![4 A. A. Satheesan et al.
1 Introduction
Diesel engines are frequently utilized as the primary power source for the road
transportation sector. Because of their outstanding thermal efficiency, operational
dependability, and durability, the greater understanding of effective fuel use and auto-
motive pollution reduction, which led to enhanced modern direct injection engines
like strengthening the spray breakup and generating smaller droplets, has greatly
assisted research on the fluid behavior of fuel injection nozzles [1].
Atomization and fuel spray properties in direct injection engines are critical,
particularly for gas emissions and combustion efficiency; these factors significantly
impact the spray’s shape, atomization quality, engine performance, and emission
characteristics. So, the jet breakup inside the chamber also influences the subsequent
processes of ignition, combustion, and pollutant generation. Therefore, it’s crucial to
consider the fuel injector nozzle effect and the features of the spraying technique with
different fuel types. The injector nozzle is a crucial component in a diesel engine.
The elliptical orifice diesel nozzle has the potential to improve spray quality and
air– fuel mixing [2].
Liquid sprays have been the subject of extensive research due to their actual
relevance and the challenges in predicting their behavior from basic principle. While
some sprays are composed of several short pulses and may never reach a steady state,
others are continuous and stable, at least after a brief start-up transient.
Alcohols, like other oxygenated fuels, enhance complete combustion and reduce
particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxides (CO), and unburned hydrocarbon emis-
sions (HC) [3]. Reduced SMD and larger spray angle was achieved by implementing
elliptical-shaped sprays. Further study can be done on the impact of alternative fuels
on the spray, performance, and regarding diesel engines’ emission characteristics,
which affect engines parameters performance and emissions
2 Literature Review and Objective
Many researchers and pioneers worldwide have investigated diesel fuel injectors
and their influence. The discrete phase model (DPM) was developed to investigate
the cavitation process in fuel injectors and the macro spray characteristics of three
differenttypesofnozzlesprayshapesusingdieselandhybridbiofuelblendsatvarious
injection pressures and backpressures. The findings of the nozzle simulation study
showed that the nozzle spray morphology had a greater influence on the cavitation
area than the fuel type [4].
A numerical analysis on the fuel spray behavior and fluctuation of spray character-
istics in internal combustion engines were investigated, and it was observed that the
fuel spray is impacted by the cavitation phenomena in diesel engines. More bubbles
are generated when cavitation is severe [5].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-20-320.jpg)
![Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 5
An experimental study on the biodiesel spray liquid-phase behaviors of elliptical
and circular nozzles revealed that under steady-state conditions, the elliptical nozzle
spray liquid-phase penetration is smaller than the circular one [6]. The elliptic orifice
diesel nozzle can improve spray and air–fuel mixing quality, significantly impacting
diesel engine combustion and emissions. In all view planes, the elliptical spray had a
wider spread of particles than the circular spray, and the circular orifice’s spray cone
angle was consistently smaller than that of the elliptical orifice [7].
The spray liquid breakdown behavior of a diesel nozzle with non-circular cross-
sectional geometries was investigated experimentally under evaporative conditions,
and the impact of varied injection pressures and bulk temperatures. In both geometric
cases, the study demonstrated that injection pressure has less impact on the pene-
tration of liquid spray. Increasing the ambient temperature, on the other hand, can
reduce spray- liquid penetration [8]. Since ethanol is an oxidized fuel, the oxygen
level of the mix fuel rises, increasing the thermal efficiency of the engine’s brakes.
The thermal efficiency increased by 3.63% while the cylinder pressure increased by
0.46%, when the ethanol content reached 20% at full load [9].
Anefficientapproachfordeterminingthetrueextentofvaporzonesandturbulence
intensity was devised using a comprehensive model for cavitating flow in conjunction
with the CFD-ACE+ code was introduced. Cavitation flow involves phase transition.
And was shown to be sensitive to the development and motion of vapor bubbles,
turbulent oscillations in pressure, velocity, and the quantity of non- condensable
gases dissolved or consumed in the operating liquid [10].
Numerical simulation of spray was modeled to study the effect of cavitation on
the quality and characteristics of spray, such as penetration length and Sauter mean
diameter of the nozzle’s specific geometry. Smaller droplets produced by this spray
will improve and help accelerate combustion, enhance power and torque, and reduce
outlet emissions [11].
The CFD-programmed software CONVERGE incorporates a recently developed
primary breakdown model (KH-ACT) for detailed engine simulations. KH-ACT
takes into account the effects of the turbulence and cavitation created inside the
injector nozzle. The conical and hydroground nozzle inner nozzle flow impacts of
orifice geometry were analyzed. The analysis indicated that the reduced vaporization
rate and air–fuel mixing could cause an earlier ignition of the nozzle downstream
[12].
The aspect ratio of the elliptical nozzle improved the aerodynamic and penetra-
tion characteristics differently, but the optimum/maximum allowable aspect ratio for
better aerodynamic characteristics was not reported. Only two types of fuel (diesel/
biofuel) were used to characterize the fuel injector nozzle effect. The mechanism of
the liquid fuel breaking up, atomization, and size of the droplet is unclear near the
nozzle’s exit.
The objective of the study is to investigate the effect of fuel spray characteristics
and variation for two types of fuels: Diesel and the combination of diesel and ethyl
alcohol(ethanol),usingnumericalsimulationapproachesandtonumericallyevaluate
the relationship between the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), De Brouckere diameter](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-21-320.jpg)
![6 A. A. Satheesan et al.
D [3, 4], mean diameter, and volume spray parameters relation to the aspect ratio of
the nozzle and the cavitation phenomenon.
3 Physical Model and Domain
The project aims to understand the spray characteristics inside a diesel injector nozzle
with preliminary assumptions of unsteady 3D incompressible turbulent nozzle flow
and obeying no-slip conditions (fluid velocity at the walls equals the wall velocity)
were run with a commercial fluid dynamic code.
The discrete phase model (DPM) was introduced to study the fuel injector process
and the macro spray characteristic of the injector. The Ansys Design modeler does
the 3D model of the elliptical diesel injector. The commercial CFD software Ansys
Fluent 2020 R1 performs the numerical simulation. The Standard k − ε is chosen as
the viscous model.
3.1 Governing Equations
The problem considered is the spray simulation of a diesel injector by varying the
aspect ratios of the orifice and also different fuels are used. The analysis is going to be
carried out on an incompressible fluid with unsteady-state condition. The governing
equations for the 3D continuous flow of the fuel in the injector consist of the conti-
nuity, momentum, and energy equation that solved the Navier–Stokes equations. The
equations are listed as follows:
Continuity equation
Dρ
Dt
+ ρ∇ ·
υ = 0 (1)
Conservation of momentum
ρ
D
Dt
υ = −∇ p + μ∇2
υ + ρg (2)
3.2 Geometry Details
The injector is coupled with an injection chamber (exit diameter = 5.1925 mm) with
a nozzle hole to length diameter ratio of 0.280. The 3D design was drawn using
ANSYS Workbench 20.0 using design modeler.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-22-320.jpg)
![Numerical Simulation of Gasification
and Plasma Pyrolysis Process for Lignite
Coal: A Comparative Study
Sidhartha Sondh, Darshit S. Upadhyay, Sanjay Patel, and Rajesh N. Patel
Abstract Computational fluid dynamics is a special tool for modeling thermochem-
ical processes for process parameter optimization. The present study is a comparative
study of the gasification and plasma pyrolysis process of lignite coal. Three temper-
atures (1023, 1123, 1223 K) are selected for the gasification process and a similar
is done for the plasma pyrolysis (1223, 1323, 1423 K). The obtained results are
compared with the experiment literature available. The RMSE approach was used
for checking the accuracy of the model. The accuracy was observed to be appreciable.
The composition of the syngas is compared for all the cases. It was observed that
the concentration of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is found to be rich in plasma
pyrolysis with an average of 43.4% as compared to 13.5% for gasification. The
plasma pyrolysis process offered better results compared to the gasification process
as it offered a higher H2/CO ratio and (H2 + CO) factor. The CO/CO2 ratio also
increased for the plasma pyrolysis process with an increase in temperature.
Keywords Computational fluid dynamics · Gasification · Pyrolysis · Plasma
pyrolysis · Thermochemical process
1 Introduction
Thermochemical processes such as gasification and pyrolysis are commonly known
for energy generation and waste treatment. Due to the huge initial investment and
complex process, it is not feasible to carry out experimental research on all the ther-
mochemical processes together. In such an instance, computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) emerges as a potential tool for researchers [1]. It also helps in optimizing
S. Sondh · D. S. Upadhyay (B) · R. N. Patel
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India
e-mail: Darshitupadhyay@yahoo.com
S. Patel
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
K. M. Singh et al. (eds.), Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4, Lecture Notes
in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_3
17](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-32-320.jpg)
![18 S. Sondh et al.
the designs and other parameters for such processes without involving any major
investments [2]. The CFD can also be a useful tool in making the thermochemical
processes environment-friendly. Different cases can be simulated to find an effec-
tive method for limiting pollutant emissions and improving the overall health of the
environment.
Gasification is a widely used thermochemical process for energy production using
biomass, coal, municipal solid waste (MSW), etc. [3]. The pyrolysis process also
offers the option of energy generation from the above-mentioned feedstocks [4]. The
absence of oxygen in the pyrolysis process makes it a more suitable option due to
the limited formation of harmful products such as carbon dioxide (CO2), SOx, NOx,
PAHs. ANSYS Fluent V17.0 software is used to carry out the simulations of the
lignite coal gasification and pyrolysis at different temperatures. The experimental
results of lignite gasifications are compared with the CFD simulation results for both
processes.
The syngas or producer gas obtained from these thermochemical processes is a
mixed gas comprising carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), CO2, methane (CH4),
etc. This mixed gas is very valuable and can be used as fuel for cooking and energy
generation in the form of electricity and heat [5].
2 Literature Review and Objective
Thermochemical processes are the new way of handling wastes and obtaining useful
products. The processes are effective options for meeting the energy demand of the
country. Gasification is a globally used technology for generating energy from coal
[6]. In the gasification process, the coal is partially oxidized due to the controlled
presence of air, oxygen, steam, and CO2. Since the presence of oxygen is limited,
the process is always under the control and can be solved for different equivalent
ratios [7]. The other process considered in this research is pyrolysis. The process
of pyrolysis is a new technology that is used for purposes such as waste treatment,
energy generation, and oil generation. Pyrolysis is majorly subdivided into three
major categories: slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and flash pyrolysis [8]. However,
another category of thermal plasma pyrolysis is also practiced in the industry [9].
The type of feedstock and reactor also influences the thermochemical process. The
feedstock can be any waste, biomass, coal, plastics, etc. There are many types of
reactors which include downdraft, updraft, fluidized bed, etc. [10]. In this research,
fixed bed downdraft reactor is chosen for the analysis.
CFD is an effective tool that is widely used to predict the results of thermochemical
processes. Much research focusing on thermochemical processes has been effectively
modeled using the CFD tools for optimizing various process parameters. The present
research is focused on modeling the two thermochemical processes—gasification and
plasma pyrolysis of lignite coal. The processes are modeled for three temperatures
1023, 1123, and 1223 K for gasification whereas that of plasma pyrolysis is 1223,
1323, and 1423 K. The operating temperature range of plasma pyrolysis is higher than](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-33-320.jpg)
![Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 21
Table 2 Operating parameters for thermochemical processes
Parameters Operating condition
Gasification Plasma pyrolysis
Temperature (T) K 1023, 1123, 1223 1223, 1323, 1423
Pressure (P) Pa 101,325 101,325
Gravity (g) m/s2 9.81 9.81
Turbulence model k − E Turbulence model
(realizable)
k − E Turbulence model
(realizable)
Species model Species transport (chemkin
mechanism import)
Species transport (chemkin
mechanism import)
Reaction type Volumetric reactions/particle
reactions
Volumetric reactions/particle
reactions
Power input (kW) – 18
There were three runs each carried out for both the thermo-chemical processes
process. The operating parameters for the processes are shown in Table 2.
The species transport model (STM) is used for defining the chemistry of the ther-
mochemical processes. A chemkin mechanism is defined as consisting of 9 species
and 5 elements for the gasification process as shown in Fig. 3. All the standard gasi-
fication reactions are used, and the activation energy is provided. The reaction rate
is taken as default due to insufficient data.
3.3 Boundary Conditions
An important step in the modeling process is defining the boundaries of the domain.
Also, the input parameter at that boundary is defined for obtaining a real-life problem
environment. Table 3 shows the boundary conditions added for the gasification case,
whereas Table 4 represents the boundary condition for the plasma pyrolysis runs.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Syngas Composition
The CFD simulation results were compared with the experimental results obtained
from the literature [11]. The major parameter for the validation was the syngas
composition as obtained at different temperatures. The gas composition as obtained
from CFD simulations is CO2, CO, H2, CH4, and N2 in the case of gasification,
whereas CO2, CO, H2, and CH4 were obtained in the plasma pyrolysis process.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-36-320.jpg)
![28 K. V. Warghat et al.
CO Carbon monoxide
CRDI Common rail direct
ECU Electronic control unit
HRR Heat release rate
LHV Low heating value
NOx Nitrogen oxide
RPM Revolution per minute
SOI Start of injection
TDC Top dead centre
TO Throttle opening
UHC Unburned hydrocarbon
Nomenclature
Cpex Specific heat of exhaust [J/Kg K]
cpw Specific heat of water [J/Kg K]
mex Mass flow rate of exhaust [Kg/s]
mf Mass flow rate of fuel [Kg/s]
mw Mass flow rate of water [Kg/s]
Po Ambient pressure [bar]
Pexo Exhaust pressure [bar]
To Ambient temperature [K]
Texo Exhaust temperature [K]
Twi Inlet water temperature [K]
Two Outlet water temperature [K
1 Introduction
CI engines are essential to society’s needs, be it public transport, goods vehicle, or
power generator for power backup. However, as the population increases, the neces-
sity for automobiles rises, resulting in rising pollution, which needs to be controlled.
Performance and emissions are affected by various factors; injection timing and
strategy are one of them could be optimized. In general, diesel engines operate
primarily in lean conditions, resulting in increased thermal efficiency and higher
exhaust pollutants, such as smoke and particulate matter. The lean burning condition
gives higher unburned hydrocarbons in diesel engines. Higher combustion tempera-
ture leads to the breakage of nitrogen bonds to monoatomic, resulting in more NOx.
In multiple injection techniques, a small amount of fuel is injected as one or two pilot
injections during the compression stroke prior to the main injection. This results in](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-43-320.jpg)
![Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 29
a substantially better fuel–air mixture than the conventional single main injection
strategy.
Several studies investigated the effect of injection timing on the combustion
process. MacMillan et al. [1] experimentally investigated the effect of pilot injection
timing and fuel quantity in a single cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine at cold idle
conditions. It was observed that increasing the number of pilot injections results
in proper stability and ruggedness at low-temperature conditions, with the highest
stability at the triple pilot condition at different speeds and injection timing. Single
pilot and twin pilot injection conditions show almost similar heat release rates. Suh
[2] reported the effect of multiple injection strategies on low CR engines using
different emissions and performance parameters in a single-cylinder CI engine. It
was revealed that the two pilot injections give higher pressure data with a maximum
heat release rate reduction. Multiple injections improved combustion efficiency with
lower UHC and a slight increase in CO emissions. In a heavy duty 6-cylinder water
cooled engine, Yuo et al. [3] conducted experiments on some injection techniques,
including pilot and post injection with a blend of n-butanol. They concluded that with
a blend condition of 10%, both single and multiple injections give similar perfor-
mance result, whereas pilot injection reduces soot with an increase in CO emission.
Post injection also reduces soot, but the main injection and pressure must be adjusted
carefully. Liu et al. [4] experimentally studied the effects of injection timing and
quantity in a six-cylinder engine using diesel/CNG. CO emissions are higher than
single diesel combustion, and UHC and soot particles reduce significantly as the
diesel quantity increases.
The maximum useful work that could be extracted by the interaction of a system
with its surrounding considered as a reversible process to achieve thermal, mechan-
ical, and chemical equilibrium is defined as the system’s availability in a given state
[5].Sahooetal.[6]performedtheavailabilitystudyonafour-cylinderdieselengineto
calculate the ideal throttle opening (TO) at various load and RPM conditions. They
concluded that the ideal engine operating conditions for 70, 80, and 90% engine
loads are 2000 rpm at 50% TO, 2300 rpm at 75% TO, and 3250 rpm at 100% TO
respectively.
Ismail and Mehta [7] studied the availability of various fuels with their chemical
composition and found that availability destruction decreases with an increase in
oxygen content in the fuel. The preheating of fuel helps in reduction of availability
destruction. Therefore, the qualitative information of a system could be utilized to
comprehend the engine performance and emission in detail.
From the literature, it can be inferred that the timing, quantity, and number of
the pilot injections all play a significant role in the combustion process such as
performance,emissions,andpower.Theeffectivenessofanyprocesscanbeevaluated
by its availability which gives maximum energy that can be extracted. This study
investigates different injection strategies on engine performance and emission. All
the strategies show a slight difference on performance, with a significant impact in
emission parameters.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-44-320.jpg)
![Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 37
Fig. 9 Variation of NOx
emission at different
injection strategy and load
condition
3.4 Availability Analysis
The performance analysis carried out in this study is based on 1st
law of thermody-
namics. The injection strategy of single pilot and split injection gives the promising
results in terms of performance and emission. Therefore, the qualitative information
of both the strategies needs to be investigated. The 2nd law of thermodynamic deter-
mines the exergetic efficiency of the system, where optimum injection strategy could
be evaluated. The availability of in-cylinder is known to rise in terms of chemical
exergy during the injection period. However, the exergetic losses such as exhaust
heat and engine cylinder convective losses, and exergetic destruction brought on by
chemical reaction cause the total in-cylinder availability to drop. Figures 10 and 11
represent the total in-cylinder availability for 50 and 80% load condition at different
injection strategies, respectively. Figure 12 represents the second law efficiency at
different injection strategies, 80% load condition gives significantly higher exergetic
efficiency than the 50% load condition. In addition, BSFC in Fig. 5 emphasizes
the exergetic efficiency for higher load. The exergetic efficiency in split injection is
higher compared to the single pilot injection, where chemical exergy destruction is
expected to be lower due to low emission.
Ain =
1.033 ∗ m f ∗ LHV
/3600 (1)
Acw = (mw/3600) ∗
cpw ∗ (Two − Twi) + T0 ∗
cpw ∗ ln(Twi/Two)
(2)
Aexhaust = Qex + [(m ex /3600) ∗ T0 ∗ {(ceex ∗ ln(To/Texo)) − (Rex ∗ ln(P0/Pexo)}] (3)
Adestroyed = Ain − (Ashaft + Acw + Aexhaust) (4)
Aefficiency =
1 − Adestroyed /Ain
∗ 100 (5)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-52-320.jpg)
![COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918[35]
Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment.
Infantry. 7. 193. 7. 193. 7. 193.
81 Res. 81 Res. 397.
397. 397. 81 Res.
Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 2 Res. Uhlan
Rgt.
Artillery. 278 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: 222 (?) Art. Command:
278 F. A. Rgt. 278 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
2 Res. Co. 27 Pions. Pion. Btn.: 2 Res. Co. 2 Pion. Btn.
No. 27.
2 Res. Co. 27 Pions. 345 Pion. Co.
345 Pion. Co. 432 T. M. Co.
432 T. M. Co. 222 Tel. Detch.
222 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
231 Ambulance Co. 231 Ambulance Co.
162 Field Hospital. 162 Field Hospital.
175 Field Hospital. 175 Field Hospital.
322 Vet. Hospital. 322 Vet. Hospital.
Transport. 1071 M. T. Col. M. T. Col.
35. Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-60-320.jpg)
![COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918[36]
Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment.
Infantry. 67. 144. 67. 144. 67. 144.
173. 173. 173.
29 Ers. 29 Ers. 29 Ers.
Cavalry. 2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.
(2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.).
2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.
Artillery. 280 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: (z) Art. Command:
280 F. A. Rgt. 280 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
343 Pion. Co. (223) Pion. Btn.: 5 Co. 23 Pions.
5 Co. 23 Pions. 343 Pion. Co.
343 Pion. Co. 433 T. M. Co.
433 T. M. Co. 223 Tel. Detch.
223 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
232 Ambulance Co. 232 Ambulance Co.
164 Field Hospital. 164 Field Hospital.
170 Field Hospital. 176 Field Hospital.
176 Field Hospital. Vet. Hospital.
Vet. Hospital.
Transport. M. T. Col. M. T. Col.
36. Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-66-320.jpg)
![COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918[37]
Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment.
Infantry. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 373.
217 Res. 217 Res. 18 Res.
373. 373. 217 Res.
Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt.
Artillery. 225 Art. Command: 225 Art. Command:
47 F. A. Rgt. 47 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
(225) Pion. Btn.: 259 Pion. Co.
259 Pion. Co. 413 T. M. Co.
344 Pion. Co. 225 Tel. Detch.
413 T. M. Co.
Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
259 Ambulance Co. 240 Ambulance Co.
155 Field Hospital. 259 Ambulance Co.
172 Field Hospital. 155 Field Hospital.
265 Vet. Hospital. Vet. Hospital.
Transport. M. T. Col.
37. Composition at the time of the dissolution, September, 1918.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-76-320.jpg)
![COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918[38]
Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment.
Infantry. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw.
9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. Rgt.
439. 427. 427.
Cavalry. 1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag.
Rgt.
1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag.
Rgt.
Artillery. 64 Res. F. A. Rgt. (?) Art. Command:
64 Res. F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
(226) Pion. Btn.: 2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions.
2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions. Searchlight Section.
(?) T. M. Co. 430 T. M. Co.
26 Searchlight Co. 226 Tel. Detch.
226 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
257 Ambulance Co. 257 Ambulance Co.
Field Hospital. Field Hospital.
262 Vet. Hospital. 262 Vet. Hospital.
Transport. 471 M. T. Col. 635 M. T. Col.
38. Composition at the time of dissolution, May, 1918.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/27989213-250509123824-7b6d6ab3/85/Fluid-Mechanics-And-Fluid-Power-Volume-4-Krishna-Mohan-Singh-81-320.jpg)
Fluid Mechanics And Fluid Power Volume 4 Krishna Mohan Singh
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- 5. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering Krishna Mohan Singh Sushanta Dutta Sudhakar Subudhi Nikhil Kumar Singh Editors Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4 Select Proceedings of FMFP 2022
- 6. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering Series Editors Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia Francesco Gherardini , Dipartimento di Ingegneria “Enzo Ferrari”, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Machines and Tools, Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine Mohamed Haddar, National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), Sfax, Tunisia Editorial Board Francisco Cavas-Martínez , Departamento de Estructuras, Construcción y Expresión Gráfica Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Murcia, Spain Francesca di Mare, Institute of Energy Technology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany Young W. Kwon, Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Aerospace Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA, USA Justyna Trojanowska, Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland Jinyang Xu, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- 7. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering (LNME) publishes the latest develop- ments in Mechanical Engineering—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research or contributions reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNME. Volumes published in LNME embrace all aspects, subfields and new challenges of mechanical engineering. To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact the Springer Editor of your location: Europe, USA, Africa: Leontina Di Cecco at Leontina.dicecco@springer.com China: Ella Zhang at ella.zhang@springer.com India: Priya Vyas at priya.vyas@springer.com Rest of Asia, Australia, New Zealand: Swati Meherishi at swati.meherishi@springer.com Topics in the series include: • Engineering Design • Machinery and Machine Elements • Mechanical Structures and Stress Analysis • Automotive Engineering • Engine Technology • Aerospace Technology and Astronautics • Nanotechnology and Microengineering • Control, Robotics, Mechatronics • MEMS • Theoretical and Applied Mechanics • Dynamical Systems, Control • Fluid Mechanics • Engineering Thermodynamics, Heat and Mass Transfer • Manufacturing Engineering and Smart Manufacturing • Precision Engineering, Instrumentation, Measurement • Materials Engineering • Tribology and Surface Technology Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, and INSPEC. All books published in the series are evaluated by Web of Science for the Conference Proceedings Citation Index (CPCI). To submit a proposal for a monograph, please check our Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/11693.
- 8. Krishna Mohan Singh · Sushanta Dutta · Sudhakar Subudhi · Nikhil Kumar Singh Editors Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4 Select Proceedings of FMFP 2022
- 9. Editors Krishna Mohan Singh Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India Sudhakar Subudhi Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India Sushanta Dutta Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India Nikhil Kumar Singh Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering ISBN 978-981-99-7176-3 ISBN 978-981-99-7177-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.
- 10. Contents Combustion Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector Using Diesel and Diesel–Ethanol Blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Aiswarya A. Satheesan, Nikhil Prasad, Nevin Nelson, S. Niranjan, and Anjan R. Nair Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process for Lignite Coal: A Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Sidhartha Sondh, Darshit S. Upadhyay, Sanjay Patel, and Rajesh N. Patel Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single and Multiple Injection Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Ketan V. Warghat, Aditya Tiwari, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak, B. Saravanan, and Pankaj S. Kolhe Change in Vortex Breakdown Mode and It’s Influence on Flame Shape of a Co/counter Concentric Swirling Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Atanu Dolai, Prasad Boggavarapu, and R. V. Ravikrishna Entrained Dust Combustion in Pre-Heated Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Mohd. Tousif, A. Harish, and V. Raghavan An Experimental Investigation into the GDI Spray Characteristics of Ethanol and Lemon Peel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 G. M. Nayak, B. Abinash, B. Yogesh, V. W. Ketan, P. S. Kolhe, and B. Saravanan Numerical and Experimental Performance Comparison of a Typical Swirl Co-Axial Injector for a Cryogenic Combustor . . . . . . . 81 R. Sujithkumar, K. Chenthil Kumar, K. R. Anil Kumar, T. Jayachandran, and Kowsik Bodi v
- 11. vi Contents Analytical Modelling of Effect of Steam Dilution on Hydrogen Combustion and Application to a Typical Nuclear Reactor Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Aditya Karanam, Vishnu Verma, and J. Chattopadhyay Thermal Performance of a Single-Layer Porous Radiant Burner with Biogas as Fuel: A Numerical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Ayush Painuly and Niraj K. Mishra Numerical Validation and Benchmarking of Hydrogen Flame Propagation in a Vertical Acceleration Tube Experimental Facility . . . . . 119 Aditya Karanam, Vishnu Verma, and J. Chattopadhyay Detailed Chemical Kinetics Mechanism for Condensed Phase Decomposition of Ammonium Perchlorate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Jay Patel, Prathamesh Phadke, Rohit Sehrawat, Arvind Kumar, Arindrajit Chowdhury, and Neeraj Kumbhakarna Onset of Thermoacoustic Oscillations in an Annular Combustor with Flames Stabilized by Circular Discs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Balasundaram Mohan and Sathesh Mariappan Development of Advanced Fuel Injector Concepts for Compact Lean-Burn Gas-Turbine Combustors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Ayush Divyansh, Preetam Jamod, and K. P. Shanmugadas Experimental Study on GDI In-Cylinder Combustion Quality of Ethanol and Lemon Peel Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 B. Abinash, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak, V. W. Ketan, P. S. Kolhe, and B. Saravanan Numerical Study on Soot Formation of Methyl Methacrylate Pool Flames with Coflow Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Argha Bose, D. Shanmugasundaram, and V. Raghavan Impact of Computational Domain and Cell Type on Large Eddy Simulations in OpenFOAM for a Turbulent Partially Premixed Flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Sandeep Lamba and Krishna Kant Agrawal Exergy Analysis of Deflagration Wave Propagating in Autoignitive H2 Mixture for Constant Pressure Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Rahul Patil and Sheshadri Sreedhara Numerical Investigation of Combustion Dynamics in a Multi-element Combustor Using Flamelet Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Abhishek Sharma, Ashoke De, Varghese M. Thannickal, T. John Tharakan, and S. Sunil Kumar
- 12. Contents vii Experimental Investigations on Emissions and Performance of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Butanol–Pentane–Gasoline Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Parag P. Mangave, Vishal V. Patil, Nilesh D. Pawar, and Ranjit S. Patil CFD Analysis of Afterburner with Convergent–Divergent Nozzle for Various Air–Fuel Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Gurrala Srinivasa Rao Computational Analysis of the Thermo Hydrodynamic Characteristics in a Can-Type Gas Turbine Combustor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Mohit Bansal, Satyam Dewivedi, and Abdur Rahim Experimental Study of Acoustic Phenomenon in a Closed Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 A. Ananthakrishnan, Siba Prasad Choudhury, S. Syam, and Ratan Joarder The Effect of Lean Premixed Combustion on Thermoacoustic Instability in a Swirl Combustor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Subhash Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, and Sheshadri Sreedhara Computational Modelling of MMH/NTO Combustion in a Multi-element Triplet Injector Combustor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Abhishek Sharma, Varghese M. Thannickal, T. John Tharakan, and S. Sunil Kumar Microfluidics Novel Tree Branching Microchannel Heat Sink Under Variable and Constant Fluid Volume Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Sangram Kumar Samal and Sandip Kumar Saha Two-Dimensional, Magnetic Actuation of Ferrofluid Droplet on an Open-Surface Microfluidic Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Debiprasad Chakrabarty, Niladri Chakraborty, and Ranjan Ganguly Numerical Analysis of Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow in Microchannel Heat Sinks Designed for Uniform Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Shivayya C. Hiremath, Rohit Kumar, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf, and Manmohan Pandey Numerical Investigation on Hydrodynamics of Lubricant-Infused Hydrophobic Microchannel with Transversely Oriented Cavities . . . . . . . 357 Adarsh R. Nair, K. Nandakumar Chandran, and S. Kumar Ranjith Effect of Microstructures in the Flow Passage on the Flow Dynamics of Microchannel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 A. Rajalingam and Shubhankar Chakraborty
- 13. viii Contents Combined Effect of Heterogeneous Zeta Potential on Microchannel Wall and Conductive Link in Induced Charge Electrokinetic Micromixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Anshul Kumar Bansal, Ram Dayal, and Manish Kumar Analysis of Sperm Cell Kinetics in Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid Medium Within a Microfluidic Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Dhiraj B. Puri, Vadiraj Hemadri, Arnab Banerjee, and Siddhartha Tripathi Conjugate Heat Transfer Analysis of U-Bend/Turn Microchannel: A Computational Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Jyoti Ranjan Mohapatra and Manoj Kumar Moharana Experimental Investigation of Fluid Flow Behaviour in Parallel Microchannel Using Micro-PIV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Rohit Kumar, Chandan Nashine, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf, Mohd Sakib Hussain, and Manmohan Pandey Study of Path Selection of a Droplet in a Symmetric Y-Microchannel Using a Uniform Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Satya P. Pandey, Sandip Sarkar, and Debashis Pal Microfluidic Solute Transport by Interference of Oscillatory Thermal Marangoni Effect and Patterned Wall Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Shubham Agrawal, Prasanta K. Das, and Purbarun Dhar Analysis of Micro-nozzle Flow Using Navier–Stokes and DSMC Method and Locating the Separation Plane Based on Modified Knudsen Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Ashok Kumar, Manu K. Sukesan, and Shine S. R. Parametric Study on the Primitive Lattice Using the Pore-Scale Simulation to Characterize the Flow and Heat Transfer Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Surendra Singh Rathore, Balkrishna Mehta, Pradeep Kumar, and Mohammad Asfer Experimental and Numerical Studies on Liquid Bridge Stretching in Uni-port Lifted Hele-Shaw Cell for Spontaneous Fabrication of Well-Like Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Makrand Rakshe, Sachin Kanhurkar, Amitabh Bhattacharya, and Prasanna Gandhi Numerical Investigation on Inertial Migration of Spherical Rigid Particle in the Entrance Region of a Microchannel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 K. K. Krishnaram and S. Kumar Ranjith
- 14. Contents ix Dynamics of Electrically Actuated Carreau Fluid Flow in a Surface-Modulated Microchannel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Subhajyoti Sahoo and Ameeya Kumar Nayak Heat Transfer Analysis of Peltier-Based Thermocycler for a Microfluidic-PCR Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Nikhil Prasad, B. Indulakshmi, R. Rahul, and Ranjith S. Kumar Effect of Viscosity on the Margination of White Blood Cells in an Inertial Flow Microfluidic Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Dhiren Mohapatra, Rahul Purwar, and Amit Agrawal Experimental Investigation of Two-Phase Immiscible Liquid Flow Through a Microchannel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Rohit Kumar, Chandan Nashine, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf, Harish Kumar Tomar, and Manmohan Pandey Elastohydrodynamics of Electromagnetically Actuated Deformable Microfluidic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Apurba Roy and Purbarun Dhar Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Ferrofluid in Partially Heated Closed Rectangular Microchannel Tube Under Non-uniform Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Ramesh Kumar, Shivam Raj, and S. K. Dhiman Numerical Investigation on the Effect of Reynolds Number on the Droplet Bypass Through T-Junction Using Lattice Boltzmann Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 T. Sudhakar, Arup K. Das, and Deepak Kumar Bio-fluid Mechanics Blood Flow Modeling in Stenosed Arteries Using CFD Solver . . . . . . . . . . 605 Priyambada Praharaj, Chandrakant Sonawane, and Vikas Kumar Highlighting the Importance of Nasal Air Conditioning in Septoplasty Using Virtual Correction Tools: A Numerical Study . . . . . 619 Kartika Chandra Tripathy and Ajay Bhandari Thrombosis Modelling in a Stenosed Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 Prateek Gupta, Rakesh Kumar, Sibasish Panda, and Mohammad Riyan Gold Nanoparticle-Antibody Bio-Probe Analysis: Synthesis, Conjugation, Characterization and Dot Blot Assay on Paper . . . . . . . . . . 643 Prateechee Padma Behera, Shubham Kumar, Monika Kumari, Pranab Kumar Mondal, and Ravi Kumar Arun
- 15. x Contents A Computational Analysis of the Impact of Blood’s Viscoelastic Properties on the Hemodynamics of a Stenosed Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Sourabh Dhawan, Pawan Kumar Pandey, Malay Kumar Das, and Pradipta Kumar Panigrahi Effect of Induced Helicity on the Hemodynamics of Carotid Artery Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 L. Rakesh, Arun Kadali, K. Prakashini, and S. Anish Numerical Simulation of Flow in an Idealized Intracranial Aneurysm Model to Study the Effect of Non-newtonian Blood Flow Rheology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Suraj Raj, S. Anil Lal, and Anjan R. Nair On the Replication of Human Skin Texture and Hydration on a PDMS-Based Artificial Human Skin Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 Aditya Ranjan, Vijay S. Duryodhan, and Nagesh D. Patil Simulation of Lateral Migration of Red Blood Cell in Poiseuille Flow Using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 Justin Antony and Ranjith Maniyeri Effect of Stenosis Severity on the Hemodynamics of an Idealized Straight Arterial Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 Pawan Kumar, Somnath Roy, and Prasanta Kumar Das Microdevice for Plasma Separation and in Vitro Quantification of Plasma Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 Tony Thomas, Neha Mishra, and Amit Agrawal White Blood Cell Separation and Blood Typing Using a Spiral Microdevice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745 Sanjay Mane, Vadiraj Hemadri, Sunil Bhand, and Siddhartha Tripathi Effect of Arterial Flow on Heat Transfer During Magnetic Hyperthermia Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Subeg Singh and Neeraj Kumar Flow Separation and Pressure Drop Analysis for Blood Flow in Symmetric Stenosed Arteries of Various Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Anamika Maurya, Janani Srree Murallidharan, and Atul Sharma Comparative Study of Uniform and Pulsatile Blood Flow Through Single Stenosed Carotid Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781 Swapnil Rajmane and Shaligram Tiwari Image-Based Retinal Haemodynamics Simulation of Healthy and Pathological Retinal Vasculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 Shivam Gupta and Ajay Bhandari
- 16. Contents xi Numerical Study on the Effect of Exercise on Various Configurations of Stenosis in Coronary Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Siddharth D. Sharma, Piru Mohan Khan, Suman Chakraborty, and Somnath Roy Effect of Aging on Passive Drug Diffusion Through Human Skin . . . . . . . 823 Aditya Ranjan, Vijay S. Duryodhan, and Nagesh D. Patil Computational Investigation on the Empirical Relation of Murray’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837 Mudrika Singhal and Raghvendra Gupta Investigation of Impulse Jet Dispersion Mechanism of Needle-Free Drug Delivery Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Priyanka Hankare, Sanjeev Manjhi, and Viren Menezes Analysis of 2D Human Airway in Laminar and Turbulent Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 Vivek Kumar Srivastava and Aman Raj Anand Effects of Stenosis Profile on Hemodynamic and Mass Transport in Axisymmetric Geometries: A Numerical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Ankani Sunil Varma and K. Arul Prakash Experimental and Numerical Study of Flow Through Ventilator Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Aniruddh Mukunth, Raj Shree Rajagopalan, and Naren Rajan Parlikkad Bioconvective MHD Flow of Micropolar Nanofluid Over a Stretching Sheet Due to Gyrotactic Microorganisms with Internal Heat Generation/Absorption and Chemical Reaction . . . . . 891 P. Vimala and R. Dhivyalakshmi Machine Learning in Fluid Mechanics Application of Machine Learning for Forced Plume in Linearly Stratified Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 Manthan Mahajan, Nitin Kumar, Deep Shikha, Vamsi K. Chalamalla, and Sawan S. Sinha Comparative Study of Future State Predictions of Unsteady Multiphase Flows Using DMD and Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Neil Ashwin Raj, Danesh Tafti, Nikhil Muralidhar, and Anuj Karpatne Deep Learning Approach to Predict Remaining Useful Life of Axial Piston Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Md Adil and Pratik Punj Machine Learning-Assisted Modeling of Pressure Hessian Tensor . . . . . . 949 Deep Shikha and Sawan S. Sinha
- 17. About the Editors Prof. Krishna Mohan Singh is Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research interests include the areas of computational mechanics, development of novel parallel algorithms, meshfree methods, shape and topology optimization, fluid dynamics, DNS/LES of turbulent flows, CAE, computer-aided analysis and design of thermo-fluid and multi-physics systems, computational fluid dynamics, modeling and simulation of flow and heat transfer in turbomachines, transport and energy systems. Prof. Sushanta Dutta is Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research interests are in the areas of experimental fluid mechanics, experimental heat transfer, optical measurement techniques, active and passive control of flow field, wake dynamics, turbulence study, Schlieren, HWA, PIV, LCT, PSP, microfluidics and heat transfer augmentation using phase change material. Prof. Sudhakar Subudhi is Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Indus- trial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research inter- ests are in the area of experimental heat transfer and fluid mechanics, heat transfer enhancement of natural andforcedconvectioninwater/nanofluids, natural ventilation and unconventional energy systems. Dr. Nikhil Kumar Singh is Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His broad research interests include direct numerical simulations of two-phase flows and phase change, computational fluid dynamics and heat transfer, numerical methods and turbulent flows. xiii
- 18. Combustion
- 19. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector Using Diesel and Diesel–Ethanol Blend Aiswarya A. Satheesan, Nikhil Prasad, Nevin Nelson, S. Niranjan, and Anjan R. Nair Abstract In direct injection diesel engines, spray optimization greatly enhances efficiency and low emissions combustion. The flow inside an injector impacts the process of spray, combustion, and exhaust. The nozzle shape and spray determine the atomization and the outlet engine emissions. The results were obtained for spray char- acteristics of diesel and ethanol–diesel blend in a nozzle injector with aspect ratios varying from 1, 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6. Parameters, such as spray penetration length, spray angle, and spray characteristics including the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), the De Brouckere diameter, the mean diameter and volume, and particle velocity, were inves- tigated and revealed a strong dependence on modifications in the aspect ratio of the nozzle orifice. Simulation of atomization model was carried out and compared using discrete phase model (DPM) using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling. Additionally, validation from the experiment finding results is also provided. Ellip- tical C was observed to have a minimum SMD up to 28.04% and a minimum De Brouckere diameter up to 28.63%. Ethanol–diesel blend showed best spray param- eters when considering the macroscopic spray properties and the drop size distri- bution. Moreover, under non-evaporative conditions, the tested fuel ethanol–diesel Blend exhibited better spray characteristics and better cavitation phenomenon of 12.13% at higher aspect ratios than at lower ones. In addition, elliptical nozzle spray had a higher spray cone angle than circular nozzle spray. Keywords Aspect ratio · Spray simulation · Elliptical nozzle A. A. Satheesan · N. Prasad · N. Nelson · S. Niranjan · A. R. Nair (B) Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Trivandrum 695016, India e-mail: anjan@cet.ac.in N. Nelson Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bishop Jerome Institute (Affiliated to A P J Abdul Kalam Technological University), Kollam, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 K. M. Singh et al. (eds.), Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_2 3
- 20. 4 A. A. Satheesan et al. 1 Introduction Diesel engines are frequently utilized as the primary power source for the road transportation sector. Because of their outstanding thermal efficiency, operational dependability, and durability, the greater understanding of effective fuel use and auto- motive pollution reduction, which led to enhanced modern direct injection engines like strengthening the spray breakup and generating smaller droplets, has greatly assisted research on the fluid behavior of fuel injection nozzles [1]. Atomization and fuel spray properties in direct injection engines are critical, particularly for gas emissions and combustion efficiency; these factors significantly impact the spray’s shape, atomization quality, engine performance, and emission characteristics. So, the jet breakup inside the chamber also influences the subsequent processes of ignition, combustion, and pollutant generation. Therefore, it’s crucial to consider the fuel injector nozzle effect and the features of the spraying technique with different fuel types. The injector nozzle is a crucial component in a diesel engine. The elliptical orifice diesel nozzle has the potential to improve spray quality and air– fuel mixing [2]. Liquid sprays have been the subject of extensive research due to their actual relevance and the challenges in predicting their behavior from basic principle. While some sprays are composed of several short pulses and may never reach a steady state, others are continuous and stable, at least after a brief start-up transient. Alcohols, like other oxygenated fuels, enhance complete combustion and reduce particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxides (CO), and unburned hydrocarbon emis- sions (HC) [3]. Reduced SMD and larger spray angle was achieved by implementing elliptical-shaped sprays. Further study can be done on the impact of alternative fuels on the spray, performance, and regarding diesel engines’ emission characteristics, which affect engines parameters performance and emissions 2 Literature Review and Objective Many researchers and pioneers worldwide have investigated diesel fuel injectors and their influence. The discrete phase model (DPM) was developed to investigate the cavitation process in fuel injectors and the macro spray characteristics of three differenttypesofnozzlesprayshapesusingdieselandhybridbiofuelblendsatvarious injection pressures and backpressures. The findings of the nozzle simulation study showed that the nozzle spray morphology had a greater influence on the cavitation area than the fuel type [4]. A numerical analysis on the fuel spray behavior and fluctuation of spray character- istics in internal combustion engines were investigated, and it was observed that the fuel spray is impacted by the cavitation phenomena in diesel engines. More bubbles are generated when cavitation is severe [5].
- 21. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 5 An experimental study on the biodiesel spray liquid-phase behaviors of elliptical and circular nozzles revealed that under steady-state conditions, the elliptical nozzle spray liquid-phase penetration is smaller than the circular one [6]. The elliptic orifice diesel nozzle can improve spray and air–fuel mixing quality, significantly impacting diesel engine combustion and emissions. In all view planes, the elliptical spray had a wider spread of particles than the circular spray, and the circular orifice’s spray cone angle was consistently smaller than that of the elliptical orifice [7]. The spray liquid breakdown behavior of a diesel nozzle with non-circular cross- sectional geometries was investigated experimentally under evaporative conditions, and the impact of varied injection pressures and bulk temperatures. In both geometric cases, the study demonstrated that injection pressure has less impact on the pene- tration of liquid spray. Increasing the ambient temperature, on the other hand, can reduce spray- liquid penetration [8]. Since ethanol is an oxidized fuel, the oxygen level of the mix fuel rises, increasing the thermal efficiency of the engine’s brakes. The thermal efficiency increased by 3.63% while the cylinder pressure increased by 0.46%, when the ethanol content reached 20% at full load [9]. Anefficientapproachfordeterminingthetrueextentofvaporzonesandturbulence intensity was devised using a comprehensive model for cavitating flow in conjunction with the CFD-ACE+ code was introduced. Cavitation flow involves phase transition. And was shown to be sensitive to the development and motion of vapor bubbles, turbulent oscillations in pressure, velocity, and the quantity of non- condensable gases dissolved or consumed in the operating liquid [10]. Numerical simulation of spray was modeled to study the effect of cavitation on the quality and characteristics of spray, such as penetration length and Sauter mean diameter of the nozzle’s specific geometry. Smaller droplets produced by this spray will improve and help accelerate combustion, enhance power and torque, and reduce outlet emissions [11]. The CFD-programmed software CONVERGE incorporates a recently developed primary breakdown model (KH-ACT) for detailed engine simulations. KH-ACT takes into account the effects of the turbulence and cavitation created inside the injector nozzle. The conical and hydroground nozzle inner nozzle flow impacts of orifice geometry were analyzed. The analysis indicated that the reduced vaporization rate and air–fuel mixing could cause an earlier ignition of the nozzle downstream [12]. The aspect ratio of the elliptical nozzle improved the aerodynamic and penetra- tion characteristics differently, but the optimum/maximum allowable aspect ratio for better aerodynamic characteristics was not reported. Only two types of fuel (diesel/ biofuel) were used to characterize the fuel injector nozzle effect. The mechanism of the liquid fuel breaking up, atomization, and size of the droplet is unclear near the nozzle’s exit. The objective of the study is to investigate the effect of fuel spray characteristics and variation for two types of fuels: Diesel and the combination of diesel and ethyl alcohol(ethanol),usingnumericalsimulationapproachesandtonumericallyevaluate the relationship between the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), De Brouckere diameter
- 22. 6 A. A. Satheesan et al. D [3, 4], mean diameter, and volume spray parameters relation to the aspect ratio of the nozzle and the cavitation phenomenon. 3 Physical Model and Domain The project aims to understand the spray characteristics inside a diesel injector nozzle with preliminary assumptions of unsteady 3D incompressible turbulent nozzle flow and obeying no-slip conditions (fluid velocity at the walls equals the wall velocity) were run with a commercial fluid dynamic code. The discrete phase model (DPM) was introduced to study the fuel injector process and the macro spray characteristic of the injector. The Ansys Design modeler does the 3D model of the elliptical diesel injector. The commercial CFD software Ansys Fluent 2020 R1 performs the numerical simulation. The Standard k − ε is chosen as the viscous model. 3.1 Governing Equations The problem considered is the spray simulation of a diesel injector by varying the aspect ratios of the orifice and also different fuels are used. The analysis is going to be carried out on an incompressible fluid with unsteady-state condition. The governing equations for the 3D continuous flow of the fuel in the injector consist of the conti- nuity, momentum, and energy equation that solved the Navier–Stokes equations. The equations are listed as follows: Continuity equation Dρ Dt + ρ∇ · υ = 0 (1) Conservation of momentum ρ D Dt υ = −∇ p + μ∇2 υ + ρg (2) 3.2 Geometry Details The injector is coupled with an injection chamber (exit diameter = 5.1925 mm) with a nozzle hole to length diameter ratio of 0.280. The 3D design was drawn using ANSYS Workbench 20.0 using design modeler.
- 23. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 7 Diesel fluid with a density of 730 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 0.0024 kg/ms is chosen as the fuel. For diesel–ethanol blend, the viscosity is 0.0018 kg/ms, and the density is 807 kg/m3 . The droplet surface tension is 0.026 and 0.0306 N/m for diesel and diesel–ethanol blends, respectively. A singular spray jet is modeled, and the injection takes from the center of the inlet. 3.3 Grid Independence Study The optimum number of grids must be specified in order to execute additional research and calculations. The calculated results ought to be grid-independent and never fluctuate as the number of cells changes (Table 1). For four distinct body sizes, grid independence research was conducted. From 0.2 and 0.02 body sizing onwards, the penetration length is steady. In the case of SMD, there was no significant modification when the number of nodes and elements were increased beyond 336,176 and 323,752, respectively. As a result, body sizes of 0.1 and 0.01 were found to be appropriate (Figs. 1 and 2). Table 1 Variation of penetration length and SMD with number of cells Body sizing → 1 (mm) Body sizing → 2 (mm) No. of nodes No. of elements Penetration length (m) Overall SMD (m) 0.4 0.025 11,506 10,200 0.008035 2.253e − 7 0.2 0.02 61,321 57,780 0.00814 2.7743e − 7 0.1 0.01 336,176 323,752 0.00814 2.971e − 7 0.05 0.005 2,065,186 2,021,865 0.00814 3.00e − 7 Fig. 1 Variation of SMD with no. of elements
- 24. 8 A. A. Satheesan et al. Fig. 2 Mesh generation From the above figures, it is clear that SMD does not vary when number of elements is increased from 323,752. Therefore, further calculations and analysis, body sizing of 0.1 and 0.01 is taken for the geometry. 3.4 Mesh Generation Mesh is generated using inbuilt meshing program inside ANSYS 20.0 in three dimen- sions. Cells are used to create a structured mesh that becomes finer as it moves from the cylinder’s edge to its core. The mesh quality was found to be 0.95 which implies the model is having a good mesh quality. The number of nodes and elements in the geometry after meshing are 336,176 and 323,752, respectively, chosen after obtaining results from the grid independence study plotted for penetration length versus the number of elements. 3.5 Boundary Condition In the present geometry, the left side is defined as the inlet and the right side is defined as the outlet. The remaining surface is defined as the wall (Tables 2 and 3). Table 2 Boundary conditions Inlet pressure 100 MPa Outlet pressure 1 MPa Wall No slip condition Working fluid i Diesel ii Combination of diesel and ethanol
- 25. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 9 Table 3 Settings for spray simulation Parameter Quality Injection pressure 100 MPa Outlet pressure 1 MPa Mass flow rate 3e − 6 kg/s Injection duration 1 s Injection type Surface 4 Results and Discussion See Graphs 1, 2, 3 and 4. Graph 1 Comparison of SMD for aspect ratio 1 Graph 2 Comparison of SMD for aspect ratio 1.2
- 26. 10 A. A. Satheesan et al. Graph 3 Comparison of SMD for aspect ratio 1.4 Graph 4 Comparison of SMD for aspect ratio 1.6 4.1 Effect on Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) The smaller the SMD, the evaporation and atomization process accelerates also it resulting in uniform size distribution and increased number of droplets. Therefore, it is of benefit to mixture formation. Due to diesel’s higher density, stronger intermolec- ular forces produce poor atomization. The difference in fuel viscosity and density is mostly responsible for the SMD variations between the fuels. Diesel exhibits larger droplet sizes than ethanol–diesel mixtures. Ethanol–diesel blends always have lower SMD and De Brouckere values than pure diesel. They get smaller as the quantity of diesel increases, while it randomly varies for variation in aspect ratio (Table 4).
- 27. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 11 Table 4 Spray angle obtained for various aspect ratios Aspect ratio Spray angle 1 12.32° 1.2 14.05° 1.4 15.33° 1.6 16.30° Fig. 3 Spray angle for aspect ratio 1 Fig. 4 Spray angle for aspect ratio 1.2 4.2 Effect on Spray Angle An important parameter of fuel sprays is the angle of the spray’s edge as it leaves the injector hole. For single sprays, the two lines tangent to the spray’s margins, extending from the injection point, constitute the spray angle. Lower aspect ratios result in smaller spray angles, while higher aspect ratios, in comparison, result in wider spray angles. The particle residence time is tracked to determine the spray angle for the cases of a Circle, Elliptical A, B, And C, respectively is shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5. The circle’s spray angle was found to be 12.32°, whereas the maximum spray angle was found to be 16.30° for Elliptical C. 4.3 Effect of Cavitation Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9 show the variation of pressure contour for circular injector nozzle and Elliptical A, B, and C cases, respectively. The pressure contour shows
- 28. 12 A. A. Satheesan et al. Fig. 5 Spray angle for aspect ratio 1.4 that in all cases of aspect ratio, cavitation bubbles first have been generated, close to the nozzle inlet’s sharp corners. Then, the flow of spray transfers these bubbles downward in both an axial and radial direction. The main cause of this phenomena is the development of low-pressure zones. Because of the abrupt change in flow direction near sharp corners, even negative values were detected (Fig. 10). Fig. 6 Spray angle for aspect ratio 1.6 Fig. 7 Pressure contour for aspect ratio 1
- 29. Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 13 Fig. 8 Pressure contour for aspect ratio 1.2 Fig. 9 Pressure contour for aspect ratio 1.4 The formation of cavitation inside the nozzle can be enhanced by an increase in aspect ratio. The cavitation intensity was more intensive for Elliptical B and C as compared to other nozzle shapes for the same injection time
- 30. 14 A. A. Satheesan et al. Fig. 10 Pressure contour for aspect ratio 1.6 5 Conclusions The present study aims to investigate the spray characteristics and fuel droplet atom- ization performance of the test fuels—diesel and biodiesel, by varying the aspect ratios. The spray characteristics of diesel and ethanol–diesel blend were determined numerically. The investigation led to the following conclusions: i. The variation of aspect ratio in diesel injector is recognized to play an important role in spray characteristics and formation. ii. Increasing the aspect ratio enhances turbulence, which causes cavitation in the chamber, hence, increasing the spray angle. iii. Due to lower viscosity and density, a lower SMD reduction of up to 28.04% for the ethanol–diesel blend is observed. De Brouckere Diameter also showed a similar trend, declining by 28.63%. iv. The spray cone angle was observed to be influenced by the aspect ratio of the elliptical nozzle shape with minimum spray angle in circle being 12.32° and maximum spray angle of 16.30° in case of Elliptical C. v. Fuel with higher viscosity, i.e., diesel, does not easily breakup in to smaller droplets. The smaller size of the droplet can improve spray atomization and air–fuel mixing, which is possible in the case of ethanol–diesel blend.
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- 32. Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process for Lignite Coal: A Comparative Study Sidhartha Sondh, Darshit S. Upadhyay, Sanjay Patel, and Rajesh N. Patel Abstract Computational fluid dynamics is a special tool for modeling thermochem- ical processes for process parameter optimization. The present study is a comparative study of the gasification and plasma pyrolysis process of lignite coal. Three temper- atures (1023, 1123, 1223 K) are selected for the gasification process and a similar is done for the plasma pyrolysis (1223, 1323, 1423 K). The obtained results are compared with the experiment literature available. The RMSE approach was used for checking the accuracy of the model. The accuracy was observed to be appreciable. The composition of the syngas is compared for all the cases. It was observed that the concentration of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is found to be rich in plasma pyrolysis with an average of 43.4% as compared to 13.5% for gasification. The plasma pyrolysis process offered better results compared to the gasification process as it offered a higher H2/CO ratio and (H2 + CO) factor. The CO/CO2 ratio also increased for the plasma pyrolysis process with an increase in temperature. Keywords Computational fluid dynamics · Gasification · Pyrolysis · Plasma pyrolysis · Thermochemical process 1 Introduction Thermochemical processes such as gasification and pyrolysis are commonly known for energy generation and waste treatment. Due to the huge initial investment and complex process, it is not feasible to carry out experimental research on all the ther- mochemical processes together. In such an instance, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) emerges as a potential tool for researchers [1]. It also helps in optimizing S. Sondh · D. S. Upadhyay (B) · R. N. Patel Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India e-mail: Darshitupadhyay@yahoo.com S. Patel Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 K. M. Singh et al. (eds.), Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_3 17
- 33. 18 S. Sondh et al. the designs and other parameters for such processes without involving any major investments [2]. The CFD can also be a useful tool in making the thermochemical processes environment-friendly. Different cases can be simulated to find an effec- tive method for limiting pollutant emissions and improving the overall health of the environment. Gasification is a widely used thermochemical process for energy production using biomass, coal, municipal solid waste (MSW), etc. [3]. The pyrolysis process also offers the option of energy generation from the above-mentioned feedstocks [4]. The absence of oxygen in the pyrolysis process makes it a more suitable option due to the limited formation of harmful products such as carbon dioxide (CO2), SOx, NOx, PAHs. ANSYS Fluent V17.0 software is used to carry out the simulations of the lignite coal gasification and pyrolysis at different temperatures. The experimental results of lignite gasifications are compared with the CFD simulation results for both processes. The syngas or producer gas obtained from these thermochemical processes is a mixed gas comprising carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), CO2, methane (CH4), etc. This mixed gas is very valuable and can be used as fuel for cooking and energy generation in the form of electricity and heat [5]. 2 Literature Review and Objective Thermochemical processes are the new way of handling wastes and obtaining useful products. The processes are effective options for meeting the energy demand of the country. Gasification is a globally used technology for generating energy from coal [6]. In the gasification process, the coal is partially oxidized due to the controlled presence of air, oxygen, steam, and CO2. Since the presence of oxygen is limited, the process is always under the control and can be solved for different equivalent ratios [7]. The other process considered in this research is pyrolysis. The process of pyrolysis is a new technology that is used for purposes such as waste treatment, energy generation, and oil generation. Pyrolysis is majorly subdivided into three major categories: slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and flash pyrolysis [8]. However, another category of thermal plasma pyrolysis is also practiced in the industry [9]. The type of feedstock and reactor also influences the thermochemical process. The feedstock can be any waste, biomass, coal, plastics, etc. There are many types of reactors which include downdraft, updraft, fluidized bed, etc. [10]. In this research, fixed bed downdraft reactor is chosen for the analysis. CFD is an effective tool that is widely used to predict the results of thermochemical processes. Much research focusing on thermochemical processes has been effectively modeled using the CFD tools for optimizing various process parameters. The present research is focused on modeling the two thermochemical processes—gasification and plasma pyrolysis of lignite coal. The processes are modeled for three temperatures 1023, 1123, and 1223 K for gasification whereas that of plasma pyrolysis is 1223, 1323, and 1423 K. The operating temperature range of plasma pyrolysis is higher than
- 34. Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 19 the gasification due to the high working temperature. The mixed gas obtained from both processes is analyzed and compared with the experimental data available. The study highlights the importance of CFD in the optimization of process parameters. 3 Materials and Methods The fuel for the gasification process was chosen to be lignite coal. The ultimate and proximate analysis for the coal was also conducted and it is mentioned in Table1. Theexperiments onlignitecoal gasificationwerecarriedout at threedifferent temperatures 1023, 1123, and 1223 K. Thecompositionofthesyngaswasanalyzedusingthegaschromatographyfacility for the syngas sample for each temperature run. These sample data are used to compare and verify the simulation results obtained from the ANSYS Fluent software. 3.1 CFD Modeling The geometry of the reactor was modeled using the Parametric CREO 3.0 software. The next step in the simulation process is to create the mesh in the reactors. The meshing is done on the model to make a problem more approachable and conve- nient using the finite element techniques. It breaks the whole domain into small elements and solves the problem at each node. The meshing of the reactor is done in ANSYS ICEM software. For the surface mesh, all triangular elements are used (23,256 elements) Fig. 1, whereas, for the volume generation, hexahedral elements are used (179,821 elements) Fig. 2. The orthogonal quality of all the elements was duly found to be acceptable ( 0.3). Table 1 Lignite coal: ultimate and proximate analysis data Ultimate analysisa Proximate analysisb Carbon 37.80 Volatile matter 42.07 Hydrogen 4.93 Ash 15.11 Nitrogen 1.625 Moisture 11.79 Sulphur 0.141 Fixed carbonc 31.03 Oxygen 40.394 a Test method IS 1350 (Part II)-1970 b Test method IS 1350 (Part I)-1984 c By difference
- 35. 20 S. Sondh et al. Fig. 1 Surface mesh Fig. 2 Cut-section of volume mesh 3.2 Problem Setup The ANSYS Fluent Package was used to model and set up the problem. The process of gasification is complex involving thermochemistry input. For defining a problem in Fluent, suitable boundary conditions and operating conditions are to be identified. The process temperature, turbulence model, species model, and reactions involved are a few of the parameters that need to be properly defined for obtaining real-life cases.
- 36. Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 21 Table 2 Operating parameters for thermochemical processes Parameters Operating condition Gasification Plasma pyrolysis Temperature (T) K 1023, 1123, 1223 1223, 1323, 1423 Pressure (P) Pa 101,325 101,325 Gravity (g) m/s2 9.81 9.81 Turbulence model k − E Turbulence model (realizable) k − E Turbulence model (realizable) Species model Species transport (chemkin mechanism import) Species transport (chemkin mechanism import) Reaction type Volumetric reactions/particle reactions Volumetric reactions/particle reactions Power input (kW) – 18 There were three runs each carried out for both the thermo-chemical processes process. The operating parameters for the processes are shown in Table 2. The species transport model (STM) is used for defining the chemistry of the ther- mochemical processes. A chemkin mechanism is defined as consisting of 9 species and 5 elements for the gasification process as shown in Fig. 3. All the standard gasi- fication reactions are used, and the activation energy is provided. The reaction rate is taken as default due to insufficient data. 3.3 Boundary Conditions An important step in the modeling process is defining the boundaries of the domain. Also, the input parameter at that boundary is defined for obtaining a real-life problem environment. Table 3 shows the boundary conditions added for the gasification case, whereas Table 4 represents the boundary condition for the plasma pyrolysis runs. 4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Syngas Composition The CFD simulation results were compared with the experimental results obtained from the literature [11]. The major parameter for the validation was the syngas composition as obtained at different temperatures. The gas composition as obtained from CFD simulations is CO2, CO, H2, CH4, and N2 in the case of gasification, whereas CO2, CO, H2, and CH4 were obtained in the plasma pyrolysis process.
- 37. 22 S. Sondh et al. Fig. 3 Chemkin mechanism for lignite coal gasification Table 3 Boundary conditions for gasification Surface Boundary condition Input parameter Fuel inlet Mass flow inlet M = 10 kg/h/0.00277778 kg/s Outlet Pressure outlet Pgauge = 0 Pa Walls Stationary wall No slip boundary condition Air inlet Mass flow inlet M = 17 kg/h/0.00472222 kg/s
- 38. Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 23 Table 4 Boundary condition for plasma pyrolysis Surface Boundary condition Input parameter Fuel inlet Mass flow inlet M = 10 kg/h/0.00277778 kg/s Outlet Pressure outlet Pgauge = 0 Pa Walls Stationary wall No slip boundary condition Electrodes Wall Electric potential (ON) V = 60 V R = 0.2 Ω/m2 Table 5 RMSE for gasification simulation results at different temperatures Syngas 1023 K 1123 K 1223 K CO2 0.043 0.002 0.020 CO 0.081 0.052 0.055 H2 0.040 0.007 0.014 CH4 0.011 0.002 0.005 N2 0.084 0.023 0.008 The accuracy of the results was calculated by the root mean square error (RMSE) approach with reference to the experimental literature available. The results were acceptable and are shown in Table 5. Figure 4 shows the comparison of the results obtained from the CFD simulation of lignite coal gasification with the experimental literature. The values obtained closely match the experimental literature available. The H2 and CO concentration is observed to be increasing with the increase in temperature, whereas the concentration of CO2 is observed to be decreasing as the temperature increase. The (H2 + CO) parameter determines the flammability of the syngas and it also increases with the increase in temperature. Fig. 4 Lignite coal gasification simulation versus experimental literature results
- 39. 24 S. Sondh et al. 4.2 Plasma Pyrolysis The plasma pyrolysis process was simulated for three temperatures and it was observed that the quality of syngas increases with the increase in temperature as shown in Fig. 5. At a higher temperature, the (H2 + CO) factor increases. Apart from the CO2, CO, H2, and CH4, there is a small percentage of a group of higher order hydrocarbons such as C2H2, C4H4, etc., are found. The pattern of some of the important ratios such as CO/CO2 and H2/CO is also observed for both the gasification and plasma pyrolysis process. It is found that both these parameters increase with the increase in temperature. The (H2 + CO) parameter also increases with the increase in temperature. From Table 6, it is quite evident that the quality of syngas from the plasma pyrolysis process is much better than that of the gasification. The value of all three parameters is much higher than that of the gasification process. Fig. 5 Plasma pyrolysis simulation results Table 6 Parameters obtained from CFD simulation H2/CO (H2 + CO) CO/CO2 Gasification simulation 1023 K 0.48 0.28 0.76 1123 K 1.09 0.26 0.69 1223 K 0.96 0.27 0.76 Plasma pyrolysis simulation 1223 K 8.07 0.88 1.43 1323 K 7.09 0.89 3.06 1423 K 4.76 0.84 2.23
- 40. Numerical Simulation of Gasification and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 25 Fig. 6 Syngas composition at a temperature of 1223 K 4.3 Plasma Pyrolysis Versus Gasification The results obtained from the simulation of the plasma pyrolysis process and gasi- fication at the same temperature of 1223 K are shown in Fig. 6. From the figure, it is visible that there is a major variation in the H2 and CO concentration for the two processes. Due to the absence of air and oxygen in the pyrolysis process, the N2 content is observed to be zero in the result. The concentration of the CO2 is also less in the plasma pyrolysis process as compared to the gasification process which makes it comparatively more environment-friendly. Since plasma pyrolysis majorly occurs at a higher temperature, the concentration of CO2 will be further limited. 5 Conclusions The thermochemical processes can be used effectively for syngas generation which is an alternative fuel. The CFD simulation offered comparable results with the exper- imental literature which validates the modeling approach used for simulation. The concentration of H2 is found to be more than 60% in the plasma pyrolysis simula- tions. The (H2 + CO) parameter increased with an increase in temperature, also the CO/CO2 ratio increased with an increase in temperature. The syngas performance parameter H2/CO was observed to be 6.64 for the plasma pyrolysis process and 0.844 for the gasification process. These parameters define the quality of syngas and it was noted to be better for the plasma pyrolysis process. Acknowledgements The authors will like to thank the Gujarat Council of Science and Tech- nology (GUJCOST), Department of Science and Technology, Gujarat, India, for funding the project (GUJCOST/2020-688 21/880).
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- 42. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single and Multiple Injection Strategies Ketan V. Warghat, Aditya Tiwari, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak, B. Saravanan, and Pankaj S. Kolhe Abstract Injection timing heavily influences the diesel engine performance and emissions. The present study utilizes a various injection strategies such as single injection, 30° BTDC and 50° pilot injection, paired pilot injection, and split injec- tion on the performance and emissions. There are two conditions for a single pilot injection: the first is a 20% pilot injection at 30° BTDC, and the second is a 20% pilot injection at 50° BTDC. A twin injection approach uses a pilot of 5% at 50° BTDC and another 15% at 30° BTDC. Performance metrics like BTE, BSFC, and IMEP are determined at a compression ratio of 18:1 for 1000 RPM. The split injection condition produces a lower NOx, CO, and UHC emission. The pilot operation at 50° produces more CO and NOx emissions. Applying the second law of thermodynamics analysis to the CI engine, exergetic efficiency is assessed for various injection strate- gies, with split injection exhibiting the most optimal engine performance along with controlled emissions. Keywords IC engine · Injection timing · Performance analysis · Emission and availability Abbreviation Ain Input availability Acw Availability at cold water Aefficiency Second law efficiency Aexhaust Availability at exhaust BSFC Brake-specific fuel consumption BTDC Before top dead centre BTE Brake thermal efficiency CI Compression ignition K. V. Warghat · A. Tiwari · B. Yogesh · G. M. Nayak · B. Saravanan · P. S. Kolhe (B) Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, IIT Hyderabad, Telengana 502284, India e-mail: psk@mae.iith.ac.in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 K. M. Singh et al. (eds.), Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power, Volume 4, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_4 27
- 43. 28 K. V. Warghat et al. CO Carbon monoxide CRDI Common rail direct ECU Electronic control unit HRR Heat release rate LHV Low heating value NOx Nitrogen oxide RPM Revolution per minute SOI Start of injection TDC Top dead centre TO Throttle opening UHC Unburned hydrocarbon Nomenclature Cpex Specific heat of exhaust [J/Kg K] cpw Specific heat of water [J/Kg K] mex Mass flow rate of exhaust [Kg/s] mf Mass flow rate of fuel [Kg/s] mw Mass flow rate of water [Kg/s] Po Ambient pressure [bar] Pexo Exhaust pressure [bar] To Ambient temperature [K] Texo Exhaust temperature [K] Twi Inlet water temperature [K] Two Outlet water temperature [K 1 Introduction CI engines are essential to society’s needs, be it public transport, goods vehicle, or power generator for power backup. However, as the population increases, the neces- sity for automobiles rises, resulting in rising pollution, which needs to be controlled. Performance and emissions are affected by various factors; injection timing and strategy are one of them could be optimized. In general, diesel engines operate primarily in lean conditions, resulting in increased thermal efficiency and higher exhaust pollutants, such as smoke and particulate matter. The lean burning condition gives higher unburned hydrocarbons in diesel engines. Higher combustion tempera- ture leads to the breakage of nitrogen bonds to monoatomic, resulting in more NOx. In multiple injection techniques, a small amount of fuel is injected as one or two pilot injections during the compression stroke prior to the main injection. This results in
- 44. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 29 a substantially better fuel–air mixture than the conventional single main injection strategy. Several studies investigated the effect of injection timing on the combustion process. MacMillan et al. [1] experimentally investigated the effect of pilot injection timing and fuel quantity in a single cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine at cold idle conditions. It was observed that increasing the number of pilot injections results in proper stability and ruggedness at low-temperature conditions, with the highest stability at the triple pilot condition at different speeds and injection timing. Single pilot and twin pilot injection conditions show almost similar heat release rates. Suh [2] reported the effect of multiple injection strategies on low CR engines using different emissions and performance parameters in a single-cylinder CI engine. It was revealed that the two pilot injections give higher pressure data with a maximum heat release rate reduction. Multiple injections improved combustion efficiency with lower UHC and a slight increase in CO emissions. In a heavy duty 6-cylinder water cooled engine, Yuo et al. [3] conducted experiments on some injection techniques, including pilot and post injection with a blend of n-butanol. They concluded that with a blend condition of 10%, both single and multiple injections give similar perfor- mance result, whereas pilot injection reduces soot with an increase in CO emission. Post injection also reduces soot, but the main injection and pressure must be adjusted carefully. Liu et al. [4] experimentally studied the effects of injection timing and quantity in a six-cylinder engine using diesel/CNG. CO emissions are higher than single diesel combustion, and UHC and soot particles reduce significantly as the diesel quantity increases. The maximum useful work that could be extracted by the interaction of a system with its surrounding considered as a reversible process to achieve thermal, mechan- ical, and chemical equilibrium is defined as the system’s availability in a given state [5].Sahooetal.[6]performedtheavailabilitystudyonafour-cylinderdieselengineto calculate the ideal throttle opening (TO) at various load and RPM conditions. They concluded that the ideal engine operating conditions for 70, 80, and 90% engine loads are 2000 rpm at 50% TO, 2300 rpm at 75% TO, and 3250 rpm at 100% TO respectively. Ismail and Mehta [7] studied the availability of various fuels with their chemical composition and found that availability destruction decreases with an increase in oxygen content in the fuel. The preheating of fuel helps in reduction of availability destruction. Therefore, the qualitative information of a system could be utilized to comprehend the engine performance and emission in detail. From the literature, it can be inferred that the timing, quantity, and number of the pilot injections all play a significant role in the combustion process such as performance,emissions,andpower.Theeffectivenessofanyprocesscanbeevaluated by its availability which gives maximum energy that can be extracted. This study investigates different injection strategies on engine performance and emission. All the strategies show a slight difference on performance, with a significant impact in emission parameters.
- 45. 30 K. V. Warghat et al. Fig. 1 Experimental setup schematic 2 Material and Method 2.1 Experimental Setup The present study utilizes a twin-cylinder optical research engine with an operational range of 400–1300 RPM. One of the twin-cylinder is a thermodynamic cylinder, whereas the other is optical access to study the inside combustion. In this experiment, only a thermodynamic cylinder with a toroidal bowl piston top is used, which helps in compact and faster burning. The engine has a common rail direct injection system with a CRDI driver module and CRDI kit, which controls injection pressure, timing, and duration. The compression ratio ranges from 6.7 to 18. The schematic diagram of experimental study is shown in Fig. 1. Fuel injection pressure ranges from 200 to 1000 bar. CRDI module is operated by an open ECU system provided by legions brothers, which helps with the injection timing and pressure variation. Data acqui- sition software shows all the output parameters, such as air–fuel ratio, in-cylinder pressure, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel consumption. A Kistler made piezoelec- tric pressure transducer monitors in-cylinder pressure connected at the cylinder head. Thedetailedenginespecificationis providedinTable 1. For theperformanceanalysis, different loading conditions employed on engine with hydrodynamic dynamometer. Engine exhaust is connected to an AVL gas analyzer to read the exhaust emissions like NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC). 2.2 Methodology The experiments are carried out at 50 and 80% of maximum load conditions of constant 1050 RPM. Table 2 represents the different injection techniques at different
- 46. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 31 Table 1 Engine specification Parameters Values No. of cylinders 1 of 2 Stroke (mm) 100 Bore (mm) 94 Compression ratio 18:1 Speed range (RPM) 1050 Injection pressure (bar) 500 Table 2 Injection timings Injection type Injection timing 1 Single main injection 100%@9° BTDC 2 One pilot 30 20%@30° BTDC 3 One pilot 50 20%@50° BTDC 4 Twin pilot 5%@50° BTDC and 15%@30° BTDC 5 Split injection 50%@5° BTDC and 50%@5° ATDC injection angles investigated in this study. An injection timing of 9° BTDC is consid- ered optimal among test cases run at various injection timings. The performance data such as BTE, BSFC, and IMEP are collected at a steady engine condition for severalcyclestodeterminetheperformance.Apiezoelectricpressuresensorisusedto acquire in-cylinder pressure. Inside combustion pressure is recorded for 100 consec- utive cycles to average on each test point. Heat release rate (HRR) and pressure rise rate are computed using the pressure data. The engine’s exergetic efficiency at various injection strategies is evaluated by availability analysis. The exhaust emission data are collected from the gas analyzer (AVL DIGS 444N). 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Combustion Analysis The combustion performance of an engine can be evaluated based on pressure and HRR of the run test conditions. Figures 2 and 3 depict the combustion pressure and HRR under different injection strategies at different loading conditions. The split injection exhibits the lowest pressure curve with two peaks at 50% load condition in Fig. 2 because of late injection with a lesser amount of fuel injected, which results in a delay in the combustion process resulting in lesser pressure. It should be noted that the similar peak pressure is observed in the pilot conditions. The burning of pilot fuel raises the temperature and pressure inside the combustion
- 47. 32 K. V. Warghat et al. Fig. 2 Pressure and HRR versus Crankangle at 50% load condition chamber before the main injection, which reduces the ignition delay. The maximum HRR is observed during early pilot injection over single injection. The reason is that the accumulation of the pilot fuel and combined burning with the main injection results into a rapid combustion phase. However, a lower HRR is observed in 30° BTDC and twin pilot compared to single injection and single pilot at 50° BTDC due to increased pressure and temperature prior to the main injection. Furthermore, the combustion pressure and the HRR are lowest with the split injection technique because of the retardation in the SOI timing and the discontinuous combustion. The SOI timing in the split injection technique is retarded to limit the combustion noise from the engine.
- 48. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 33 Fig. 3 Pressure and HRR versus Crankangle at 80% load condition The pressure curve and HRR for the 80% load condition are shown in Fig. 3. The twin pilot injection shows a higher maximum pressure for high load conditions compared to the single pilot and single injection. The pressure is expected to be higher at high load due to the higher temperature, which results in a lower ignition delay. Single main injection results in higher HRR than other strategies as it performs diffusion mode combustion, in contrast to other strategies which integrate premixed and diffusion combustion processes. Two HRR peaks are shown in the split injection system, where one peak shows a rapid combustion phase, and the other shows a mixing controlled combustion phase, which happens due to the second injection after TDC.
- 49. 34 K. V. Warghat et al. 3.2 Performance Analysis It is well known that the Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) indicates the conversion of chemical energy into work. Figure 4 shows BTE at different injection strategies for two load conditions. It should be noted that the improved BTE can be seen at high loads, as it generates more heat during combustion. For high load conditions, a single main injection gives maximum BTE, and single pilot at 30° BTDC shows a minimum; BTE decreases as the pilot move toward TDC, where early pilot injection provides the proper mixing and combustion. A slight variation in BTE is observed for all injection strategies for medium load conditions. Similarly, BSFC represents the amount of fuel is utilized to produce per KW of brake power. Figure 5 shows the BSFC at different loading and injection conditions. It should be noted that the BSFC corroborates with the BTE in Fig. 4. Single main injection gives better BSFC at medium load compared to other condition. A reduced BSFC is observed in advanced pilot injection for all the load conditions. The indicated mean effective pressure can be referenced to the pressure acting on the piston during its stroke to produce the same amount of work. At higher IMEP, a better performance could be expected. Figure 6 shows the IMEP at different injection and load conditions; it shows that the twin pilot condition gives maximum mean adequate pressure compared to other conditions as suffice fuel mixture is expected, resultinginahighermeanpressure.Ingeneral,IMEPdecreasesastheinjectiontiming advances toward TDC, where main heat release is generated during the compression stroke. Note that the split injection condition gives the least effective pressure. Fig. 4 Brake thermal efficiency at different injection and load condition
- 50. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 35 Fig. 5 Brake-specific fuel consumption efficiency at different injection and load condition Fig. 6 IMEP at different injection strategy and load condition 3.3 Emission Analysis Emissions are calculated in terms of NOx, CO, and HC. Figure 7 shows the variation of CO emission at different injection and loading conditions; a single injection gives lower CO emission over multiple injections because of the multi-stage combustion events. Thus, a lower combustion temperature causes a reduced CO oxidation rate. Early single pilot injection shows the highest CO emissions at higher load condi- tions. However, at medium load, a minimal variation in emissions is observed for all injection strategies. HC emissions are primarily due to unburned fuel escaping after combustion due to wall quenching or lower in-cylinder temperatures. Early pilot injection at 50° BTDC
- 51. 36 K. V. Warghat et al. Fig. 7 Variation of CO emission at different injection strategy and load condition gives higher HC emissions over other conditions, as shown in Fig. 8. Higher HC at early pilot injection is due to wall quenching, which remained unburned during the combustion process. The twin pilot injection gives lower HC than the single pilot due to the amount of fuel injected at two stages, which helps in the combustion process. It is known that the NOx emission significantly depends on the combustion temper- ature. The higher the temperature, the higher the NOx production could be expected. Fig. 9 shows NOx emissions for different injection and loading conditions. A single main injection gives maximum NOx emissions compared to other conditions due to the higher in-cylinder temperature. For injection at single pilot injections, early pilot injection gives slightly higher NOx compared to late pilot injection. Twin pilot injection gives better NOx compared to single pilot as dividing fuel injection into two parts promotes homogeneity of charge with lower combustion temperature. Further- more, spilt injection gives minimum NOx due to late first injection resulting in lower in-cylinder pressure and temperature. Fig. 8 Variation of HC emission at different injection strategy and load condition
- 52. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 37 Fig. 9 Variation of NOx emission at different injection strategy and load condition 3.4 Availability Analysis The performance analysis carried out in this study is based on 1st law of thermody- namics. The injection strategy of single pilot and split injection gives the promising results in terms of performance and emission. Therefore, the qualitative information of both the strategies needs to be investigated. The 2nd law of thermodynamic deter- mines the exergetic efficiency of the system, where optimum injection strategy could be evaluated. The availability of in-cylinder is known to rise in terms of chemical exergy during the injection period. However, the exergetic losses such as exhaust heat and engine cylinder convective losses, and exergetic destruction brought on by chemical reaction cause the total in-cylinder availability to drop. Figures 10 and 11 represent the total in-cylinder availability for 50 and 80% load condition at different injection strategies, respectively. Figure 12 represents the second law efficiency at different injection strategies, 80% load condition gives significantly higher exergetic efficiency than the 50% load condition. In addition, BSFC in Fig. 5 emphasizes the exergetic efficiency for higher load. The exergetic efficiency in split injection is higher compared to the single pilot injection, where chemical exergy destruction is expected to be lower due to low emission. Ain = 1.033 ∗ m f ∗ LHV /3600 (1) Acw = (mw/3600) ∗ cpw ∗ (Two − Twi) + T0 ∗ cpw ∗ ln(Twi/Two) (2) Aexhaust = Qex + [(m ex /3600) ∗ T0 ∗ {(ceex ∗ ln(To/Texo)) − (Rex ∗ ln(P0/Pexo)}] (3) Adestroyed = Ain − (Ashaft + Acw + Aexhaust) (4) Aefficiency = 1 − Adestroyed /Ain ∗ 100 (5)
- 53. 38 K. V. Warghat et al. Fig. 10 Availability at different load condition 50% load condition Fig. 11 Availability at different load condition at 80% load condition Fig. 12 Exergy efficiency at different injection strategy and load condition
- 54. Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 39 4 Conclusions This paper investigated the different injection strategies in a CRDI combustion engine. The performance, emission, and availability analysis discussed in detail. The following observation is withdrawn from this study. • The CRDI engine test is performed at five different injection strategies with different injection timing for two load conditions. • Single pilot at 30° BTDC shows higher pressure at medium load conditions, whereas twin pilot injection gives higher in-cylinder pressure at high load. HRR is highest at single and single pilot injection at 50° BTDC for both load conditions. • BTE is lowest at single pilot at 30° BTDC. As the pilot injection angle gets closer to TDC, BTE lowers. In tested injection strategies, a single injection delivers a lower BSFC with improved BTE. However, an early single pilot injection results in a greater IMEP. • Single pilot injection at 50° BTDC shows higher CO and UHC for all loads. Besides, a split injection produces lower emissions compared to other strategies. • Thermodynamic second law efficiency at different injection strategies are studied. Though single pilot injection shows better BTE and lower BSFC but due to emis- sion losses, split condition gives better exergetic efficiency compared to other strategies. Acknowledgements Authors would like to thank Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad and Ministry of Education, India, for their constant support and financial assistance. We also thank Jagadish for his assistance in the IC Engine Laboratory. References 1. MacMillan D, LaRocca A, Shayler PJ, Morris T, Murphy M, Pegg I (2020) Investigating the effects of multiple pilot injections on stability at cold idle for a di diesel engine. SAE Int J Engines 2:14 2. Suh HK (2011) Investigations of multiple injection strategies for the improvement of combustion and exhaust emissions characteristics in a low compression ratio (cr) engine. Appl Energy 88(12):5013–5019 3. Yao M, Wang H, Zheng Z, Yue Y (2010) Experimental study of n-butanol additive and multi- injection on HD diesel engine performance and emissions. Fuel 89:2191–2201 4. Liu J, Yang F, Wang H, Ouyang M, Hao S (2013) Effects of pilot fuel quantity on the emissions characteristics of a CNG/diesel dual fuel engine with optimized pilot injection timing. Appl Energy 110:201–206 5. Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG (2006) Second-law analyses applied to internal combustion engines operation. Prog Energy Combust Sci 32:2–47
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- 56. Arras). It was seriously engaged against the British offensive until May 8–9. 3. About May 28 it returned to the Hindenburg Line between Moeuvres and Havrincourt. Flanders. 4. On July 12 it left this sector for Flanders, where it was sent into reserve near Winckel-St. Eloi. It did not take part as a whole in the British attack of July 31. On August 1 the entire division was engaged in the sector of Zonnebeke, where it launched a violent counterattack, in the course of which it lost heavily. 5. The 221st Division was relieved from the Ypres front during the night of August 3–4, but left some units in line until the 10th. Transferred to Champagne, it went into line east of Auberive on August 17, without having had any rest. It there filled up its effectives (with replacements comprising a large proportion of the 1918 class). Its activity was not manifested there except by a few raids. Cambrai. 6. On November 7 the division left the Champagne front, was transferred to Belgium, and remained at rest at Deynze until November 23. On this date it was taken by railroad to the Cambrai front, attacked by the British troops. Sent into line between Bourlon and Fontaine-Notre Dame on the 27th, it took part in the German counterattack. Relieved on December 7, it rested for a month in the vicinity of Douai. RECRUITING. The division was very mixed. The 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, originating in the Guard depots, was recruited from the entire Province of Prussia; the 41st Infantry Regiment (from East Prussia) was one of the regiments of the Prussian Army which had received the most replacements because of losses; the 60th Reserve Infantry Regiment comprised a majority of
- 57. Westphalians and men from the Rhine Province, but also a large number from other corps districts. VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE. The 221st Division always gave a good account of itself in the battles in which it took part. The 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, especially, in the course of the attacks of November, 1916, showed great tenacity on the defensive and great vigor on the offensive. The morale of the 221st Division was good in November, 1917. The general commanding the division and the major commanding the 41st Infantry Regiment both received the order “Pour le Merite.” 1918. Battle of Picardy. 1. The division continued to hold the sector near the Arras-Cambrai road until shortly before the March offensive. It was withdrawn, given a short rest, and attacked on the 21st at Queant. In two days it advanced as far as Ervillers (north of Bapaume). From the 25th of March to April 16 it rested in close support. 2. On April 16 the division was engaged the second time in the battle. It entered south of Arras in the Boyelles sector and remained there until May 25, when it was relieved by the 5th Bavarian Division. 3. The division rested and trained for almost two months in the locality east of Douai (Bruille, Somain, Aniches). The 45th Regiment, coming from the Macedonian front, replaced the 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, which was dissolved. Toward the end of July the division marched by stages to Noyon. It was held in reserve west of that place from July 30-August 8. Battle of the Santerre and Second Battle of Picardy.
- 58. 4. On August 9 the division was engaged at Arvillers-Hangest. In two days it was thrown back on Andechy, west of Roye. It was re-formed to the north and then to the southwest of Nesle (Aug. 11–17). It was reengaged on the 18th, and between that and the 27th fought north and south of the Avre near Roye (St. Mard-Sancourt). Again it was pushed back on the Canal du Nord at Buverchy-Libermont (Aug. 26–27). Its retreat continued toward Ham (Sept. 3–4) and St. Quentin (5th–8th). After that the division was in line near Fontaine les Cleres and Dallon until September 28. About 1,000 prisoners were taken from the division in this last sector. 5. The division was reengaged almost immediately south of Joncourt, Levergies, and Sequehart (Sept. 30). By October 10 it had reached Fresnoy le Grand. It was withdrawn on the 10th and rested a week near Bergues sur Sambre. 6. On the 18th it was engaged in the sector of the forest d’Antigny (near Wassigny). It retreated across the Sambre Canal on the 19th and passed into reserve. On the 24th it was reengaged near the Serre River (west of La Ferte Chevresis). In the final retreat it fell back through La Herie la Vieville, Laigny, and east of Vervins. It was in line on November 11. VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE. The division was rated as second class. It was used as an attack division in the March offensive and as a counterattack division in the last three months of the war. It was noted for its energetic higher command. When called in to oppose the French attack near Roye in August, the division had a rifle strength of 4,000. By the end of October this had been reduced to about 1,000. The 45th Regiment was reduced to four small companies by October 24. The 41st and 60th Reserve Regiments had but three companies to a battalion. The division fought very well in spite of its losses and fatigue in the final months.
- 59. 222d Division.
- 60. COMPOSITION. 1916 1917 1918[35] Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Infantry. 7. 193. 7. 193. 7. 193. 81 Res. 81 Res. 397. 397. 397. 81 Res. Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 2 Res. Uhlan Rgt. Artillery. 278 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: 222 (?) Art. Command: 278 F. A. Rgt. 278 F. A. Rgt. Engineers and Liaisons. 2 Res. Co. 27 Pions. Pion. Btn.: 2 Res. Co. 2 Pion. Btn. No. 27. 2 Res. Co. 27 Pions. 345 Pion. Co. 345 Pion. Co. 432 T. M. Co. 432 T. M. Co. 222 Tel. Detch. 222 Tel. Detch. Medical and Veterinary. 231 Ambulance Co. 231 Ambulance Co. 162 Field Hospital. 162 Field Hospital. 175 Field Hospital. 175 Field Hospital. 322 Vet. Hospital. 322 Vet. Hospital. Transport. 1071 M. T. Col. M. T. Col. 35. Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.
- 61. HISTORY. (81st Reserve Regiment: 18th Corps District—Hesse—Nassau. 193d Reserve Regiment: 7th Corps District—Westphalia. 397th Reserve Regiment: 2d Corps District—Pomerania.) 1916. Formed about September 11, 1916, behind the front north of Verdun, the 222d Division took two of its regiments from existing divisions—the 81st Reserve Regiment from the 21st Reserve Division, and the 193d Reserve Regiment from the 192d Division. Its third regiment, the 397th, was formed at Stenay from elements of the 16th and 53d Reserve Regiments (13th Reserve Division), of the 159th Regiment (14th Reserve Division), of the 118th Infantry Regiment (56th Division), and especially from the 140th Infantry Regiment (4th Division). 1. From September 15 to October 24, 1916, the 222d Division was at rest in Alsace in the vicinity of Rouffach. Somme. 2. Entrained on October 25, it was transferred to the vicinity of Cambrai by way of Sarrebruecken, Aix la Chapelle, Brussels, Tournai. About November 5 it went into action on the Somme front near Lesboeufs, Le Transloy, and remained in line until December 7–8. 3. After a few days of rest it was sent by railroad into the Laonnois. Detraining at St. Erme between December 15 and 29 it took over the sector of the Ville aux Bois (southeast of Craonne), which it occupied until February 15, 1917. 1917.
- 62. 1. Upon its release the 222d Division was employed in defensive works behind the Aisne-Oise front (north of La Fère, St. Gobain, Laffaux, Chavignon). Aisne. 2. About March 16, 1917, it was engaged east of Soissons (Vregny-Combe Plateau); counterattacked on March 21 north of Missy sur Aisne; retired in the direction of the Laffaux Mill-Jouy-Aizy (at the beginning of April) and fought on this front April 18 to 21. The 193d Infantry Regiment, sent as reenforcement troops to Soupir, suffered serious losses there and retired by way of Ostel on April 20. 3. The 222d Division, having established its position between Laffaux Mill and Malmaison Farm, was again severely tried during the attacks of May 5 and 6. 4. Withdrawn from the Aisne front on May 13, it was sent to rest in the area Marle-Vervins and reorganized. 5. At the end of June the division took over its former sector (Laffaux), where the attack of July 8 was the only important action in which it took part during this time, which lasted until the beginning of August. 6. After a short rest in the vicinity of Montigny, it came back into line (Ailles —north of Hurtebise) about September 5 and remained in this sector until November 2. At this time it took part in the withdrawal and occupied new positions north of the Ailette. 7. On November 28, the 222d Division was relieved in the sector of Chermizy and sent to rest at Laon and in the vicinity of Marle (one month’s training). 8. At the end of December it occupied the front Brancourt-Anizy. RECRUITING. The 81st Reserve Infantry Regiment and the 193d Infantry Regiment were recruited in the Rhine districts (Hesse-Nassau, Rhine Province, and
- 63. Westphalia). Many elements from these same regions were in the 397th Infantry Regiment in addition to Pomeranians. VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE. Although it had suffered only slight losses since the beginning of November, 1917, the 222d Division was exhausted by a stay of more than seven months in the different sectors of the Aisne. It is a mediocre division (January, 1918). During its rest in December the division received continual but moderate training, like the maneuvers of peace times. (Interrogation of prisoner, Feb. 4, 1918.) Ailette. 1. This was a very quiet sector and the division remained here without incident until the Somme offensive was well under way. However, the division took part in the attacks of April 7 and 8, when the enemy endeavored to squeeze out the new salient of Coucy le Château, which was developed by the progress of the main advance toward Montdidier. It suffered heavily in several attacks but gained little ground. Montdidier. 2. About the 3d of May the division was withdrawn and sent to the front southeast of Montdidier, where the main battle line had stabilized, but where infantry was still continuing, and during the night of the 9th–10th relieved the 206th Division in the Assainvillers sector. However, the sector soon grew quiet. The division remained in line and took part in the battle of the Oise on June 9, advancing via Courcelles to Mery. The division made but little headway (it will be remembered that this whole offensive failed) and suffered heavy losses in several days of hard fighting. It was relieved by the 11th Division about the 8th of July and went to rest near Coucy le Château.
- 64. Soissons. 3. During the night of the 25th–26th the division reenforced the front near Nouvron (northwest of Soissons). Here it was subjected to the full weight of the attack of the 18th of August and was driven back to Audignicourt and the Ailette. After having suffered very heavy losses (1829 prisoners), it was withdrawn about the 27th and went to rest near Laon. About the middle of September it was disbanded, the 81st Reserve Regiment going to the 21st Reserve Division, the 193d Regiment going to the 14th Division, and the 397th Regiment going to the 45th Reserve Division. VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE. The 222d was rated a second-class division. It took little part in offensive operations but was not incapable of putting up a tenacious defense. In June two of its regiments threatened to leave the trenches if they were not relieved, but the difficulty seems to have been smoothed over though there was no relief until July 8. It is interesting to note that the divisions receiving regiments when the 222d was disbanded were all second-class units.
- 65. 223d Division.
- 66. COMPOSITION. 1916 1917 1918[36] Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Infantry. 67. 144. 67. 144. 67. 144. 173. 173. 173. 29 Ers. 29 Ers. 29 Ers. Cavalry. 2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag. Rgt. (2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag. Rgt.). 2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag. Rgt. Artillery. 280 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: (z) Art. Command: 280 F. A. Rgt. 280 F. A. Rgt. Engineers and Liaisons. 343 Pion. Co. (223) Pion. Btn.: 5 Co. 23 Pions. 5 Co. 23 Pions. 343 Pion. Co. 343 Pion. Co. 433 T. M. Co. 433 T. M. Co. 223 Tel. Detch. 223 Tel. Detch. Medical and Veterinary. 232 Ambulance Co. 232 Ambulance Co. 164 Field Hospital. 164 Field Hospital. 170 Field Hospital. 176 Field Hospital. 176 Field Hospital. Vet. Hospital. Vet. Hospital. Transport. M. T. Col. M. T. Col. 36. Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.
- 67. HISTORY. (144th Infantry Regiment: 16th Corps District—Lorraine. 173d Infantry Regiment: 16th Corps District—Lorraine. 29th Ersatz Regiment: 14th Corps District—Grand Duchy of Baden.) 1916. The 223d Division was concentrated at Mulhousen at the beginning of October, 1916. Its regiments formerly belonged to other divisions. The 144th Infantry Regiment was taken from the 3d Division on the Verdun front; the 173d from the 34th Division, then at Thiaumont; the 29th Ersatz from the 39th Bavarian Reserve Division, on the Lorraine front. 1. Entraining at Mulhousen on October 26, 1916, the 223d Division was transferred to the north by way of Sarrelouis-Treves-Aix la Chapelle- Louvain-Brussels-Valenciennes, and detrained north of Cambrai on October 28. During the night of November 11–12 it came to the Ancre front (Serre- Grandcourt) and lost heavily there. 2. Relieved about November 25, it was sent to rest in the area east of Cambrai. Elements of the 173d Infantry Regiment were sent on detached service south of Bapaume (Ligny-Tilloy). 1917. Champagne. 1. At the end of January, 1917, the 223d Division left the Cambrai area for Champagne. It occupied the sector north of Rheims (Witry les Rheims, March and April). 2. About April 27 it was engaged south of Nauroy at Mont Cornillet and lost heavily between April 30 and May 8.
- 68. Galicia. 3. Withdrawn from the Champagne front about May 18, the 223d Division was transferred to Galicia. (Itinerary: Amagne (May 21)-Sedan-Thionville- Sarrebruecken-Frankfort-Leipzig-Breslau-Cracow-Lemberg.) It detrained at Zloczow, May 26. 4. At the beginning of July it opposed the Russian offensive in the vicinity of Brzezany; on July 18, it took part in the Austro-German counterattack and marched in the direction of Husiatyn, which it reached on the 30th and remained in line there until the middle of December. It was sent in reserve on this date, and prepared to leave for the Western Front, borrowing men from the regiments of the 83d Division. RECRUITING. The 223d Division was recruited from Westphalia and the Rhine Province so far as concerns the 144th and 173d Infantry Regiments. The 29th Ersatz Regiment came from the Grand Duchy of Baden. VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE. The 223d Division may be considered good. 1918. Battle of Picardy. 1. The division rested in a camp at Sissonne until March 19, after which it was railed to La Fere, arriving there on March 21. 2. On the second day of the attack it was engaged near Tergnier-Chauny and advanced to the Guiscard region by the 24th. Shortly after its withdrawal from Guiscard (25th) it took over the Morlincourt-Appilly sector on the Oise (east of Noyon) and held it until May 1.
- 69. East of Oise. 3. It rested near Guiscard during the first half of May. On the 15th it was engaged in front of Noyon (Larbroye-Mont Renaud-Pont l’Eveque) until the 30th. It took part in the Oise offensive of June, crossing the river and advancing in the Bois de Carlepont in the direction of Caisnes and Cuts. It established itself on the line Bailley-Tracy le Val-Oise and held that sector until the French attack of August 18. Oise-Aisne. 4. The French attack of the 18th threw the division back on Salency. It was relieved on the 22d and railed to Anizy le Chateau the same day. From there it was taken to north of Soissons and reengaged on the 29th on the line Chauvigny-Juvigny. In these two engagements the division lost 688 prisoners. 5. The division had lost heavily in March and in the August fighting. Its morale was poor. The authority of the officers was low and desertions were frequent. As a result the division was dissolved in September. Its effectives were turned into the 52d, 103d, and 115th Divisions. VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE. The division was rated as third class. Prior to the March offensive it had been regarded a good division.
- 70. 224th Division.
- 71. COMPOSITION. 1916 1917 1918 Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Infantry. 19 Ldw. 216. 19 Ldw. 216. 19 Ldw. 61 Ldw. 61 Ldw. 61 Ldw. 429 Ldw. 429 Ldw. 429 Ldw. Cavalry. (?) Sqn. 10 Mounted Jag. Rgt. 4 Sqn. 10 Mounted Jag. Rgt. Artillery. 284 F. A. Rgt. 224 Art. Command: 224 Art. Command: 284 F. A. Rgt. 284 F. A. Rgt. 795 Light Am. Col. 1015 Light Am. Col. 1029 Light Am. Col. Engineers and Liaisons. 224 Pion. Btn.: 423 Pion. Btn.: 2 Co. 27 Pions. 2 Co. 27 Pions. 434 T. M. Co. 3 Landst. Co. 9 C. Dist. Pions. Tel. Detch. 251 Searchlight Section. 224 Signal Command: 224 Tel. Detch. Medical and Veterinary. 234 Ambulance Co. 234 Ambulance Co. 181 Field Hospital. 336 Field Hospital. 330 Field Hospital. 324 Field Hospital. 324 Vet. Hospital. Transport. 794 M. T. Col. 795 M. T. Col. Attached. 1 Landst. Pion. Co. (8 C. Dist.).
- 72. HISTORY. (429th Landwehr: 3d Corps District—Brandenburg. 19th Landwehr: 5th Corps District—Posen. 61st Landwehr: 17th Corps District—West Prussia.) 1916. Russia. 1. Upon its formation the 224th Division appeared on the Eastern Front about October, 1916. 2. At this time it was near the 31st Division, north of Lake Narotch. 1917. Volhynia-Sviniouki. 1. At the beginning of February, 1917, the composition of the 224th Division appeared to be as follows: 19th Landwehr Regiment taken from the 18th Landwehr Division; 61st Landwehr Regiment, from the 85th Landwehr Division, and the 429th Landwehr Regiment, a new formation (1916). 2. The 224th Division then occupied the sector of Sviniouki in Volhynia. It remained there during the entire year of 1917, during the latter months furnishing important replacements to the Western Front, to such a degree that in November the companies of the 429th Landwehr did not have more than 100 men left (Russian interrogation). RECRUITING. The 224th Division was recruited from Brandenburg and the eastern Provinces of the empire.
- 73. VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE. The division was on the Russian front from its formation and was of mediocre combat value. In December, 1917, in Volhynia, 50 men of the youngest classes were taken from each company of the 429th Landwehr Regiment to be sent to the Flanders front. In January, 1918, the companies of the 61st Landwehr Regiment were composed of men of the Landsturm. (Prisoner’s statement, Jan. 13.) 1918. Volhynia. At the beginning of March the division left the Sviniouki region and went via Pinsk to Gomel. Ukraine. 2. Toward the end of April the division was identified in the Vorojva region (southwest of Koursk). On the 9th of September the division was identified a little farther to the north in the Delgorod region. Woevre. 3. On September 29 the division was relieved (probably by the 45th Landwehr Division) and, entraining at Sadtowo, traveled via Kubiantz- Kharkov-Kiev-Kovel-Kattovitz-Dresden-Frankfort on the Main-Saarbrueken- Metz-Batilly, where it detrained on October 12. Resting here until the 16th, it marched via Bruville-Mars la Tour-Chambley and relieved the 88th Division during the night of the 16th–17th south of Dampvitoux. The division was identified by prisoners on November 7 here and does not seem to have been withdrawn before the armistice.
- 74. VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE. The division was a very poor one. About the middle of the summer the best men were chosen to be sent to the Western Front. They were paraded before the commanding general and when they reached the place where he was standing they dropped their guns and went back to the caserne. Later when the whole division was to come to the west, the men were far from satisfied, not being entirely consoled when they were informed that they were to enter a quiet sector.
- 75. 225th Division.
- 76. COMPOSITION. 1916 1917 1918[37] Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Infantry. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 373. 217 Res. 217 Res. 18 Res. 373. 373. 217 Res. Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. Artillery. 225 Art. Command: 225 Art. Command: 47 F. A. Rgt. 47 F. A. Rgt. Engineers and Liaisons. (225) Pion. Btn.: 259 Pion. Co. 259 Pion. Co. 413 T. M. Co. 344 Pion. Co. 225 Tel. Detch. 413 T. M. Co. Tel. Detch. Medical and Veterinary. 259 Ambulance Co. 240 Ambulance Co. 155 Field Hospital. 259 Ambulance Co. 172 Field Hospital. 155 Field Hospital. 265 Vet. Hospital. Vet. Hospital. Transport. M. T. Col. 37. Composition at the time of the dissolution, September, 1918.
- 77. HISTORY. (18th Reserve: 18th Corps Division—East Prussia. 217th Reserve: 7th Corps District—Westphalia. 373d Infantry Regiment: 1st Corps District—East Prussia.) 1916. The 225th Division, including the 18th Reserve Infantry Regiment (from the 1st Reserve Division), the 217th Reserve Infantry Regiment (from the 47th Reserve Division), and the 373d Infantry Regiment (from the 10th Landwehr Division), was formed on the Eastern Front in the vicinity of Wladimir-Volynski about September, 1916. Roumania-Transylvania. 1. In November, 1916, the 225th Division was transferred to the Roumanian Carpathians. It was there in December in the valley of the Uz. 1917. Roumania. 1. During the first half of 1917 the 225th Division occupied the calm sectors in the vicinity of Uz (Hills 1031 and 1640). 2. In July the 373d Infantry Regiment was transferred to the valley of the Putna to withstand the Russo-Roumanian offensive. The division took part in the Austro-German counterattack and established its positions near Ocna in September and October. France.
- 78. 3. Relieved about November 11, it went to Bereczk, where it entrained on the 18th for the Western Front. (Itinerary: Kronstadt (Brasso)-Budapest- Vienna-Munich-Carlsruhe-Sarrebruecken.) It detrained on November 25 at Vallieres-Vantoux, near Metz, and from there was transferred to the vicinity of Vigneulles (Cote de Meuse). Cotes de Meuse. 4. On December 4–5, it took over the sector of Chevalierswood, south of Vaux les Palameix-Seuzey. RECRUITING. Two regiments were drawn from East Prussia (18th Reserve and 372d Infantry Regiment), the 217th Reserve from Westphalia. VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE. The 225th Division which comprised drafts from Baden, Alsace, Westphalia, East Prussia, and the Rhine was not homogeneous and was not considered as a fighting division. The 18th Reserve Regiment had a bad reputation. On January 6, 1917, it refused to attack at Hill 1298 in Hungary. (Interrogation of prisoners Feb. 3 and Mar. 17, 1918.) The division included a large number of Poles. However, men of the young classes gradually replaced the older men, who still made up a large part of the division in 1917; consequently, the combat value of the division may have improved. 1918. 1. The division held the Woevre sector until the beginning of May. It entrained at Jeandelize about May 15 and was railed by Sedan, Givet, Dmant, Namur, Charleroi, Mons, and Cambrai. It detrained near Peronne and marched toward the Avre front by Chaulnes, Rosieres en Santerre.
- 79. Battle of the Santerre. 2. It was engaged north of Moreuil (east of the Villers aux Erables- Thennes) on May 22. The Allied attack struck the division and threw it back on Beaufort, losing 2,358 prisoners. It was relieved on the 10th and rested 15 days. Reengaged on the 25th east of Albert (Contalmaison, Montauban) the division again lost heavily. It was withdrawn on the 30th. 3. After its withdrawal the division was dissolved to the profit of the 1st Reserve Division and 2d Division. VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE. The division was rated as third class. In the August fighting in Picardy it did not make a strong resistance. In the two engagements in August the division lost 3,593 prisoners.
- 80. 226th Division.
- 81. COMPOSITION. 1916 1917 1918[38] Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Brigade. Regiment. Infantry. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. Rgt. 439. 427. 427. Cavalry. 1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag. Rgt. 1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag. Rgt. Artillery. 64 Res. F. A. Rgt. (?) Art. Command: 64 Res. F. A. Rgt. Engineers and Liaisons. (226) Pion. Btn.: 2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions. 2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions. Searchlight Section. (?) T. M. Co. 430 T. M. Co. 26 Searchlight Co. 226 Tel. Detch. 226 Tel. Detch. Medical and Veterinary. 257 Ambulance Co. 257 Ambulance Co. Field Hospital. Field Hospital. 262 Vet. Hospital. 262 Vet. Hospital. Transport. 471 M. T. Col. 635 M. T. Col. 38. Composition at the time of dissolution, May, 1918.
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