qualitative research for MPH sts.ppt

Qualitative study design
For MPH Students
Jeylan Kassim (PhD)
November-2018

Learning Objectives
At the end of this session the students will
be expected to:
Define Research, Qualitative and Quantitative study designs
Conceptualize the difference between quantitative and
qualitative study design
Describe different types of qualitative study design.
Evaluation criteria of qualitative study design
Analysis of qualitative study design

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
“Research is a diligent search(persistent hard-work),
studious inquiry(carefully with attention), investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery of new facts and
findings; or
Broadly, it may relate to any subject of inquiry with regard to
collection of information, interpretation of facts, and revision
of existing theories or laws in the light of new facts or
evidence (Adams et al.,2007).

WHAT IS RESEARCH?...
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of propositions about the presumed
relationships of various phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986).
Systematic:
Controlled:
Empirical:
Critical : 4
Not haphazard or pretended
Minimizes effect or quantify impact of
factors affecting relationship
Conclusions are based on data from real life
procedures withstand critical scrutiny(careful
inspection)

What are the concepts in the two definitions?
1st definition:
Research is defined as discovery of facts/reality
2nd definition:
Research is defined as investigating presumed relationships of
reality
What is the assumption behind these definitions about reality?
(clearly formed entities with identifiable properties, then given
symbols, words, and concepts???)
(formlessness, chaos, interpenetration and absence????)
So, what is the problem with these definitions?

What is quantitative research?
Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by
collecting numerical data that are analysed using
mathematically based methods (in particular statistics).’
(Aliaga & Gunderson, 2002)
Key elements:
Explaining phenomenon
Collecting numerical data
Analyzing using mathematically based methods

Quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and
analysis of causal relationships between variables, not
processes.
What is qualitative research?
‘…the word qualitative implies an emphasis on process and
meanings that are not rigorously examined, or measured (if
measured at all), in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or
frequency.’ (Denzin & Lincon 1994)
7

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE?.....
An array of interpretative techniques which seek to
describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms
with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or
less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world ‘
(Van Maanen in Easterby-Smith, 1993:71)
Not measurements, but WORDS!
Instead of asking how many times someone purchased an
item, you ask "WHY...?"
Typically the samples are small, and not "random"

Qualitative study design…
Qualitative research is a system of inquiry which seeks to
build a holistic, largely narrative, description to inform the
researcher’s understanding of a social or cultural
phenomenon.
Qualitative research takes place in natural settings
employing a combination of observations, interviews, and
document reviews.

Qualitative designs cont…
If a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood
because little research has been done on it, qualitative
approach is preferred.
Qualitative approaches allow room to be innovative and to
work more within researcher-designed frameworks.
They allow more creative, literary-style writing.

It is a type of formative research that offers specialized
techniques for obtaining in-depth responses about what
people think and how they feel.
It enables to gain insight into attitudes, beliefs, motives and
behavior of the target population.
Denzin and Lincoln (2008) explain, “qualitative researchers
study things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings
people bring to them”.

It seeks to elucidate the nature of social practices,
relationships, and beliefs along with the meaning of human
experiences from the participants’ point of view.
Qualitative research shares a common perspective on the
world, this includes:
A perspective of working hypothesis concerning reality
(ontological assumption); realities are subjective,
multiple and socially constructed
A view on how knowledge is generated (epistemological
assumptions), this emphasizes the interaction between
the informant and the researcher as inseparable

A view on the role of values (axiological assumptions);
research is value-bound and the pre-understanding, and
expectations of the research can influence the outcome.
The process of research (methodological assumptions);
qualitative research is inductive, time and context-bound
and follows an emerging design.

TOOLS OF THE TRADE
Standard terms and concepts (basic language of
research) in qualitative paradigm need to be well
understood before engaged into the research process as a
whole in order:
To understand the interrelationship of the key components of
research.
To avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and
approaches to social phenomena
To recognize others’, and defend our own, positions

TOOLS OF THE…….
ONTOLOGY (image of social reality): Ontological
claims are ‘claims and assumptions that are made:
about the nature of social reality,
claims about what exists,
what it looks like,
what units make it up and
how these units interact with each other.
In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what
we believe constitutes social reality’ (Blaikie, 2000, p. 8).

TOOLS OF THE…….
EPISTEMOLOGY(knowledge gathering process):
Epistemology is concerned with the theory of knowledge,
Especially in regard to its methods,
Validation and the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social
reality.
In short, claims about how and what is assumed to exist can
be known’.

The interrelationship between the building blocks of research
What’s out
there to know?
What and how can
we know about it?
How can we go about
acquiring that knowledge?
Which precise procedures can we
use to acquire it?
Which data can we collect?
Ontology Epistemology Methodology Methods Source

Difference b/n qualitative and quantitative
methods
Qualitative study
In qualitative research the
point of departure is the
point of view of the
informants
Qualitative research is an
act of interpretation
Qualitative researchers
work with small number
of informants, but try to
gain an in-depth
understanding
Quantitative study
In quantitative research
the point of departure is
the idea of the
researchers
Quantitative research is
an act of proof
Quantitative researchers
need representative
sample size

Difference b/n qualitative and quantitative
methods
Qualitative study
Study deals with the
emotional and contextual
aspects of human
response.
Here we answer the
question why, and how?
Inductive reasoning
(hypothesis formulating)
The aim of analysis is to
conceptualize the
meaning of phenomena
and human action
Quantitative study
Study deals with objective
measurable aspects
Here we answer the
question “how many” or
“how often”?
Deductive reasoning
(hypothesis testing)
Numbers and applying
statistical methods
(generalization).

Why qualitative study?
Both conceptual and practical reasons :
Conceptually: It provides greater depth of response and
greater consequent understanding of the informant.
Practical reasons:
Low cost, Timing(short time)
Flexibility(the study design can be modified while it is in progress)
Direct link with the target population and not affected by lack of
technical facilities.

Why qualitative…
In general qualitative design:
Usually much cheaper than quantitative research
No better way than qualitative research to understand in-
depth motivations and feelings of consumers/informants.
Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of quantitative research.
Criteria for selecting a research design
The research problem
Personal experience
Audience
Resources available for the study

Criteria for selecting cont..
The research problem
Research problems call for specific approaches
Eg. If the problems calls for:
a) the identification of factors that influence an outcome
b)) the evaluation of an intervention
Then a quantitative approach is best
If a concept needs to be understood because little research
has been done on it, Eg: If the problems calls for:
a) CC on HIV/AIDS experience’s
Qualitative approach is preferred

A mixed methods design is useful when:
Either the quantitative or qualitative approach by itself is
inadequate to best understand a research problem
The strength of both quantitative and qualitative research
can provide the best understanding
Personal experience: Researcher’s personal training and
experience influence the choice of the approach.
An individual trained in technical, scientific writing,
statistics, and computer statistical programs and familiar
with quantitative journals would most likely choose the
quantitative study design

Individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or conducting
personal interviews, or making up-close observations may
prefer qualitative approach
The mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with
both quantitative and qualitative study designs.
Audience
Researchers write for audiences that will accept their
research.
These audiences may be journal editors, journal readers, conference
attendees, or colleagues in the field

Sampling in Qualitative study
In quantitative study; we use probabilistic sampling
(everyone have equal chance of being selected)
In qualitative research we use purposive sampling (A
purpose for doing so and deep understanding about a
specific problem or subject). These include:
Homogenous sampling
Convenience sampling
Snowball or chain sampling

Sampling in….
Maximum variation sampling,
Intensity sampling (focuses on excellent cases)
Heterogeneous sampling
Typical cases (what constitutes a ‘typical’ is
judgmental)
Opportunistic sampling (when unforeseen
opportunities are obtained after fieldwork has began)

Sampling in….
General guidelines sampling:
1. Purpose of the study, expected reasonable coverage,
and stakeholder interests need to be considered.
2. Collect information representative of the range of :
Experiences
Perspectives
Behaviours
3. Begin with small purposive samples and expand your
sample if that can enrich your findings
4. It is crucial to describe, justify, and explain your sample
size

Sampling in….
Saturation: Refers to a situation in data analysis where
participants’ descriptions become repetitive and confirm
previously collected data no new additional information
An indication that data analysis is complete
When data analysis is complete, data collection need to
be terminated.

Setting for Data Collection
“Informant-driven” rather than “theory-driven”
Investigator assumes ignorance of the culture or experience being
studied
Informant teaches the investigator
Data is collected in the “field” – the natural world where
people live and experience life
Investigator should:
be nonintrusive (in any way should not cause disturbance)
spend a prolonged time in the field
Some researchers use multiple methods

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
Qualitative data can be gathered in different methods commonly
Observation
In-depth interview
Focus group discussion
Document review/content analysis
OBSERVATION
Is used in both quantitative and qualitative studies & can be:
Non-participant observation
Participant observation

Nonparticipant observation
Also called nonreactive technique (observer as outsider)
Observer maintains distance to view events from his perspective
Does not participate in activities with participants
Used:
to see how something happens rather than how other people
perceive it happening.
to validate interview data or other self-reports
The quality of your data depends on one’s ability to watch
and listen without interrupting the natural flow of activity.

Nonparticipant …
An observer almost always has some effect on the study
situation (the observer’s presence is noticeable).
To minimize distortion:
An observer might be introduced simply as someone who
is learning about health care in that area
Use of longer periods of observation:
Allow people to become accustomed to the observer’s
presence and return more easily to their natural interaction.
Take notes as unobtrusively as possible. How?

Guidelines for unobtrusive note taking
Avoid flipping notebook pages
Use checklists with space for short, abbreviated comments
You can also jot occasional notes on small cards,
Take mental notes as much as possible
Summarize notes as soon as possible and incorporate mental
notes and impressions
Reflect on what the data have revealed about the research
problem.
Add interpretations, or tentative conclusions, to your notes. Does it
mean analyze it?
Formulate new points to observe in the next session

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The researchers directly interacts with participants and their
activities.
Balances outsider and insider perspectives as the research
continues. Why?
“…Involves getting close to people and making them feel
comfortable enough with your presence that you can observe
and record information about their lives” (Bernard, 1995).
The researcher is responsible to stimulate:
 conversation
 behaviour

Participant observation …
The researcher may need to adopt the lifestyle of the people
The challenge of the researcher is to adapt his interactive
style to the participants’ cultural style (Explain).
Techniques for entering a culture:
You may start with an activity that arouses curiosity/great intrest.
Until participants know and trust you, do more listening than active participating.
Responding naturally and flexibly to fluctuations in the research environment
comes with practice.
Always be alert to unexpected events that could reveal important information.
Avoid becoming an authority in the eyes of participants.
Use key informants very carefully. How?

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS
Also termed as:
Conversational partnership
Conversation with purpose
Social encounter
Participants are encouraged to play active role in
determining the flow of the discussion.
Process influenced by what each respondent says
Each interview will be unique. Why?
Has interactive
nature

In-depth …
Aim of in-depth interview
– To explore the insider perspective
– To capture thoughts, perceptions, experiences, feelings,...
The nature of the interview is:
• Informal
• Conversational
Discussion: Can this be done on the telephone, internet,
face-to-face?
Interview guide is
used rather than script
(Instructional text)

In-depth …
When do we use in-depth interviews?
To know how participants understand and construct meanings
about the experiences of their daily lives
To know how people view and explain their own behaviour
and experience their environment
To discuss and explore past events
To explore sensitive experiences/topics
Discussion: Do interviews show how participants actually
behave? Can we predict how the participant behaves in new
situations?

In-depth …
Guidelines for in-depth interview:
1. Establish a trusting relationship
2. Sequence questions carefully
3. Understand the potential influence of status and reflect
Status
Class
Age
Gender
4. Allow silence
5. Pick up cues(signals to speak)
6. Probe properly
Detail oriented probes
Clarification probes
Contrast probes

In-depth …
7. Give guidance, not directives
Minimize
Making encouraging noises
Reflecting on remarks made by participant
Probing an idea expressed earlier in the interview
Introducing a new topic
8. Avoid traps and pitfalls:
Double-barrelled questions
Leading questions
Interview scripts
Discussion1: In what ways is an in-depth interview
different from a survey interview?

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Aims to generate a discussion on a particular topic/topics,
with the emphasis being on interaction between
participants” (Kitzinger, 1994).
Key features:
Using the interaction between participants to generate data
Giving attention to the interaction during analysis
No requirement to reach consensus
FGDs focus on collective activities:
Debating on a question
Reflecting on common experiences
Examining an issue such as a program
Discussion: Can we study sensitive topics (e.g. sexual
matters) using FGD?

Focus Groups are appropriate when you
want to:
Explore the depth and nuances of opinions regarding an
issue.
Understand differences in perspectives.
Understand what factors influence opinions or behavior.
Test materials or products.
Test reactions to actual or proposed services.
Design a large study or understand its results.
Capture opinions and perspectives of a program’s target
audience.
Learn about participants by observing their interactions.

Focus Groups are not appropriate when you:
Need to ask participants sensitive information
Need statistical information about an entire population
Are working with emotionally or politically charged groups
Can’t ensure confidentiality
Want people to come to a consensus
Do not have the skills to analyze the data

Guidelines to conduct FGD
1. Determine appropriate size
Small size has small range of ideas
Large number has little time for individuals
4-8 participants are ideal, but may range = 3-15
2. Determine appropriate composition
Homogeneity (?) capitalizes shared experiences
Heterogeneity (?) capitalizes exploring perspectives
Consider the views of participants on composition
Hierarchy affects the data!!!

Guidelines to conduct FGD...
3. Balance between the ‘polluting and inhibiting’ effect of
existing relationships with the ‘naturally occurring data ‘ of
pre-existing groups.
Pre-existing groups have members that are acquainted: are
Living together
Working together
Socializing together
Challenge each other when contradictions between report
and behaviour.
Fear of making revelations (revealing information) to
members of one’s own social circle !!!

4. Use the group to encourage people to engage with one
another, formulate their ideas, and draw out cognitive
structures
5. Manage communication difficulties. How?
6. Include at least two FGDs for each defining demographic
variable.
7. Limit the number of FGDs/day to 1-2 and transcribe the
same day

8. Choose a suitable place
Easily accessible
A way from work place to avoid interruption/ observation
Comfortable/produce a relaxed atmosphere
Quiet for recording purpose
9. If required, take background data individually(confidentially)
Give it code
Give the code for the participant to wear during the discussion
Discussion : How do you start FGD?

Moderator Skills
Select the right moderator
Exercise mild unobtrusive control
Adequate knowledge of topic
Appears like the participants
Use an assistant moderator
Handles logistics
Takes careful notes
Monitors recording equipment
Be mentally prepared
Alert and free from distractions
Has the discipline of listening
Familiar with questioning route
Use purposeful small talk
Create warm and friendly environment
Observe the participants for seating
arrangements

Moderator Skills…
Make a smooth & snappy introduction(Standard introduction)
1. Welcome
2. Overview of topic
3. Ground rules
4. First question
Use pauses and probes
5 second pause
Probes(would you explain further?, would you give an example?..)
Record the discussion (Tape recorders and Written notes)
Control reactions to participants
Verbal and nonverbal
Head nodding
Short verbal responses (avoid "that's good", "excellent")

Moderator Skills…
Use subtle group control
Experts
Dominant talkers/Ramblers
Shy participants
Use appropriate conclusion (Three Step Conclusion)
1. Summarize with confirmation
2. Review purpose and ask if anything has been missed,
3. Thanks

DOCUMENT REVIEW
Commonly called content analysis
Is a totally unobtrusive method
Documents include:
Large data bases e.g. DHS, census reports
Hospital and clinic records,
Health education materials,
Newspaper stories, magazine advertising,
Radio and television shows,

DOCUMENT REVIEW....
Billboards,
School materials (for example, health education
curricula),
Religious writings,
Sermons,
Diaries, popular songs,
Transcriptions from interviews or focus group
discussions conducted in the past

DOCUMENT REVIEW....
Purposes of documentary review:
To learn about a population e.g. DHS, census reports
To learn how people think and behave in natural settings
To get a historical perspective that is available only through
writings from the past:
Popular norms;
cultural values and beliefs
People’s hopes, fears, and triumphs(victory).

DOCUMENT REVIEW....
Policy concerns as presented in the press,
Violence in advertising,
Bias in radio and television drama,
Differences in health information given to different
social groups as documented in clinic records
Limitations of documentary research
Questions of credibility if one person interprets the data
Concepts/words/ behaviours may change meaning.
The materials may reflect the views of one author.

DOCUMENT REVIEW....
Ensuring rigor/standard/:
Keep a meticulous record of the analysis process
Describe how you arrived at your interpretations
and conclusions
Work with multiple reviewers who conduct independent
analyses and compare their results.

Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs
Bracketing: Setting aside one’s biases and personal
views on a topic.
Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and
feelings about the topic
Purpose: The researcher is made aware when
interpretations of the data reflect personal beliefs rather
than those of the participants.

Types of qualitative study design
Case Study:
In a case study, a single person, program, event, process,
institution, organization, social group or phenomenon is
investigated within a specified time frame, using a
combination of appropriate data collection devices
Case studies are routinely employed in business, health and
law.
Case studies are constructed to richly describe, explain, or
assess and evaluate a phenomenon [e.g., event, person,
program, disease, etc.]

Case Study……
Data Collection:
Data is collected primarily by fieldwork, but secondary
data collection is usually employed as well. It is important
that the researcher(s) understand the phenomenon from
the perspective of the participants.
Data Analysis:
May consider the following approaches:
Interpretational Analysis: the researcher is looking for
patterns (threads, constructs, commonalities, etc.) within
the data to explain the phenomenon.

Case Study……
Reflective Analysis: The description and evaluation of
the studied phenomenon based on judgment and
intuition by a highly qualified expert.
Structural Analysis: Investigating patterns which may be
found in conversations, text, activities, etc., with little or
no explication as to pattern meaning.

Ethnography
Rooted in anthropology, ethnography involves the study of
an intact group, logically defined, in its natural context for a
sustained time interval.
Analytical description of social scenes and groups that
recreate for the reader the shared beliefs, practices,
artifacts, folk knowledge, and behaviors of those people.”
Great emphasis is given to the relationship between culture
and behavior.
is very labor and time intensive, involving extensive
fieldwork in a natural setting. Usually a general research
question/s identified.

Ethnography…
Once entry is gained and rapport is established, the
research questions are continually refined becoming more
focused
Ethnographic researchers use multiple data collection
devices so that interpretations maybe grounded and
triangulated.
Participant Observation: Here the researcher may participate in
the phenomenon under study to varying degrees. Observation
runs a continuum from detached observer to complete participant
observer. Brackating to avoid subjectivity of the researcher.
Ethnographic Interviews: These types of interviews are usually
purposeful, employing open-ended items so that the subject’s
reality and perceptions can be documented, understood, and
interpreted.

Ethnography…
Artifact Collection: This is a secondary data collection strategy
which typically includes unofficial documents, official documents,
objects, etc. which provide insight into the lives, experiences, and
perceptions of subjects.
Data Analysis:
Data analysis within ethnographic research occurs as data
are collected. The researcher codes and classifies data
(e.g., events, observations, quotes, etc.) into a meaningful
taxonomy. New data are compared and contrasted to old
so as to note patterns, etc.
This iterative process continues until the researcher is able
to make “assertions” which describe the participants’
“reality” and perspectives.

Phenomenology
The researcher develops an understanding of a subject’s or
subjects’ “reality” however he, she, or they so perceive
In essence, this approach investigates an individual’s or
group’s perception of reality as he or she constructs it.
These realities may be expressed as an event, program,
relationship, emotion, etc.
Phenomenology is rooted in philosophy
Phenomenologist may study one subject, but typically 6-10,
who is or are purposefully selected.

Phenomenology….
Phenomenology seeks to understand a person’s or
persons’ perspectives as he, she, or they experience and
understand an event, relationship, program, emotion, etc
Once a phenomenon is selected, the researcher engages
in much the same process as used in ethnographic study.
These researchers rely on semi-structured in-depth
interviews. The researcher and subject(s) must work
rather closely together to collect data.

Phenomenology….
Data Analysis:
The researcher(s) must search interview transcripts to
locate “meaningful units” which are small bits of text
which are independently able to convey meaning.
Phenomenologist search for themes and patterns, not
categories by logically linking these “meaningful units.”

Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a general research methodology used in
building naturalistic theory and is rooted in sociology.
Using naturalistic iterative data collection and relationship
analysis processes, researchers derive from the data a
theory. The theory is the expected outcome of the inquiry.
Using the iterative processes of data collection and analysis,
relationships between concepts are continually identified and
refined so as to enable theory development.

Grounded Theory…
Grounded theorists employ the same data collection
devices as do other qualitative researchers.
The process is iterative(again and again) with early data
being compared and contrasted with “newer” data to refine,
discard, generate, or extend questions, hypotheses, or
conclusions.
It is imperative to note that GT is not limited to a specific
field, discipline or any type of data (Glaser 1992). GT has
informed different areas and has demonstrated a wide
range of applicability (Morse, 2009). Myers (2009) argued
that GT has an “intuitive appeal” (p. 111)

Grounded Theory…
Data Analysis:
Using the iterative process between data collection and
analysis within grounded theory, the researcher seeks to
identify patterns of interaction between and among
subjects (not necessarily individuals) by logically liking
two or more data categories.
Data coding strategies used in grounded theory research:
Open Coding: As the initial coding effort, data are deconstructed
into the simplest form possible, examined for commonalities, and
sorted into categories.

Grounded Theory….
Axial Coding: As the intermediate step, data are reassembled
based on logical connections between categories.
Selective Coding: At this third stage of coding, the “core”
category is determined and the relationships between it and
secondary categories are posited. Core and secondary category
relationships are later validated. Categories needing further
refinement or development are completed.

Historical Research
Relies on records, diaries, oral histories, photographs, and
other artifacts to describe, analyze, and explain past events,
philosophies, etc.
The artifacts and records used are driven by the particular
study and its research question(s).
Historical research relies significantly on inductive, logical
reasoning
As noted above, data collection is a function of identifying
documents, artifacts, etc.; examining their authenticity;
chronologically, ordering them; and then determining value
or contribution to the research

Historical Research…
Data Analysis:
Cross-referencing (triangulation) is essential to establish
the veracity of a single document, artifact, etc.
Each document, artifact, etc. needs to undergo
chronological examination.
Core ideas, concepts, and facts, need to be “pulled
together” so as to make sense given the context of the
period of time or event under study.

Important points to successful
qualitative research
The researcher must develop the art of asking why?
The researcher must develop the art of listening
The researcher must approach the research as
creative process of investigation
Settings: Avoid variations in the interview setting
The knowledge gap between the interviewer and
the respondent must be considered to facilitate
understanding

Important points to successful…
Use a tape record and or a note taker who can assist
Consent of the respondent should be obtained
Confidentiality of information must be maintained
Receive the information accurately(Information can be
distorted by interviewer):
Fatigue,
Bias (expectation of answers),
Preoccupation with taking notes and
By technical languages (Jargons) foreign to the interviewee

Recall the information accurately(This can be inhibited by):
Confusion of content between interviews,
Selective retaining,
attempt to retain a lot of information
Evaluate the information critically:
This is a function of the interviewer’s ability to identify the actual
content and level of richness of the information
The interviewer should steer the respondent away from irrelevant
information and induce richness to avoid superficial answers
Seek a thick description of the phenomenon under study

Act upon the information as soon as it is received to
regulate the interview process (tracking the process):
This is important to alter the interview process as it occurs
An effective interview is based on the ability of the
interviewer on probing, focusing and stay in track of the
information
Regulating the interview depends on the depth of the
information the researcher obtained

DOING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Writing the introduction
2. Literature review and the conceptual framework
3. Stating qualitative questions/objectives
4. Designing the research
1. Sampling and sample size in qualitative study
2. Data collection in qualitative study
3. Analysis in qualitative study
5. Ethical issues in qualitative study

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
There is little difference at this stage (qualitative,
quantitative or mixed designs)
The ‘deficiencies model’ is the general template for
both proposal and report writing:
1. The narrative hook and the research problem
2. Studies that have addressed the problem
3. Deficiencies in the studies
4. The importance of the study for an audience , and
5. The purpose statement

Writing the introduction…
Recapitulation: What is a research problem?
‘…the issue that exists in the literature, in theory, or
in practice that leads to a need for the study.’ A
qualitative problem may be:
Lack of theory or previous research
Incorrect/inappropriate/biased theory
Need to explore a phenomenon/ develop theory
Phenomenon not suited for quantitative design

Studies that have addressed the problem:
Creates distinctions between past studies and the
present
“setting the research problem within the ongoing
dialogue in the literature” (Creswel, 2003, p.81)
Discussion:
When do we say ‘there is no literature on the topic’?

Deficiencies in the studies:
Specific variables not studied?
Not explored with a particular group? Sample? Population?
New sites?
Described by authors as weaknesses of their work?
The new research should state how the deficiencies
will be or were remedied.

Importance of the study for the audience:
Practitioners ?
Researchers?
Policy makers
The purpose of statement :
Major guiding element of any research
It is also called intent of the study

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
According to Creswel (2003),we use research
questions (not objectives or hypothesis)
Questions have two forms:
1. The central question (the broadest question that can
be asked in the study)
2. The associated sub-questions

Qualitative questions…
Guidelines for writing a central question (Creswel,
2003):
1. Ask 1-2 central questions followed by not more than 5-7
sub-questions
2. Relate the central question to the specific qualitative
strategy
• Based on literature in ethnography
• Broadly stated without specific reference in phenomenology
• Related to procedures of analysis in grounded theory
83

Qualitative questions…
3. Begin with the words ‘what’ and ‘how’
4. Focus on a single phenomenon or concept
5.Use nondirectional language (avoid terms that suggest
or infer quantitative study such as affect, influence,
impact, determine, cause). e.g. ‘What is the effect of red-
terror on the life of survivors?’ Vs ‘What is the experience of
survivors of the red-terror?’ why so explain????
6. Expect the research questions to evolve/change

EVALUATING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
In quantitative research, studies are evaluated according to
the level of reliability and validity related to the measurement
procedures, the internal validity established through the
design of the study, and the external validity or the degree to
which the sampling procedures allowed for transferability.
In qualitative research, the process for ascertaining the
quality of research is quite different according to its varied
purposes and methods.
The following describes criteria used to evaluate qualitative
research:

Assessment of qualitative data
Do the data collected by the researchers reflect reality?
suggested four criterion for assessing the
trustworthiness of qualitative data:
Credibility;
Dependability;
Conformability and
Transferability

CREDIBILITY
First carrying out the investigation in a way to
enhance the believability of the study
Techniques to document credibility:
Prolonged engagement and persistent observation(to
have an in-depth understanding of the culture,
language, view ...)
To check for misunderstanding and distortions
It is also important to create rapport and trust with
informants

CREDIBILITY...
Naturalistic inquiries
Triangulation (the use of multiple sources to draw
conclusions about what constitutes the truth); this
Can be:
Data triangulation(time, space or person), and
Method triangulation
External checks: peer debriefing and member
checks
Researcher credibility(qualification of researcher)
Searching for disconformities

DEPENDABILITY
Dependability refers to the stability of data. It is similar with
the reliability/consistency of data in quantitative research.
This is achieved by using separate teams to collect data
and compare it into other groups
The other method is inquiry audit: this is scrutiny of the
data and relevant documents by external reviewers

CONFORMABILITY
This refers to the objectivity and neutrality of the data
An inquiry audit can assure the conformability of the data
The auditor will find conclusions being grounded to the data
Six documents are used for the audit:
Raw data (field notes, interview transcripts)
Data reduction and analysis procedures (theoretical notes,
documentation on working hypothesis)

CONFORMABILITY...
Process notes (methodological notes, notes from member
check sessions)
Materials related to intentions (personal notes on intentions)
Instrument development information
Data reconstruction products (drafts of the final report)

TRANSFERABILITY
Transferability refers essentially to generalizability of the
data, that is the extent to which the findings of the data can
be transferred to other settings or groups of similar
context.
This is a methodological issue related to sampling and
design rather than the soundness of the data.
Demographic representation of the sample than the
number unlike the quantitative method is used in qualitative
studies

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA
Definitions of terms (Miles and Huberman, 1994)
Themes: Idea categories that emerge from groupings of
lower-level data points
Codes: Tags or labels for assigning units of meaning to
information compiled during a study
Are attached to ‘chunks’ of varying size:
Coding: The process of attaching tags
•Wards
•Phrases
•Sentences
•paragraphs

PRINCIPLES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
1.People differ in their experiences and understanding of
reality; see populations through their cultural lenses.
Reflect your perspectives; bracket them in transcripts
Be ready to return to your participants to understand
better when necessary
Actively seek out alternative explanations and see which
ones stand overtime.
Discussion: what should you do when you do not speak
the language?

PRINCIPLES OF ....
2. A social phenomenon cannot be understood outside its
context:
Physical setting
Historical
Social
Political
Organization
3.Theory both guides research and results from it
If the study is grounded in a theoretical framework, analysis
should begin with its concepts and categories
A theory can also be developed from the data generated

PRINCIPLES OF ....
4.Exceptional cases may yield insight in to a problem or
new leads of further inquiry
Common in sensitive topics
5.Understanding of human behaviour emerges slowly and
non-linearly
It requires flexible and integrated approach
May require numerous rounds of questioning
Analysis starts at data collection and continues beyond

STEPS IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
1. Reading for content
2. Coding
3. Displaying data
4. Data reduction
5. Interpretation
READING FOR CONTENT
Read until intimately familiar with the data
Check if responses are complete and detailed. If not identify why?
Framing of questions?
Inappropriate probes?
The venue?
Composition of groups?
Interviewer characteristic/style?
Easy way
Using the research questions to group data,
then to look similarities and differences

Reading …
Identify emergent themes and develop tentative explanations
Make a note of any unaddressed topics
Note the quality of your transcripts:
How collected? When recorded?
How vivid(bright) and detail is the description?
How spontaneous was the conversation?
Contextual detail?
Identify patterns
Review data from different participants or sources as a set
Then examine patterns in their themes
Relationships between themes?
Contradictory responses?
Gaps in understanding?
New questions for
more exploration

CODING
Identify key themes and label/give tags
Insert in to the margins of your transcript
Collecting pieces of information that relate to a common
theme helps to discover subthemes and increase detail
Discussion: How do you drive codes?
No standard rule
How to drive codes
When to start and stop
Level of detail

Guidelines for coding
1. Develop codes
Verbatim coding/inductive/in vivo /open coding /level 1 coding
(to view data in new way)
Take terms from literature (to be clear for a wider audience)
Drive from the theory that guided you (deductive codes)
Combination of inductive and deductive
Creating a start list of codes prior to data collection
Later discarded/modified if inappropriate

Guidelines for coding….
2. Define the codes operationally and document. How?
3. Start with broad codes and increase detail when
necessary
Does it mean you can change the codes? Explain
4. When more than one person is involved in coding,
develop a process to reconcile coding decisions. How?

DISPLAYING DATA
Refers to making inventory of what you know
related to a theme:
Capturing the variation, or richness, of each theme
Separating qualitative and quantitative aspects
Noting differences between individuals or among
subgroups

GUIDELINES TO DISPLAY DATA
Identify the principal subthemes that emerge from the data.
What are subthemes?
Work within a single coding sort rather than across all your
data.
Return to the data and examine the evidence that supports
each subtheme
Quantitatively
Qualitatively

Guidelines….
Quantitatively expressed supports
Frequency
Duration,
Size
Quantity
Distribution
Qualitatively expressed supports:
Differences in emphasis/intensity
Is the experience 1st or 2nd hand
Specific vocabulary

Guidelines…
Form hypotheses—hunches about the data that you want to
investigate further, question and verify
Pay attention to data credibility.
Criteria for credibility of responses (Ulin et al, 2005)
Participant responding to open-ended questions
Participant talks about his own beliefs, motivations, experiences,
rather than someone else’s
Consistency in the responses of the participant
Response is detailed rather than generalization

DATA REDUCTION
Refers to the process of distilling the information to make the
most essential concepts and relationships
The process separates the essential from the non-essential
Guidelines for data reduction
1. Started after all the data is transcribed and familiarity
developed
2. Sort data from your transcripts by theme
3. Get the over all sense of the data and distinguish central
and secondary themes
4. Use visual aids (Matrices, Diagrams, Taxonomies...)

Sample matrix
Ethnicity Virginity is
valuable
Virginity is
valueless
Amhara xx xx
Tigre xx xx
Guragie xx xx

Sample diagram
Boys dream to be
perfect at sex
No way to prove
male virginity
Strong peer pressure
women do not
require male virginity
for marriage
Males practice
premarital sex

Sample taxonomy
Sugar daddies
Younger and
controlling
Older and caring
Sexually active
Not sexually active
Not alcoholic Alcoholic

Interpretation
• Refers to identifying and explaining the data’s core meaning
• It requires
Communicating the essential ideas to our audience
Becoming faithful to our participants’ perspectives.
• Discussion: what should we do if that puts our participants
at risk?
• Interpretation should have:
110
Relevance to the larger population
Answers to questions of social and theoretical significance

Interpretation…
Purpose :
To present themes and their examples in such a way that readers can
draw their own conclusions
To show how themes, subthemes, connections , and contradictions fit
To identify the over all meaning
Guidelines for interpretation
1. Do not stop at presenting themes and evidences!!
Search for relationships among them
2. Use visual representations to manage multiple themes
3. If your design is mixed qualitative-quantitative, identify where
findings are: Similar/Complementary, Contradictory (How do you
reconcile them?)

Guidelines for interpretation…
4. Establish trust worthiness
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability
Transferability
Establishing credibility (Ulin et al, 2005)(what is credibility?)
Offer explanations of interpretations based on data
Make interpretations context rich
Make interpretations sensitive to differing perspectives which may
diverge or clash
Reconcile or show divergent findings relate to the context
Discussion: How do we know whether an interpretation is
credible or not?

Criteria to ensure credibility
1. Looking for negative cases for emerging hypothesis
2. Testing rival (competent) explanations
3. Seeking explanations for inconsistencies arising from
triangulation of : Respondents, Methods, Theories, Researchers
Establishing dependability (What is it?)
1. Use of independent coders(No way to rectify difference)
2. Including the researcher's background, and training
3. Describing field decisions
Changing method
Revising questions

Establishing confirmability (what is it?)
1. Be conscious of your own subjectivity
2. Limit your effect
3. Keep record that can enable you/others track the process
Establishing transferability (what is it?)
More likely to be transferable if the design was to test
theory or model
Firmly rooted in specific
contexts
Generalization to other
contexts?

References
• Bowling A. Research Methods in Health. Investigating Health and Health Services. Open
University Press, 2000
• John W. Creswell. Research Design. Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches
(third edn). SAGE Publications, Inc., 2009
• Davies M. Brett. Doing a successful research project. Using Qualitative or Quantitative Methods.
Palgrave macmillan, 2007
• Ann Aschengrau, George R. Seage III. Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health (2nd edn).
Jones and Bartlet Publishers,2008
• Hennekens CH and Buring JE. Epidemiology in Medicine. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, 1987.
• Answers: 1.c, 2. d, 3. a, 4. d , 5. a, 6. c, 7.
a, 8. d, 9. d, 10. c, 11. c, 12. b, 13. b, 14.
a, 15. c, 16. a; 17. b, 18. c, 19. b, 20. a,
21. b.

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