some countries
even on race to which a worker Belongs. In India low caste and historically underprivileged
people like sweepers It is interesting to note that even the data obtained through experiments in
physical sciences are affected by a large number of uncontrollable factors in spite of the fact that
such experiments are conducted under controlled conditions. The uncontrollable factors, in this
case, may arise due to the bias of the person(s) conducting the experiment, nature and accuracy
of measuring instrument, etc. Any statistical survey consists of two stages:
1. Planning Stage
2. Executing Stage
Planning Stage - Requisites of a Statistical Inquiry

Before collecting data through primary or secondary source, the investigator has to complete the
following preliminaries.

a) What are the objective / aim and scope of the inquiry?
Unless the investigator answers this question most satisfactorily, (s) he cannot proceed in the
right direction and can go astray. Both money and efforts will be lost if data, not relevant to
inquiry, are collected. Not only this, one must also be clear about how much data are required
and hence ensure that only the necessary data get collected. For example, if we want to collect
data on pattern of wheat production in a particular state, we need to collect data on the type of
land, agricultural inputs, educational levels of farmers involved, presence or absence of defects
of land tenure system, availability and cost of agricultural finance, nature of marketing, etc.

b) What shall be the source of information?
The investigator has to make a choice between primary sources, where he himself collects the
data, or secondary source, where he lays his hand on already collected Data’s hat is, the
investigator has to make a choice between:

87

1) Census or Sample inquiry. In census method (s) he examines each and every tem 1 individual
of the population whereas in sample method (s) he examines only the item 1 individual included
in the sample. For example, in census method(s) he examines each and every person in a village,
but in sample method, (s) he examines only a limited number of persons.
2) Direct or Indirect inquiry, In a direct inquiry the observations can be directly obtained in
quantitative terms as for example, sales of T.V. sets and the advertisement cost in rupees. On the
other hand, in an indirect inquiry, like intelligence of a group of students, marks secured by them
are used to judge their intelligence.
3) Original or Repetitive inquiry. An inquiry conducted for the first time is it undertaken over
and over again, it is repetitive. For example, population census in India is conducted every 10
years. All these inquiries must be related.
4) Open or Confidential inquiry. In open inquiry the results are made public, as for example, the
population and national income data. On the other hand, the results of many government
inquiries are kept confidential for reasons of national security, as for example, data on defense,
atomic energy, space research and development, etc.

d) What shall be the statistical units of investigation or counting?
A statistical unit is an attribute or a set of attributes conventionally chosen so that individuals or
objects possessing them may be counted or measured for the purpose of enquiry. Thus a
statistical unit is a characteristic or a set of characteristics of an individual or item that are
observed to collect information. For example, various characteristics of a person may be his
height, weight, income, etc. The definition of a statistical unit means the specification of the
characteristics of an individual or item on which data are to be collected. It must be pointed out
that the result of observation of a statistical unit may be a number which is obtained-either by
counting or by measurement.

Execution Stage
This stage comes after the planning stage, where the plan is put in operation.
It includes:
1) Setting up the central administrative machinery which prepares a’ format of questions relating
to the inquiry, called a questionnaire or a question schedule. It decides the setting up of branch
offices to cover large geographical

2) Selection and Training of field staff called interviewers or investigators or research staff or
enumerators. They will approach the respondents in different ways as explained in Section
Investigators should be properly trained, should be honest and hard working. Any error at this
stage will jeopardize the whole process of investigation giving misleading results. To obtain the
best possible results h m a survey, it is desirable to have the field staff who is familiar with the
language of the respondents and have patience and tact of dealing with them.

3) Supervision of field staff is a must to ensure that information is actually obtained from the
respondents rather than that the questionnaires are fictitiously filled up in hotel rooms. Further,
there must be some experts to make clarification3 on problems faced by the investigators in the

88

field work. While conducting field surveys the problem of non--response is common. This
includes:
a) Non-availability of the listed respondent. Here in no case this're~~ondent be replaced by
another because it may spoil the random character of sample and the results of investigation are
likely to become biased.

b) Due to non-response, a part or certain questions of the questionnaire may remain unanswered
or partly answered. These should not be replaced or tempered with by the investigator.

4) After the data have been arranged, the next job is to analyses the same. The Methods of doing
this are hlly described in later Blocks. Now-a-days Computers are available to do this job.

5) After analysis of data, now is the turn for writing a detailed report mentioning
The main findings of survey statistical inquiry. The main conclusions drawn and policy
recommendations are duly recorded at the end of this report.

GENDER OF RESPONDENT:-

GENDER NUMBER %

MALES 72 36
FEMALES 128 64
TOTAL 200 100
AGE WISE:-

AGE NUMBER %
18-25 25 12.5
26-35 65 32.5
36-45 50 25
45-55 35 17.5
56-65 20 10
OTHERS 5 2.5
TOTAL 200 100
OCCUPATIONAL WISE:-

89

OCCUPATION NUMBER
STUDENT 60
HOUSE WISE 80
BUSINESSMEN 40
WORKING WOMEN 20
TOTAL 200
Qualification wise:-

Category Number %
Graduate 25 12.5
Under Graduate 45 22.5
HSC 30 15.0
SSC 20 10.0
Other 30 15
Un Educated 50 25
Total 200 100

GENDER OF RESPONDENT:-
GENDER NUMBER %

MALES 72 36
FEMALES 128 64
TOTAL 200 100

90

Notes : In these research we have taken a sample servey of 200 people means males are 72 and
female are 128 and percentage is 36%(males)& 64% (females).

AGE WISE:-
AGE NUMBER %
18-25 25 12.5
26-35 65 32.5
36-45 50 25
46-55 35 17.5
56-65 20 10
OTHERS 5 2.5
TOTAL 200 100

91

AGE WISE
Other
5

56-65
20

46-55
35

36-45
50

26-35
65

18-25
25

Notes : In these research we have taken a sample servey of 200 people means males are 72 and
female are 128 and percentage is 36%(males)& 64% (females)and different age group .

OCCUPATIONAL WISE:-
OCCUPATION NUMBER
STUDENT 60
HOUSE WISE 80
BUSINESS MEN 40
WORKING WOMEN 20
TOTAL 200

92

Occupational Wise

20, 10%

60, 30%
40, 20%

student
house wife
business men
working women

80, 40%

Notes : In these research we have taken a sample survey of 200 people means students are 60,
house wife are 80, business men are 40 and working women are 20 and percentage is 20% for
working women; 60-30% for students; 40% for business men and 80-40% for house wifes.

Qualification wise:-
Category Number %
Graduate 25 12.5
Under Graduate 45 22.5
HSC 30 15.0
SSC 20 10.0

93

Other 30 15
Un Educated 50 25
Total 200 100

Notes : In these research we have taken a sample survey of 200 people means based on
qualification i.e. graduate pupil are 12.5%; undergraduate pupil are 22.5%; HSC are about 15%;
SSC are about 10%; and uneducated pupil are 25%.

BRAND PERFRENCE OF THE CONSUMER
Brand preference of tea
TATA TEA 66
SOCIETY 54
TAJ MAHEL 16
TETLEY 6
BROOK BOND 20
RED LABEL 4
GIRNAR 4
PATAKA 6

94

COMMENT:

During this survey, it was noticed that TATA TEA brand is the highest preferred brand by the
consumer. Society is second highest preferred brand. Then the following brands are Taj mahel,
Tetley,Brook bond, Red label, Girnar, Pataka and so on.

95

COMMENT:

During the survey, it was noticed that brands manufacturer’s name was known to 44%, 39%
did not know the name of the manufacturer and 17% know the wrong answer. And 172 pupil
were satisfied by the product and 20 were not satisfied.

96

WASHING POWDER
Name Number
TIDE 42
RIN 23
NIRMA 20
MODICARE 6
MR.WHITE 15
SURF EXCEL 28
AIREL 35

97

WHEEL 13
HANKO 10
Total 192

Detergent Brand Preference

50 42 TIDE
40 RIN
35
30 28 NIRMA
23
20 MODICARE
20 15
13 MR.WHITE
10 6 10
SURF EXCEL
0
AIREL
WHEEL

COMMENT:

During the survey, it was noticed that consumer mostly prefer, detergent brand is TIDE. airel is
the second highest preferred brand and rin is the third highest brand.

98

Changes in Brand
SHAPE & …

PACKAGING

COLOUR TASTE

TASTE COLOUR

0
50

Comments:

During the survey, it was noticed that brands manufacturer’s name was known to 50, 100 did
not know the name of the manufacturer and 40 know the wrong answer.

100

BRANDS MISWAK VICCO ANCHOR COLGATE DABUR PROMIS PEPSODENT
E

NUMBER 11 6 10 46 20 17 30
S

BRANDS CLOSE UP BABOOL AMAR HIMALAYA GLISTE CREST TOTAL
R

NUMBER 14 15 4 9 13 5 200
S

101

COMMENTS:-

We asked people they use toothpaste the answer we get that 100% people are using. And Colgate
toothpaste is most popular brand among the people and pepsodent is the next preference of the
consumer. People use paste by seeing advertising even they did not know the company or
manufacturer name of the brand

102

SATISFIED AND UNSATISFIED

20
NO
YES
180

During the survey, it was noticed that brands manufacturer’s name was known to 76, 64 did not
know the name of the manufacturer and 60 know the wrong answer.

CHANGES IN BRAND

103

COMMENT:

Non satisfied consumers think that taste and size of the product should be changed.

Conclusion:
Television: TV is a very popular platform for advertising. It covers nearly all kind of audience
and of all genders. Print Media Advertising: This is the advertising in which we promote the
business through Newspapers, Magazines, Journals and books. This advertising covers all of
people who are related directly or indirectly with above said media. This is very popular form of
advertising as print media is very important. We can further categorize the print media
(newspapers) into Entertainment, Careers, Classifieds, technology (Computers, Electronics,
defense), Real Estate, Lifestyles, Comics and much more. It also includes hoardings and banners.

Internet: The newest and increasingly getting popular form of media is internet. As it is the
widest platform for the advertisers. It covers everything from a needle to a ship. These days more
and more companies are focusing on advertising through internet. Internet advertising comprises
of websites, portals, gadgets, feeds and search engines.

To advertise means to inform (seen as the flow of information about a product or service from
the seller to the buyer). However, advertising does not end with the flow of information alone. It
goes further to influence and persuades people to take a desired action - like placing an order to

104

buy a product. The consumer market has become highly competitive with a new brand being
born almost everyday. Irrespective of the kind of product you are looking for, be it consumer
durables like refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines or fast moving consumer
products (FMCG) the number of brands available is truly mind boggling. Naturally it is the
prime concern of every marketer to promote their brand as a shade better than the competitors'.
Advertising comes in handy here.

However, simply informing a customer that a brand exists is not enough. Advertising should be
targeted towards the prospective audience in such a way that it forms a positive impact on the
customer and in the process creates brand recognition.

• First Time Users of a product - Customers who don't use that product category at all.
The aim is to convince them to try that product.

• First Time Users of a brand - Consumers who don't use a particular brand but might be
using a competitor's brand. The aim here is to convince buyers to switch from the
competition product to theirs.

• Regular users of the brand - Buyers who are using the brand already. The aim is to
serve as a reminder of the brand's benefits and convince them to continue using it.
• Launch a new brand into the market. Irrespective of whom the ad is targeted at, a firm
that plans to spend on advertising, must make sure that advertising campaign creates a
positive impression of the brand in the minds of the customer, creates a need in them to
try the brand and a commitment to continue using it.

Suggestion:-
The following suggestion are offered to make brand preference efficiency and
purposeful.

1. The quality of the various brand of product should improve.

2. They should introduce some new innovative essence or flavor in the product
timely.

3. The packaging should be attractive.

4. Quality should maintain with reasonable rate.

5. In sunflower oil the colour of the oil should be little lite.

6. In Sauce there should some more flavor may introduced.

7. The tea should little srong in flavor.

105

8. Advertisement should be more attractive with simple broad headlines so that
those who see also read such advertisements.

9. The name of the manufacturing units should be mentioned in the advertisement
so the customer can aware of it.

10. Message in the advertisement should be clear and often repeated so that
consumer may recollect them...

Bibliography
A.Web sites:
1. www.yahoo.com
2. www.google.com
3. www.search.com
4. www.bring.com
B. News papers
1. Times of India

106

2. Hindustan Times
3. Daily News Analysis

C. Magazines
1. Brands
2. Consumer product
3. Data analysis

107

project on research methodology n data analysis

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked (20)

Similar to project on research methodology n data analysis (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

project on research methodology n data analysis