Fluvial processes and landforms

Course Title: Earth Science
Paper Title: The Dynamic Earth
FLUVIAL PROCESSES ANDFLUVIAL PROCESSES AND
LANDFORMSLANDFORMS
By
Prof.A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science
University of Mysore, India

 Introduction
 Streams and Drainages
 Stages of a River
 Profiles of a Stream
 Erosional Work of Streams
 Transportation work of Streams
 Erosional Landforms
 Depositional Landforms
 Channel Features
 Conclusion.
Table of ContentsTable of Contents

 After attending this module, the user would be able
to comprehend about the geomorphic processes
promoted on the surface of the earth by running
water and streams as geological agents.
 This module also highlights all the landforms created
by the fluvial processes, including the erosional,
transportational and depositional landforms. The role
of streams, drainage networks and the stages of
development of streams are also explained.
Objectives

 Rivers and running water are dynamic geomorphic
agents. Flow of water has a force, velocity and power to
generate power.
 There are many natural and dynamic processes
happening along a river. When there are circumstances,
there may be severe floods along the river courses which
can destroy everything along the flow path.
 Natural hazards are also caused by streams. Flowing
water has the ability to dissolve the soluble mineral
substances available on its way.
Introduction
(…Contd)

 The processes enacted by streams are called as fluvial
processes. The word “fluvius” is derived from the
latin word meaning “ river”.
 The world fluvial is used to denote the running water
as streams or rivers. Fluvial processes entail the
erosion, transportation, and deposition of earth
materials by running water.
 Fluvial processes and fluvial landforms dominate land
surfaces the world over, as opposed to the limited
effects of glacial, coastal, and wind processes.
Introduction

 Streams are flowing water bodies.
 The flow of water originates after every rain.
 Rain water falling on all the slopes of a land gets
collected and start flowing on the land as overland
flow.
Streams and Drainages
(…Contd)

 They merge together along the converging slopes,
join together and run as a main stream.
 The main stream, normally contain the cumulative
volume of flow.
(…Contd)

 The total water will be flowing out through a single
outlet called as river mouth.
 The entire area encompassing the catchment zone
upto the river mouth, controlling this cumulative
flow, is known as a river basin.
 It is also called as a drainage basin.

 Every stream has its own valley.
 Valleys are common on the earth’s surface.
 A valley is a depression on the earth surface drained
by, and whose form is changed by water under the
attractive force of gravity, between two adjacent
uplands.
Stream Valleys
(…Contd)

 Every valley has its own length and slope. The
horizontal distance measured in the cross section in a
linear depression between two adjacent uplands is
known as its length.
 The slope of a valley for a given reach refers to the
difference in elevation between the upstream end to a
point of reach along the downstream side.
Stream Valleys

Valley development is a unique hydraulic process. It
happens due to three concomitant processes as
a) Valley deepening
b) Valley widening and
c) Valley lengthening.
Valley development

Valley deepening is effected by
a. Hydraulic action
b. Corrosion or abrasion of the floor of the valley
c. Pothole drilling along the valley floor and at the base
of waterfalls
d. Corrosion
e. Weathering of the stream bed.
Valley Deepening

Valley widening is accomplished by
 Lateral erosion or planation by the stream in a valley
 Hydraulic action
 Corrosion
 Rainwash and sheet wash
 Gullying on valley sides
 Weathering and mass-wasting
 Role of incoming tributaries.
Valley Widening

 Valley lengthening may take place due to three
ways as:
 Extension by headward erosion
 Increase in size of their meanders
 Extension at the confluence due to subsidence.
Valley Lengthening
(…Contd)

 The maximum downward limit for valley deepening is
known as base level of erosion.
 In some cases, the channel length may increase due to
a meandering course of a river, but the valley length is
short.
Valley Lengthening

 A river is said to be starting from an youthful stage,
run though a mature stage and reaches its old stage
depending upon its age, length of flow path, density
of streams, population of its streams, discharge
volumes and width of its mouth.
Stages of a River

 A youthful stream is one that undergoing initial
development; consequently, it has a steep, irregular
gradient, few tributaries or meanders, and a narrow
floodplain.
 In addition, most of the erosion takes place in a
downward direction.
Youthful stage
(…Contd)

 Youthful rivers are typically found in the highland or
mountainous areas.
 They are characterized by steep slopes.
 They show a relatively small volume of water and
rapid flow.
Youthful stage
(…Contd)

 Youthful streams may extend their source or head
into higher elevation by cutting channels backward
or upslope.
 Because their rapid flow leads to rapid erosion,
youthful rivers tend to have narrow V-shaped valleys
that are relatively straight.
Youthful stage

 A mature stage river possesses a gentler slope and a
flatter land surface.
 Mature rivers tend to have many well-developed
branches streams called as tributarie.
 The river is characterized by a broad, flat river valley
with a well-developed floodplain.
Mature stage
(…Contd)

 The river channel will be relatively broad because the
river, having reached a lower elevation and lost it's
steep slope, works on eroding the sides of the
channel.
 They show a gently meandering course over the
floodplain regions.
Mature stage
(…Contd)

 A mature stage river normally reaches a stage of
equilibrium in which it's erosion and deposition are
nearly in balance.
 Such rivers move a huge amount of water in their
courses.
Mature stage

 As time progress and erosion continues, the stream
gradient decreases.
 The number of course deflections, on the other
hand, increases so that meanders begin to firm.
Power of the River
(…Contd)

 Eventually, the degree of lateral erosion becomes
equivalent to that of downward erosion.
 This intermediate stage of development is referred to
as maturity.
Power of the River

 During the old stage, the relief around the river
becomes extremely flat, the river will have almost no
slope and consequently very little momentum or
speed.
 These are characterized by very elaborate and
intricately meandering river courses.
Old stage
(…Contd)

 They show swampy areas, around the old rivers
because the lack of slope leads to very poor
drainage.
 The old rivers are very muddy.
 This is due to the consequence of large amounts of
suspended material being carried by the river with
low velocity.
Old stage
(…Contd)

 The river at this stage will show a high discharge of
water.
 The final stage of stream evolution occurs when
lateral erosion takes precedence over down cutting.
 These so-called old-age streams have very low
gradient and wide floodplains.
Old stage

 Every stream has its longitudinal profile and lateral
cross-sections.
 The longitudinal profile of a stream is analysed to
know the water surface slope.
 It helps to compute the velocity of flow and the
gradient.
Profile of a Stream
(…Contd)

 The transverse profile helps in identifying the nature
of topographic floodplain and hydraulic floodplains.
 The actual water flowing zone in a river is called as
the bank full elevation.
Profile of a Stream
(…Contd)

 The longitudinal profile of a river shows how a river’s
gradient changes as it flows from its source to its
mouth.
 The long profile shows how, in the upper stage of a
river’s course, the river’s gradient is steep but it
gradually flattens out as the river erodes towards its
base level.
Profile of a Stream
(…Contd)

 These are points where the gradient of the river
changes suddenly and can be caused by landforms like
waterfalls or lakes, where the lithology of the river
changes and differential erosion takes place.
Profile of a Stream

 The course a river takes is split into three stages,
the upper, middle and lower stage.
 In the upper stage, the river is close to its source
and high above its base level.
A River’s Course
(…Contd)

 In the upper course, the gradient of the river is steep
and the river is high above sea level giving it a large
amount of gravitational potential energy that can be
converted to kinetic energy later on.
 In the middle course, the river’s gravitational
potential energy gets converted to kinetic energy and
the gradient begins to level out resulting in the river’s
velocity increasing.
A River’s Course
(…Contd)

 By the time the river reaches its lower stage, it has
next to no gravitational potential energy but lots of
kinetic energy resulting in a high velocity.
 In the lower stage, the river will be far away from its
source, close to the mouth and not far above its
base level.
A River’s Course
(…Contd)

 In the middle stage, it’s somewhere in between.
 The total energy that a river possesses varies from
one stage to another.
 It is because of changes in the river’s height,
gradient and speed.
A River’s Course

 In the upper course, the river has a lot of
gravitational potential energy.
 Hence, it has a lot of energy to erode vertically.
 The bed of the river is eroded greatly while the
banks aren’t eroded as much.
Processes in the Upper Course
(…Contd)

 The river at this stage mainly transports large pieces
of angular rocks.
 This increases erosion processes.
 Vertical erosion is further increased by the rough
nature of the channel in the upper course which
increases the water’s turbulence and its ability to
erode.
(…Contd)

 Erosion and transportation takes place, in large
quantities, in the upper course when the river’s
discharge is high after periods of heavy precipitation.
 When the river’s discharge falls, the river stops
transporting the large boulders and deposits them.

 In the middle course, the river has a less gravitational
potential energy but possess more kinetic energy.
 Due to this, the erosion shifts from vertical to lateral
erosion.
 Corrasion is still the main erosive process as large
particles are transported by saltation.
Processes in the Middle Course
(…Contd)

 The average load size has decreased in the middle
course, so more load is being transported in
suspension.
 In the middle course, the river can induce floods.
 There is also a possibility that the river may deposit
its gravel and sand sized particles, onto its flood
plain, in this stage.
Processes in the Middle Course

 In the lower course, the river will have no
gravitational potential energy.
 Hence, the erosion is almost exclusively lateral.
 There isn’t much of erosion as the channel is
smoother resulting in less turbulent flow.
Processes in the Lower Course
(…Contd)

 The main place where erosion takes place is where
the river meanders.
 The average particle size is very small.
 The river’s sediment load is mainly composed of silts
and clays.
 These are transported in suspension or even in
solution.
(…Contd)

 Similar to the middle course, when there is flooding
in the river; it deposits all its load.
 Here, the deposition takes place at the mouth of the
river, where the river meets the sea or a lake.

 Moving water erodes all earth’s surface materials, not
only along the bed but also along the sides of the
channel.
 The river transports all the eroded materials on to a
new location, and then deposits them.
 The materials deposited by a streams are called as
alluvium.
Erosional Work of Streams
(…Contd)

 The ability of a stream to do all these works is a
function of stream velocity and discharge.
 Running water is capable of conducting headward
erosion, vertical erosion and lateral erosion.
Erosional Work of Streams

 Flowing water erodes in three ways.
 Firstly, the flowing water dissolves the soluble
materials from the channel, and contributes to the
stream's dissolved load or, solution load.
A three-way mechanism
(…Contd)

 Secondly, the impact of water, or hydraulic action,
on the sides and bed of the channel, try to dislodge
the materials and makes them available for transport,
as a part of the stream load.
 Thirdly, the materials that are too heavy to carry in
suspension, scoot and roll across the bed and
eroding the channel by abrasion.
A three-way mechanism

 The rate of erosion depends on many factors.
 Climatic factors include the amount and intensity of
precipitation, the average temperature, as well as the
typical temperature range, and seasonality, the wind
speed, and finally, the storm frequency.
Rate of Erosion
(…Contd)

 The erosion will continue till the base level is
reached.
 The “Base Level” is the lowest (elevation) point to
which a stream can flow and cut down.
 It is the ultimate level which is the maximum, and
that is the sea level.
Rate of Erosion

 The geologic factors include the sediment or rock
type, its porosity and permeability, the slope
(gradient) of the land, and nature of structures likes
tilts, faults, folds or weathered.
The Geological and Biological factors
(…Contd)

 The biological factors include ground cover, by
vegetation or lack thereof, the type of organisms
inhabiting the area, and the land use.
 Sediments consisting of more clay fractions tend to
erode less than those with sand or silt fractions.
The Geological and Biological factors

Types of Erosion carried out by running water are the
following:
a) Splash erosion
b) Sheet erosion
c) Rill erosion
d) Gully erosion
e) Stream erosion
f) Bank erosion.
Types of erosion

 Splash erosion is the first stage of the erosion
process.
 Splash erosion is the detachment and airborne
movement of small soil particles caused by the impact
of raindrops on soil.
 Splash erosion occurs when raindrops hit the bare
soils.
Splash erosion
(…Contd)

 The explosive impact breaks up the soil aggregates
so that all the individual soil particles are ‘splashed’
onto the soil surface.
 The splashed particles can rise as high as 60cm above
the ground and move up to 1.5 metres from the
point of impact.
Splash erosion
(…Contd)

 The particles block the spaces between soil
aggregates, so that the soil forms a crust that reduces
the infiltration rate and increases the runoff.
Splash erosion

 Sheet erosion is the detachment of soil particles by
raindrop impact and their removal downslope by
water flowing overland as a sheet instead of in
definite channels or rills.
 The impact of the raindrop breaks apart the soil
aggregate.
 Particles of clay, silt and sand fill the soil pores and
reduce infiltration.
Sheet erosion
(…Contd)

 After the surface pores are filled with sand, silt or
clay, overland flow of water begins due to the
lowering of infiltration rates.
 Once the rate of falling rain is faster than infiltration,
runoff takes place.
 There are two stages of sheet erosion.
Sheet erosion
(…Contd)

 The first is rain splash, in which soil particles are
knocked into the air by raindrop impact.
 In the second stage, the loose particles are moved
downslope by broad sheets of rapidly flowing water
filled with sediment known as sheet floods.
Sheet erosion
(…Contd)

 This stage of sheet erosion is generally produced by
cloudbursts.
 The sheet floods commonly travel for short distances
and may last only for a short period of time.
Sheet erosion

 Rill erosion refers to the development of small,
ephemeral concentrated flow paths, which function as
both sediment source and sediment delivery systems
for erosion on hill slopes.
 Flow depths in rills are typically on the order of a few
centimeters or less and slopes may be quite steep.
Rill erosion
(…Contd)

 These are very different hydraulic environments.
 Eroding rills evolve morphologically with reference to
both time and space.
 The rill bed surface changes as soil erodes, which in
turn alters the hydraulics of the flow.
Rill erosion
(…Contd)

 The hydraulics of flow is the driving mechanism for
the erosion process.
 The process of rill evolution involves a feedback loop
between flow detachment, hydraulics, and the bed
form.
Rill erosion
(…Contd)

The factors involved in rill erosion are
a) Flow velocity
b) depth
c) width
d) hydraulic roughness
e) local bed slope
f) friction slope and
g) detachment rate.
Rill erosion

 Gully erosion is another type of erosion.
 It is also called as ephemeral gully erosion.
 It occurs when water flows in narrow channels
during or immediately after heavy rains or melting of
snow in mountainous regions.
Gully erosion
(…Contd)

 A gully is sufficiently deep that it would not be
routinely destroyed by any tillage operations.
 The narrow channels, or gullies, may be of
considerable depth, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6m to as
much as 25 to 30m.
Gully erosion

 It is the Valley or Stream Erosion which creates a lot
of landforms.
 The valley or stream erosion occurs with continued
water flow along a linear surface.
 The erosion is both downward and headward.
Stream erosion
(…Contd)

 The downward action will be deepening the valley,
and the headward erosion will be extending the valley
into the hillside.
 In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive
activity is dominantly vertical.
 During this stage the valleys will have a typical V
shaped cross-section and the stream gradient is
relatively steep.
Stream erosion
(…Contd)

 When some base level is reached, the erosive activity
switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley
floor and creates a narrow floodplain.
 The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral
deposition of sediments becomes important as the
stream meanders across the valley floor.
Stream erosion

 Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a
stream or river.
 The roots of trees growing along a stream are
undercut by such erosive actions. Bank erosion is a
natural process.
Bank erosion
(…Contd)

 The natural processes of riverbank erosion can
produce favourable outcomes such as the formation
of productive floodplains and alluvial terraces.
 The major causes of bank erosion are flooding, land
use, stream management, over-clearing of
catchment and stream bank vegetation, and poorly
managed sand and gravel extraction
Bank erosion

 Once the surface material is detached from the
source by the water, it can be transported by the
water very easily.
 Fluvial transportation is the movement of earth’s
material enacted by the running water.
Transportation work of Streams
(…Contd)

 As the particle size increases, the velocity needed to
transport also increases.
 The material transported through the stream is
called as it's stream load.
Transportation work of Streams

Transportation involves the following processes:
 Traction: It refers to the load that is rolled along the
bed of the river.
 Saltation: It refers the load that is bounced along the
bed of the river.
Processes involved in transportation
(…Contd)

 Suspension: It refers to the load that is transported
in a rivers' flow (current)
 Solution: It refers to the load that is dissolved by a
river and then transported by it.
 Flotation: It refers to the material transported on
the surface of a river.
Processes involved in transportation

 Stream load is a geologic term referring to the solid
masses carried away by a stream.
 The amount of solid load that a stream can carry, or
stream capacity, is measured in metric tons per day,
passing a given location.
Stream Load
(…Contd)

 The stream capacity is dependent upon the stream’s
velocity, the amount of water flow, and the gradation.
 The stream load is composed of three components
as the dissolved or solution load, the suspended load
and the bed load.
 Bed load is that which is moved across the bed of the
channel.
Stream Load
(…Contd)

Bed load is transported in two ways: the first one is
a) traction, which is a scooting and rolling of particles
along the bed and
b) the second one is saltation, a bouncing-like
movement.
c) Saltation occurs when particles are suspended in
the stream for a short distance after which they fall
to the bed, dislodging particles from the bed.
Stream Load

 Water has the ability to dissolve soluble mineral
substances on the surface and also within the
groundwater system.
 The dissolved load comes primarily from groundwater
seepage into the stream.
Three types of loads
(…Contd)

 Suspended load is comprised of sediment suspended
and transported through the stream.
 Turbulent flow suspends clay and silt in the stream.
 Suspended load comes from material eroded from the
surface bordering the channel and deposited in the
stream, as well as, erosion of the channel itself.
(…Contd)

 The stream capacity is the maximum load of sediment
a stream can carry for a given discharge.
 The stream capacity increases with increasing flow
velocity.
(…Contd)

 Turbulent flow occurs under higher velocity thus
increasing the water's ability to dislodge material from
the bed or sides of the stream.
 Stream competence is the largest size material the
stream can move under a given discharge.

The erosional landforms of the running water are
very wide. They are
Erosional Landforms

 A canyon or gorge is a deepravine between pairs of
escarpments or cliffs.
 It is most often carved from the landscape by the
erosive activity of a river over geologic timescales.
 A canyon may refer to a rift between two mountain
peaks.
Canyons
(…Contd)

 The word “Canyon” comes from the Spanish word
cañon, which means “tube” or “pipe.”
 The term “gorge” is often used to mean “canyon,” but
a gorge is almost always steeper and narrower than a
canyon.
Canyons

 Rills are shallow channels eroded by threads of
turbulent flow developed in the sheet flow.
 During rain storms rills erode headward on the
steepest local gradient at faster rate.
Rills
(…Contd)

 On open slopes they tend to form parallel to one
another, converging in hillside hollows to form
dendritic patterns.
 Rills are ephemeral features. They may be destroyed
and recreated during major storms.
 The rills terminate at the base of slopes and thus they
are not part of the regional drainage network.
Rills

 The depositional landforms created by the running
water are
i. Floodplains
ii. Alluvial fans
iii. Deltas.
Depositional Landforms

 A floodplain is an area of land adjacent to a stream
or a river course.
 It stretches from the banks of its channel to the
base of the enclosing valley walls.
 This regions normally experiences flooding during
periods of high discharge.
Floodplain
(…Contd)

 These are the surfaces of low relief developed on
the alluvium adjacent to a stream.
 The flood plains become the stream bed during
flood seasons.
Floodplain
(…Contd)

The Floodplains contain various features like
a) point bars (lateral accretion)
b) overbank sediments (horizontal accretion)
c) Levees
d) levee crevasses
e) splay deposit
f) meanders
g) neck cutoff
h) oxbow lake.
Floodplain

 The term alluvium is applied to all fluvial deposits
with the exception of deltas.
 Streams carrying coarse sediments develop sand and
gravel bars.
 These types of bars seen often in braided streams
which are common in elevated areas.
Features of deposition
(…Contd)

 Bars develop in braided streams because of
reductions in discharge.
 Two conditions often cause the reduction in
discharge: reduction in the gradient of the stream
and/or the reduction of flow after a precipitation
event or spring melting of snow and ice.
(…Contd)

 Sand Bars are the depositional features of a river.
 Point bars develop where stream flow is locally
reduced because of friction and reduced water
depth.
 In a meandering stream, point bars tend to be
common on the inside of a channel bend.

 Dunes and ripples are the primary sedimentary
features in streams whose channel is composed
mainly of sand and silt.
 Dunes are about 10 or more centimeters in height
and are spaced a meter or more apart.
 Ripples are only a few centimeters in height and
spacing, and are found in slow moving streams with
fine textured beds.
Dunes and ripples

 Rosgen(1996), proposed the following features
that are created during the course of deposition
by a river along its flow path:
 creation of point bars
 point bars with few mid-channel bars
 numerous mid-channel bars
Rosgen’s Observations
(…Contd)

 side bars
 diagonal bars
 main-channel branching with numerous mid-
bars and islands
 side bars and mid-channel bars with length
exceeding 2-3 channel widths and
 delta bars.
Rosgen’s Observations

 Streams with high sediment loads that encounter a
sudden reduction in flow velocity generally have a
braided channel type.
 In a braided stream, the main channel divides into
a number of smaller, interlocking or braided
channels.
Channel Features
(…Contd)

 Braided channels tend to be wide and shallow
because bed load materials are often coarse (sands
and gravels) and non-cohesive.
Channel Features

 Meandering channels form where streams are
flowing over a relatively flat landscape with a broad
floodplain technically. A stream is said to be
meandering when the ratio of actual channel length
to the straight line distance between two points on
the stream channel is greater than 1.5.
Meanders
(…Contd)

 Channels in these streams are characteristically U-
shaped and actively migrate over the extensive
floodplain.
 Floodplains develop when streams over-top their
levees spreading discharge and suspended sediments
over the land surface during floods.
Meanders

 Levees are ridges found along the sides of the
stream channel composed of sand or gravel.
 Levees are approximately one half to four times the
channel width in diameter.
 Floodplain deposits can raise the elevation of the
stream bed. This process is called aggradation.
Levees

 Oxbow lakes are the abandoned channels created
when meanders are cut off from the rest of the
channel because of lateral stream erosion.
Oxbow lakes

 An alluvial fan is a large fan-shaped deposit of
sediment on which a braided stream flows over.
 Alluvial fans develop when streams carrying a heavy
load reduce their velocity as they emerge from
mountainous terrain to a nearly horizontal plain.
 The fan is created as braided streams shift across
the surface of this feature depositing sediment and
adjusting their course.
Alluvial Fans

 Streams flowing into standing water normally
create a delta. A delta is body of sediment that
contains numerous horizontal and vertical layers.
 Deltas are created when the sediment load carried
by a stream is deposited because of a sudden
reduction in stream velocity.
Deltas
(…Contd)

 The surface of most deltas is marked by small
shifting channels that carry water and sediments
away from the main river channel.
 These small channels also act to distribute the
stream's sediment load over the surface of the
delta.
 Many deltas are triangular in shape.
Deltas

 Most deltas contain three different types of deposits
as foreset, topset and bottomset beds.
 Foreset beds make up the main body of deltas.
 They are deposited at the outer edge of the delta at
an angle of 5 to 25 degrees. Steeper angles develop
in finer sediments.
Deposits of Deltas
(…Contd)

 On top of the foreset beds are the nearly horizontal
topset beds.
 These beds are of varying grain sizes and are formed
from deposits of the small shifting channels found on
the delta surface.
 In front and beneath the foreset beds are the
bottomset beds.
Deposits of Deltas
(…Contd)

 These beds are composed of fine silt and clay.
 Bottom set beds are formed when the finest
material is carried out to sea by stream flow.
Deposits of Deltas

 Fluvial Geomorphology is an important branch of
geomorphology. It deals with the processes and
forms that are enacted by running water.
 It is becoming an applied science today due to its
major role played in river channel modification, river
water regulations, flood proofing, erosion controls,
construction of engineering structures and creation
of inland water ways.
Conclusion
(…Contd)

 Floodplain management is a promising area of study
in fluvial geomorphology.
 It is an interesting topic in physical geology and
geomorphology.
Conclusion

Fluvial processes and landforms

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Fluvial processes and landforms