Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative Data Analysis

Tilahun Nigatu (MPH)
M&E and Research Manager
African Medical & Research Foundation

March 2009

tilahunn@gmail.com +251911486661

The Continuum

Quantitative Qualitative

There is no such thing as All research ultimately has a
qualitative data. qualitative grounding
Everything is either 0 or 1 (D.T Camp bell)
(Fred Kerlinger)

Different approaches to
arrive at the same
destiny

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdeb.php
2

Outline of the Presentation
Qualitative research

Qualitative data

Qualitative analysis

Qualitative software

Qualitative reporting

3

Qualitative Research

4

What is qualitative research?

“Development of concepts which help us to
understand social phenomena in natural (rather
than experimental) settings, giving due
emphasis to the meanings, experiences and views
of the participants.”

Pope & Mays
BMJ 1995;311:42-45

5

Dimensions of qualitative methods

Understanding context
• How economic, political, social, cultural, environmental
and organizational factors influence health

Understanding people
• How people make sense of their experiences of health
and disease

Understanding interaction
• How the various actors involved in different public
health activities interact each other

6

Qual Vs Quan: Basic differences
Qualitative Quantitative

Purpose To describe a situation, To measure magnitude-How
gain insight to particular widespread is a practice...
practice...
Format No pre-determined Pre-determined response
response categories categories, standard measures
Data In-depth explanatory data Wide breadth of data from large
from a small sample statistically representative sample
Analysis Draws out patterns from Tests hypotheses, uses data to
concepts and insights support conclusion
Result Illustrative explanation & Numerical aggregation in
individual responses summaries, responses are
clustered
Sampling Theoretical Statistical
7

Qual Vs Quan: Analytic approaches

Research question Fixed/Focused Broader, contextual, flexible

Expected outcome Identified in Usually not predefined,
advance emergent research question

Hierarchy of phases Linearity Circular

Confounding factors Controlled during Searched in the field
design & analysis

Time dimension Slower Rapid to slower

8

Qual Vs Quan: Data collection method


Sampling Random sampling Open ended and less structured
protocols (Flexible)

Tools Structured data Depend on interactive
collection instruments interviews

Results Produce results that Produce results that give
generalize, compare and meaning, experience and views
summarize

9

Models for Combining Qual-Quan
methods

Qual-Quan Combining models

Sequential use model Concurrent use model

Qual-Quan Quan-Qual Quan Qual Quan Qual
model model model model

10

Important concepts in Designing
qualitative research
Concept Description

Natural setting Participants are free from any control & data are collected
in their natural environment
Holism The whole is more than the sum, take magnitude of
contextual factors in to account
Human as a Researcher is involved in every step being responsive,
research flexible, adaptive and good listener
instrument
Emergent design Study design emerges as further insights are gained
through data collection and analysis

Saturation or A stage where additional interview or observation is not
redundancy believed to add new information-enough is enough!

11

Common qualitative study designs
Study design Description

Ethnography Portrait of people- study of the story and culture of a
group usually to develop cultural awareness &
sensitivity
Phenomenology Study of individual’s lived experiences of events-e.g. the
experience of AIDS care

Grounded theory Going beyond adding to the existing body of
knowledge-developing a new theory about a
phenomenon-theory grounded on data
Participatory action Individuals & groups researching their own personal
research beings, socio-cultural settings and experiences

Case study In-depth investigation of a single or small number of
units at a point (over a period) in time. E.g. Evaluation of
s service

12

Sampling in Qualitative research

• To generate a sample which allows understanding the social process
Aim
of interest

• Purposive sampling- selection of the most productive sample to
answer the research question
Technique
• Ongoing interpretation of data will indicate who should be
approached, including identification of missing voices

• The one that adequately answers the research question-until new
Size categories, themes or explanations stop emerging from the data
• Depend on available time and resources

13

Sampling techniques in qualitative
research

Snow ball/chain Extreme/deviant Homogeneous
sampling case sampling sampling

Maximum Convenience Opportunistic
variation sampling sampling sampling

14

Qualitative Data

15

What is qualitative data?

• Data that are not easily reduced to numbers

• Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and
behaviours of people in social context

• Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups,
field notes from observation of certain activities, copies
of documents, audio/video recordings...

www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualdata.php

16

Types of Qualitative Data

Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments,
news articles, books etc)

Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focus
groups, conversation)

Audio recordings, music

Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)

Qualitative data collection methods
Methods Brief explanation

Observation The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to
observe (with/without participation) usually to
understand whether people do what they say they do, and
to access tacit knowledge of subjects
Interview This involves asking questions, listening to and recording
answers from an individual or group on a structured,
semi-structured or unstructured format in an in-depth
manner
Focus Group Focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactive
Discussion session with a group small enough for everyone to have
chance to talk and large enough to provide diversity of
opinions
Other methods Rapid assessment procedure (RAP), Free listing, Pile sort,
ranking, life history (biography)
18

Questions for qualitative interviews
Types of Examples
questions
Hypothetical If you get the chance to be an HIV scientist, do you think
you can discover a vaccine for HIV?
Provocative I have heard people saying most evaluations are
subjective-what do you think?
Ideal In your opinion, what would be the best solution for
eliminating gender-based violence?
Interpretative What do you mean by good?

Leading Do you think prevention is better than cure?

Loading Do you watch that culturally degrading TV show on
condom use?
Multiple Tell me your three favourite authors, the book you like
best by each author, and why you like those books?
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Focus of Qualitative questions
• Experience: When you told your manager that the
project has failed, what happened?
• Opinion: What do you think about the role of evaluation
for program improvement?
• Feelings: When you got to know that the project was a
success, how did you feel?
• Knowledge: Tell me about the different ways of
promoting PME?
• Input: When you have lectures on evaluability
assessment, what does the instructor tell you?

20

Preparing transcript

Transcribe word by word (verbatim)

Consider non-verbal expressions

Try to do the transcribing yourself

Be patient-Time consuming

21

Preparing Metadata(Log)

Project/research title
Date of data collection
Place of data collection
ID-code of informant(s)
Research team
Method of data collection
Documentation type: Tape recorder, notes
and observations

22

Qualitative Analysis

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What is Qualitative Data Analysis?

Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of
processes and procedures whereby we move from the
qualitative data that have been collected into some form
of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the
people and situations we are investigating.

QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy.
The idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic
content of qualitative data

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php

24

Approaches in analysis

Deductive approach
– Using your research questions to group the data and then
look for similarities and differences
– Used when time and resources are limited
– Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a
larger quantitative study

Inductive approach
– Used when qualitative research is a major design of the
inquiry
– Using emergent framework to group the data and then look
for relationships

25

Points of focus in analyzing text data
• The primary message content
• The evaluative attitude of the speaker toward the
message
• Whether the content of the message is meant to
represent individual or group-shared ideas
• The degree to which the speaker is representing
actual Vs hypothetical experience

http://qualitativeresearch.ratcliffs.net/15methods.pdf

26

Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data analysis

Qualitative Quantitative
• Begins with more general • Key explanatory and
open-ended questions, outcome variables
moving toward greater identified in advance
precision as more • Contextual/confounding
information emerges variables identified and
• Pre-defined variables are controlled
not identified in advance • Data collection and
• Preliminary analysis is an analysis distinctly
inherent part of data separate phases
collection • Analysis use formal
statistical procedures
27

Tools for helping the Analytical Process

Summaries: Should contain the key points that
emerge from undertaking the specific activity

Self Memos: Allow you to make a record of the
ideas which occur to you about any aspect of
your research, as you think of them

Researcher Diary

Terms used in Qualitative data analysis
Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions
that presents a systematic view of events or situations by specifying
relations among variables
Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-level
data points
Characteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to an
individual response to a variable or indicator in a quantitative
research. It is the smallest unit of analysis
Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that the
researcher can group and compare similar or related pieces of
information
Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text from
different sources in to a single file or report
Indexing: process that generates a word list comprising all the
substantive words and their location within the texts entered in to a
program
29

Principles of Qualitative data analysis
1. People differ in their experience and understanding of
reality (constructivist-many meanings)
2. A social phenomenon can’t be understood outside its
own context (Context-bound i.e. book is in the pen)
3. Qualitative research can be used to describe
phenomenon or generate theory grounded on data
4. Understanding human behaviour emerges slowly and
non-linearly
5. Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or
new idea for further inquiry

30

Features of Qualitative data analysis

• Analysis is circular and non-linear
• Iterative and progressive
• Close interaction with the data
• Data collection and analysis is simultaneous
• Level of analysis varies
• Uses inflection i.e. “this was good”
• Can be sorted in many ways
• Qualitative data by itself has meaning, i.e. “apple”

31

Noticing, Collecting and Thinking Model

Think
Collect
about
things
things

Notice things

32

The Process of Qualitative data analysis

Step 1: Organize the data

Step 2: Identify framework

Step 3: Sort data in to framework

Step 4: Use the framework for descriptive analysis

Step 5: Second order analysis
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Step 1: Organize the data

• Transcribe the data (you can use
hyperTRANSCRBE software)
• Translate the data (You can use language
translation software like SYSTRAN)
• Data cleaning
• Label the data
– Structuring
– Familiarizing
www.researchware.com/ht

34

Step 2: Identify a Framework

• Read, Read, Read...

• Identify a Framework
– Explanatory – Guided by the research question
– Exploratory-Guided by the data

• Framework will structure, label and define data

• Framework=Coding plan

35

Step 3: Sort data in to Framework

• Code the data

• Modify the Framework

• Data entry if use computer packages

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/how_what_to_code.php

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Step 4: Use Framework in descriptive
analysis
• Descriptive analysis
– Range of responses in categories
– Identify recurrent themes

Stop here if exploratory research

37

Step 5: Second order analysis

• Identify recurrent themes
• Notice patterns in the data
• Identify respondent clusters
– Search for causality
– Identify related themes
• Build sequence of events
• Search data to answer research questions
• Develop hypothesis and test

38

Types of qualitative analysis

• Content analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Framework analysis
• Grounded theory

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/methodologies.php

39

Content analysis

• Content analysis is the procedure for the
categorization of verbal or behavioural data for
the purpose of classification, summarization and
tabulation

• The content can be analyzed on two levels
– Descriptive: What is the data?
– Interpretative: what was meant by the data?

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/pop2a.cfm
40

Narrative analysis

• Narratives are transcribed experiences

• Every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the
researcher has to sort-out and reflect up on them,
enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to
the reader

• The core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate
stories presented by people in different contexts and
based on their different experiences

http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/narrativ.htm
41

Discourse analysis

• A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk
(spoken interaction) and all types of written texts

• Focus on ordinary people method of producing and
making sense of everyday social life: How language is
used in everyday situations?
– Sometimes people express themselves in a simple and
straightforward way
– Sometimes people express themselves vaguely and indirectly
– Analyst must refer to the context when interpreting the message
as the same phenomenon can be described in a number of
different ways depending on context
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a879
42

Framework Analysis

• Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
• Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding
framework which is developed both from a priori issues
and from emergent issues
• Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify
specific piece of data which correspond to different
themes
• Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic
framework (can be thematic or by case)
• Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns,
associations, concepts and explanations in the data
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/320/7227/114
43

Grounded Theory
• Analytic induction
– Starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-defined’
population in order to formulate a general statement about a
population, a concept or a hypothesis
– Then the analyst examines another case to see whether it fits the
statement
– If it does, a further case is selected
– If it doesn’t fit there are two options
• Either the statement is changed to fit both cases or the definition of the
population is changed in such a way that the case is no longer a member of
the newly defined population
– Then another case is selected and the process continues
– In such a way one should be able to arrive at a statement that fits
all cases of a population-as-defined
– This method is only for limited set of analytic problems: those
that can be solved with some general overall statement
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/337/aug07_3/a567
44

Strategies for analyzing observations
• Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically
overtime, to tell the story from the beginning to the end
• Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not
necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of importance
• Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or
locations in which events/behaviours of interest happen
• People: describing individuals or groups involved in the
events
• Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control,
recruitment, decision-making, socialization, communication)
• Issues: Illuminating key issues – how did participants change

45

Quality in Qualitative studies
Criteria Issues Solution

Credibility Truth value Prolonged & persistent observation,
(=internal validity) Triangulation, peer-debriefing, member
checks, deviant case analysis
Transferability Applicability Thick description, referential adequacy,
(=external validity) prevention of premature closure of the
data, Reflexive journal
Dependability Consistency Dependability audit
(=reliability) Reflexive journal

Conformability Neutrality Conformability audit
(=objectivity) Reflexive journal

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/qualitative_analysis.php 46

Qualitative Software

47

Choosing and Using Computer software
• It is possible to conduct qualitative analysis without a
computer

• Concerns: relying too much on computers shortcuts will
impede the process by distancing the researcher from
the text

• Advantages: ease the burden of cutting and pasting by
hand, and produce more powerful analysis by creation
and insertion of codes in to text files, indexing,
construction of hyperlinks, and selective retrieval of text
segments
48

Traditional Method of Qualitative analysis

Traditional Qualitative data analysis is labor-intensive.

After gathering data researchers
– Transcribe the source material with a word processor,
– Make multiple photocopies of the text,
– Painstakingly read through and assign codes to the material,
– Cut the pages up in to coded passages, and then
– Manually sort the coded text in order to analyze the patterns
they find

http://gsociology.icaap.org/methods/qual.htm

49

Qualitative analysis with softwares
• With qualitative softwares, your workflow will be
similar, but each step will be made easier by the
computer’s capability for data storage, automated
searching and display.
• You can use text, picture, audio and video source files
directly
• You can assign codes manually (autocode) to any section
of text, audio or video or part of a picture
• Analysis is easy with the report feature, where you can
select a subset of cases and codes to work with, choose
what data to use, and sort your reports automatically

http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/
50

Uses of computer software in Qualitative
Studies
1) Transcribing data
2) Writing/editing the data
3) Storage of data
4) Coding data (keywords or tags)
5) Search and retrieval of data
6) Data linking of related text
7) Writing/editing memos about the data
8) Display of selected reduced data
9) Graphic mapping
10) Preparing reports

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_CAQDAS/What_the_sw_can_do.php

How to choose software - Key Questions

Type and amount of data
Theoretical approach to analysis
Time to learn Vs time to analyze
Level of analysis (Simple or detailed)
Desired “closeness” to the data
Any desired quantification of results
Individual or working as a team
Peer software support available
Any cost constraints

(Weitzman and Miles 1995; Lewins and Silver 2005)

Common qualitative softwares

Atlas ti 6.0 (www.atlasti.com )
HyperRESEARCH 2.8 (www.researchware.com )
Max QDA (www.maxqda.com )
The Ethnograph 5.08
QSR N6 (www.qsrinternational.com )
QSR Nvivo (www.qsrinternational.com )
Weft QDA (www.pressure.to/qda )
Open code 3.4 (www8.umu.se)

Basic steps in using Qualitative softwares
1. Install the program (note the requirements)
2. Learn the operation using the help menu
3. Prepare a source document (in text format)
4. Open a project/study unit/Hermeneutic unit
5. Import text, audio, video, picture source files
6. Read the imported text documents
7. Select the segment of the text
8. Insert codes, categories, memos, quotations etc
9. Search, sort, manage categories, manage quotations etc
10. Mapping of concepts, layering, linking etc
11. Producing reports, matrices, exporting data, print
(Demonstrate with Open code 3.4)
54

Writing a Qualitative report

55

Writing qualitative report

Qualitative research generates rich information-
thus deciding where to focus and the level of
sharing is very challenging.

http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/michael/qual_writing.htm

56

Getting Ready to Write

• Must come close to the point of maturation
– Be aware of resource constraints and sponsors
interests

• Organize your materials
– List of codes
– Summary device: Tables, thematic structure

• Writing a chronicle (“writing it out of your head”)

57

Choosing a Style and Focus
• Format
• Research report
• Scientific research article
• Report to donor
• Field report
• Evaluation report...
• Focus
– Academic: conceptual framework/theories,
methodology and interpretation
– Practitioners: Concrete suggestions for better practice,
policy recommendations
– Lay readers: Problem solving, reform on
practice/policy
58

Variations in the Report Format

• Problem-solving approach (problem-based)

• Narrative approach (chronological)

• Policy approach (evidence-based)

• Analytic approach (Theory/conceptual
framework based)

59

Reporting Qualitative Research

• Typically use quotes from data
– Descriptive
– Direct link with data
– Credibility

• Ways to use quotes
– Illustrative
– Range of issues
– Opposing views

60

Reporting without Quotes

• List range of issues
• Rank or sequence issues
• Describe types of behaviour, strategies, experiences
• Report proportions (most, many, the majority)
• Flow diagrams: decision-making, event sequencing
etc

61

Interpretation
• Interpretation is the act of identifying and explaining the
core meaning of the data
• Organizing and connecting emerging themes, sub-themes
and contradictions to get the bigger picture-what it all
means
– Think how best to integrate data from multiple sources
and methods
• Make generalization-providing answers to questions of
social and theoretical significance
• Ensuring credible or trustworthy interpretations

62

Standard Report Format
1. Introduction
– Literature review
– Purpose of the study
– Brief description of the study
• Who did the study, where and when
• Description of relevant cultural and contextual information
2. Methods: study design, sampling method, data collection method,
data analysis methods
3. Results: Presentation, interpretation, relate to relevant conceptual
framework, discuss methodological difficulties affecting your
results
4. Conclusion: Key findings, logical next step, implication of findings
5. Recommendations: Relate to policy or practice
6. Acknowledgement
7. References
63

Qualitative data analysis

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