Framework for the preparation and presentation of financial statements icai

Contents
INTRODUCTION Paragraphs 1-11
Purpose and Status 1-4
Scope 5-8
Users and Their Information Needs 9-11
THE OBJECTIVE OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 12-21
Financial Position, Performance and Cash Flows 15-21
Notes and Supplementary Schedules 21
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS 22-24
Accrual Basis 22
Going Concern 23
Consistency 24
QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS 25-46
Understandability 26
Relevance 27-30
Materiality 30
Reliability 31-38
Faithful Representation 33-34
Substance Over Form 35
Neutrality 36
Prudence 37
Completeness 38
Comparability 39-42
Continued../..
Framework for the Preparation and
Presentation of Financial Statements
10

Constraints on Relevant and Reliable Information 43-45
Timeliness 43
Balance between Benefit and Cost 44
Balance between Qualitative Characteristics 45
True and Fair View 46
THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 47-80
Financial Position 49-51
Assets 52-58
Liabilities 59-63
Equity 64-67
Performance 68-72
Income 73-76
Expenses 77-79
Capital Maintenance Adjustments 80
RECOGNITION OF THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS 81-97
The Probability of Future Economic Benefits 84
Reliability of Measurement 85-87
Recognition of Assets 88-89
Recognition of Liabilities 90
Recognition of Income 91-92
Recognition of Expenses 93-97
MEASUREMENT OF THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS 98-100
CONCEPTS OF CAPITAL AND CAPITAL
MAINTENANCE 101-109
Concepts of Capital 101-102
Concepts of Capital Maintenance and the Determination
of Profit 103-109
11

Framework for the Preparation and
Presentation of Financial Statements*
The following is the text of the ‘Framework for the Preparation and
Presentation of Financial Statements’ issued by the Accounting Standards
Board of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
Introduction
Purpose and Status
1. This Framework sets out the concepts that underlie the preparation and
presentation of financial statements for external users. The purpose of the
Framework is to:
(a) assist preparers of financial statements in applying Accounting
Standards and in dealing with topics that have yet to form the
subject of an Accounting Standard;
(b) assist the Accounting Standards Board in the development of
future Accounting Standards and in its review of existing
Accounting Standards;
(c) assist the Accounting Standards Board in promoting harmonisation
of regulations, accounting standards and procedures relating to
the preparation and presentation of financial statements by
providing a basis for reducing the number of alternative accounting
treatments permitted by Accounting Standards;
(d) assist auditors in forming an opinion as to whether financial
statements conform with Accounting Standards;
(e) assist users of financial statements in interpreting the information
contained in financial statements prepared in conformity with
Accounting Standards; and
(f) provide those who are interested in the work of the Accounting
* Issued in July 2000.

Standards Board with information about its approach to the
formulation of Accounting Standards.
2. This Framework is not an Accounting Standard and hence does not
define standards for any particular measurement or disclosure issue. Nothing
in this Framework overrides any specific Accounting Standard.
3. The Accounting Standards Board recognises that in a limited number of
cases there may be a conflict between the Framework and an Accounting
Standard. In those cases where there is a conflict, the requirements of the
Accounting Standard prevail over those of the Framework. As, however, the
Accounting Standards Board will be guided by the Framework in the
development of future Standards and in its review of existing Standards, the
numberofcasesofconflictbetweentheFrameworkandAccountingStandards
willdiminishthroughtime.
4. The Framework will be revised from time to time on the basis of the
experience of the Accounting Standards Board of working with it.
Scope
5. The Framework deals with:
(a) the objective of financial statements;
(b) the qualitative characteristics that determine the usefulness of
information provided in financial statements;
(c) definition, recognition and measurement of the elements from
which financial statements are constructed; and
(d) concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
6. The Framework is concerned with general purpose financial statements
(hereafter referred to as ‘financial statements’). Such financial statements
are prepared and presented at least annually and are directed toward the
common information needs of a wide range of users. Some of these users
may require, and have the power to obtain, information in addition to that
contained in the financial statements. Many users, however, have to rely on
the financial statements as their major source of financial information and
such financial statements should, therefore, be prepared and presented with
their needs in view. Special purpose financial reports, for example,
Framework (issued 2000) 13

prospectuses and computations prepared for taxation purposes, are outside
the scope of this Framework. Nevertheless, the Framework may be applied
in the preparation of such special purpose reports where their requirements
permit.
7. Financial statements form part of the process of financial reporting. A
complete set of financial statements normally includes a balance sheet, a
statement of profit and loss (also known as ‘income statement’), a cash flow
statement and those notes and other statements and explanatory material that
are an integral part of the financial statements. They may also include
supplementary schedules and information based on or derived from, and
expected to be read with, such statements. Such schedulesandsupplementary
information may deal, for example, with financial information about business
and geographical segments, and disclosures about the effects of changing
prices. Financial statements do not, however, include such items as reports by
directors,statementsbythechairman,discussionandanalysisbymanagement
and similar items that may be included in a financial or annual report.
8. The Framework applies to the financial statements of all reporting
enterprises engaged in commercial, industrial and business activities, whether
in the public or in the private sector. A reporting enterprise is an enterprise
for which there are users who rely on the financial statements as their major
source of financial information about the enterprise.
Users and Their Information Needs
9. The users of financial statements include present and potential investors,
employees, lenders, suppliers and other trade creditors, customers,
governments and their agencies and the public. They use financial statements
in order to satisfy some of their information needs. These needs include the
following:
(a) Investors. The providers of risk capital are concerned with the
risk inherent in, and return provided by, their investments. They
need information to help them determine whether they should
buy, hold or sell. They are also interested in information which
enables them to assess the ability of the enterprise to pay
dividends.
(b) Employees. Employees and their representative groups are
interested in information about the stability and profitability of
14 Framework (issued 2000)

their employers. They are also interested in information which
enables them to assess the ability of the enterprise to provide
remuneration, retirement benefits and employment opportunities.
(c) Lenders. Lenders are interested in information which enables
them to determine whether their loans, and the interest attaching
to them, will be paid when due.
(d) Suppliers and other trade creditors. Suppliers and other
creditors are interested in information which enables them to
determine whether amounts owing to them will be paid when
due. Trade creditors are likely to be interested in an enterprise
over a shorter period than lenders unless they are dependent upon
the continuance of the enterprise as a major customer.
(e) Customers. Customers have an interest in information about the
continuance of an enterprise, especially when they have a long-
term involvement with, or are dependent on, the enterprise.
(f) Governments and their agencies. Governments and their
agencies are interested in the allocation of resources and, therefore,
the activities of enterprises. They also require information in
order to regulate the activities of enterprises and determine
taxation policies, and to serve as the basis for determination of
national income and similar statistics.
(g) Public. Enterprises affect members of the public in a variety of
ways. For example, enterprises may make a substantial
contribution to the local economy in many ways including the
number of people they employ and their patronage of local
suppliers. Financial statements may assist the public by providing
information about the trends and recent developments in the
prosperity of the enterprise and the range of its activities.
10. While all of the information needs of these users cannot be met by
financial statements, there are needs which are common to all users. As
providers of risk capital to the enterprise, investors need more comprehensive
information than other users. The provision of financial statements that
meet their needs will also meet most of the needs of other users that financial
statements can satisfy.
11. The management of an enterprise has the responsibility for the

preparation and presentation of the financial statements of the enterprise.
Management is also interested in the information contained in the financial
statements even though it has access to additional management and financial
information that helps it carry out its planning, decision-making and control
responsibilities. Management has the ability to determine the form and content
of such additional information in order to meet its own needs. The reporting
of such information, however, is beyond the scope of this Framework.
The Objective of Financial Statements
12. The objective of financial statements is to provide information about
the financial position, performance and cash flows of an enterprise that is
useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions.
13. Financial statements prepared for this purpose meet the common needs
of most users. However, financial statements do not provide all the
information that users may need to make economic decisions since (a) they
largely portray the financial effects of past events, and (b) do not necessarily
provide non-financial information.
14. Financial statements also show the results of the stewardship of
management, or the accountability of management for the resources entrusted
to it. Those users who wish to assess the stewardship or accountability of
management do so in order that they may make economic decisions; these
decisions may include, for example, whether to hold or sell their investment
in the enterprise or whether to reappoint or replace the management.
Financial Position, Performance and Cash Flows
15. The economic decisions that are taken by users of financial statements
require an evaluation of the ability of an enterprise to generate cash and cash
equivalents and of the timing and certainty of their generation. This ability
ultimately determines, for example, the capacity of an enterprise to pay its
employees and suppliers, meet interest payments, repay loans, and make
distributions to its owners. Users are better able to evaluate this ability to
generate cash and cash equivalents if they are provided with information that
focusesonthefinancialposition,performanceandcashflowsofanenterprise.
16. The financial position of an enterprise is affected by the economic
resources it controls, its financial structure, its liquidity and solvency, and its
capacity to adapt to changes in the environment in which it operates.

Information about the economic resources controlled by the enterprise and
its capacity in the past to alter these resources is useful in predicting the
ability of the enterprise to generate cash and cash equivalents in the future.
Information about financial structure is useful in predicting future borrowing
needs and how future profits and cash flows will be distributed among those
with an interest in the enterprise; it is also useful in predicting how successful
the enterprise is likely to be in raising further finance. Information about
liquidity and solvency is useful in predicting the ability of the enterprise to
meet its financial commitments as they fall due. Liquidity refers to the
availability of cash in the near future to meet financial commitments over
this period. Solvency refers to the availability of cash over the longer term
to meet financial commitments as they fall due.
17. Information about the performance of an enterprise, in particular its
profitability, is required in order to assess potential changes in the economic
resources that it is likely to control in the future. Information about variability
of performance is important in this respect. Information about performance
is useful in predicting the capacity of the enterprise to generate cash flows
from its existing resource base. It is also useful in forming judgements about
theeffectivenesswithwhichtheenterprisemightemployadditionalresources.
18. Information concerning cash flows of an enterprise is useful in order to
evaluate its investing, financing and operating activities during the reporting
period. This information is useful in providing the users with a basis to
assess the ability of the enterprise to generate cash and cash equivalents and
the needs of the enterprise to utilise those cash flows.
19. Information about financial position is primarily provided in a balance
sheet. Information about performance is primarily provided in a statement
of profit and loss. Information about cash flows is provided in the financial
statements by means of a cash flow statement.
20. The component parts of the financial statements are interrelated because
they reflect different aspects of the same transactions or other events.
Although each statement provides information that is different from the others,
none is likely to serve only a single purpose nor to provide all the information
necessary for particular needs of users.
Notes and Supplementary Schedules
21. The financial statements also contain notes and supplementary schedules
and other information. For example, they may contain additional information

that is relevant to the needs of users about the items in the balance sheet and
statement of profit and loss. They may include disclosures about the risks
and uncertainties affecting the enterprise and any resources and obligations
not recognised in the balance sheet (such as mineral reserves). Information
about business and geographical segments and the effect of changing prices
on the enterprise may also be provided in the form of supplementary
information.
UnderlyingAssumptions
Accrual Basis
22. In order to meet their objectives, financial statements are prepared on
the accrual basis of accounting. Under this basis, the effects of transactions
and other events are recognised when they occur (and not as cash or a cash
equivalent is received or paid) and they are recorded in the accounting records
and reported in the financial statements of the periods to which they relate.
Financial statements prepared on the accrual basis inform users not only of
past events involving the payment and receipt of cash but also of obligations
to pay cash in the future and of resources that represent cash to be received
in the future. Hence, they provide the type of information about past
transactions and other events that is most useful to users in making economic
decisions.
Going Concern
23. The financial statements are normally prepared on the assumption that
an enterprise is a going concern and will continue in operation for the
foreseeable future. Hence, it is assumed that the enterprise has neither the
intention nor the need to liquidate or curtail materially the scale of its
operations; if such an intention or need exists, the financial statements may
have to be prepared on a different basis and, if so, the basis used is disclosed.
Consistency
24. In order to achieve comparability of the financial statements of an
enterprise through time, the accounting policies are followed consistently
from one period to another; a change in an accounting policy is made only in
certain exceptional circumstances.

QualitativeCharacteristicsofFinancialStatements
25. Qualitative characteristics are the attributes that make the information
provided in financial statements useful to users. The four principal qualitative
characteristics are understandability, relevance, reliability and comparability.
Understandability
26. An essential quality of the information provided in financial statements
is that it must be readily understandable by users. For this purpose, it is
assumed that users have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic
activities and accounting and study the information with reasonable diligence.
Information about complex matters that should be included in the financial
statements because of its relevance to the economic decision-making needs
of users should not be excluded merely on the ground that it may be too
difficult for certain users to understand.
Relevance
27. To be useful, information must be relevant to the decision-making needs
of users. Information has the quality of relevance when it influences the
economic decisions of users by helping them evaluate past, present or future
events or confirming, or correcting, their past evaluations.
28. The predictive and confirmatory roles of information are interrelated.
For example, information about the current level and structure of asset
holdings has value to users when they endeavour to predict the ability of the
enterprise to take advantage of opportunities and its ability to react to adverse
situations. The same information plays a confirmatory role in respect of past
predictions about, for example, the way in which the enterprise would be
structured or the outcome of planned operations.
29. Information about financial position and past performance is frequently
used as the basis for predicting future financial position and performance
and other matters in which users are directly interested, such as dividend
and wage payments, share price movements and the ability of the enterprise
to meet its commitments as they fall due. To have predictive value, information
need not be in the form of an explicit forecast. The ability to make predictions
from financial statements is enhanced, however, by the manner in which
information on past transactions and events is displayed. For example, the
predictive value of the statement of profit and loss is enhanced if unusual,

abnormal and infrequent items of income and expense are separately
disclosed.
Materiality
30. The relevance of information is affected by its materiality. Information
is material if its misstatement (i.e., omission or erroneous statement) could
influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial
information. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the item or error,
judged in the particular circumstances of its misstatement. Materiality provides
a threshold or cut-off point rather than being a primary qualitative characteristic
which the information must have if it is to be useful.
Reliability
31. To be useful, information must also be reliable. Information has the
quality of reliability when it is free from material error and bias and can be
depended upon by users to represent faithfully that which it either purports
to represent or could reasonably be expected to represent.
32. Information may be relevant but so unreliable in nature or representation
that its recognition may be potentially misleading. For example, if the validity
and amount of a claim for damages under a legal action against the enterprise
are highly uncertain, it may be inappropriate for the enterprise to recognise
the amount of the claim in the balance sheet, although it may be appropriate
to disclose the amount and circumstances of the claim.
Faithful Representation
33. To be reliable, information must represent faithfully the transactions
and other events it either purports to represent or could reasonably be expected
to represent. Thus, for example, a balance sheet should represent faithfully
the transactions and other events that result in assets, liabilities and equity of
the enterprise at the reporting date which meet the recognition criteria.
34. Most financial information is subject to some risk of being less than a
faithful representation of that which it purports to portray. This is not due to
bias, but rather to inherent difficulties either in identifying the transactions
and other events to be measured or in devising and applying measurement
and presentation techniques that can convey messages that correspond with
those transactions and events. In certain cases, the measurement of the

financial effects of items could be so uncertain that enterprises generally
would not recognise them in the financial statements; for example, although
most enterprises generate goodwill internally over time, it is usually difficult
to identify or measure that goodwill reliably. In other cases, however, it may
be relevant to recognise items and to disclose the risk of error surrounding
their recognition and measurement.
Substance Over Form
35. If information is to represent faithfully the transactions and other events
that it purports to represent, it is necessary that they are accounted for and
presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality and not
merely their legal form. The substance of transactions or other events is not
always consistent with that which is apparent from their legal or contrived
form. For example, where rights and beneficial interest in an immovable
property are transferred but the documentation and legal formalities are
pending, the recording of acquisition/disposal (by the transferee and transferor
respectively) would in substance represent the transaction entered into.
Neutrality
36. To be reliable, the information contained in financial statements must
be neutral, that is, free from bias. Financial statements are not neutral if, by
the selection or presentation of information, they influence the making of a
decision or judgement in order to achieve a predetermined result or outcome.
Prudence
37. The preparers of financial statements have to contend with the
uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and circumstances, such
as the collectability of receivables, the probable useful life of plant and
machinery, and the warranty claims that may occur. Such uncertainties are
recognised by the disclosure of their nature and extent and by the exercise
of prudence in the preparation of the financial statements. Prudence is the
inclusion of a degree of caution in the exercise of the judgements needed in
making the estimates required under conditions of uncertainty, such that assets
or income are not overstated and liabilities or expenses are not understated.
However, the exercise of prudence does not allow, for example, the creation
of hidden reserves or excessive provisions, the deliberate understatement of
assets or income, or the deliberate overstatement of liabilities or expenses,
because the financial statements would then not be neutral and, therefore,
not have the quality of reliability.

Completeness
38. To be reliable, the information in financial statements must be complete
within the bounds of materiality and cost. An omission can cause information
to be false or misleading and thus unreliable and deficient in terms of its
relevance.
Comparability
39. Users must be able to compare the financial statements of an enterprise
through time in order to identify trends in its financial position, performance
and cash flows. Users must also be able to compare the financial statements
of different enterprises in order to evaluate their relative financial position,
performance and cash flows. Hence, the measurement and display of the
financial effects of like transactions and other events must be carried out in
a consistent way throughout an enterprise and over time for that enterprise
and in a consistent way for different enterprises.
40. An important implication of the qualitative characteristic of comparability
is that users be informed of the accounting policies employed in the preparation
of the financial statements, any changes in those policies and the effects of
such changes. Users need to be able to identify differences between the
accounting policies for like transactions and other events used by the same
enterprise from period to period and by different enterprises. Compliance
with Accounting Standards, including the disclosure of the accounting policies
used by the enterprise, helps to achieve comparability.
41. The need for comparability should not be confused with mere uniformity
and should not be allowed to become an impediment to the introduction of
improved accounting standards. It is not appropriate for an enterprise to
continue accounting in the same manner for a transaction or other event if
the policy adopted is not in keeping with the qualitative characteristics of
relevance and reliability. It is also inappropriate for an enterprise to leave its
accounting policies unchanged when more relevant and reliable alternatives
exist.
42. Users wish to compare the financial position, performance and cash
flows of an enterprise over time. Hence, it is important that the financial
statements show corresponding information for the preceding period(s).

Constraints on Relevant and Reliable Information
Timeliness
43. If there is undue delay in the reporting of information it may lose its
relevance. Management may need to balance the relative merits of timely
reporting and the provision of reliable information. To provide information
on a timely basis it may often be necessary to report before all aspects of a
transaction or other event are known, thus impairing reliability. Conversely,
if reporting is delayed until all aspects are known, the information may be
highly reliable but of little use to users who have had to make decisions in the
interim. In achieving a balance between relevance and reliability, the overriding
consideration is how best to satisfy the information needs of users.
Balance between Benefit and Cost
44. The balance between benefit and cost is a pervasive constraint rather
than a qualitative characteristic. The benefits derived from information should
exceed the cost of providing it. The evaluation of benefits and costs is,
however, substantially a judgmental process. Furthermore, the costs do not
necessarily fall on those users who enjoy the benefits. Benefits may also be
enjoyed by users other than those for whom the information is prepared. For
these reasons, it is difficult to apply a cost-benefit test in any particular case.
Nevertheless, standard-setters in particular, as well as the preparers and
users of financial statements, should be aware of this constraint.
Balance between Qualitative Characteristics
45. In practice, a balancing, or trade-off, between qualitative characteristics
is often necessary. Generally the aim is to achieve an appropriate balance
among the characteristics in order to meet the objective of financial
statements. The relative importance of the characteristics in different cases
is a matter of professional judgment.
True and Fair View
46. Financial statements are frequently described as showing a true and fair
view of the financial position, performance and cash flows of an enterprise.
Although this Framework does not deal directly with such concepts, the
application of the principal qualitative characteristics and of appropriate
accounting standards normally results in financial statements that convey
what is generally understood as a true and fair view of such information.

The Elements of Financial Statements
47. Financial statements portray the financial effects of transactions and
other events by grouping them into broad classes according to their economic
characteristics. These broad classes are termed the elements of financial
statements. The elements directly related to the measurement of financial
position in the balance sheet are assets, liabilities and equity. The elements
directly related to the measurement of performance in the statement of profit
and loss are income and expenses. The cash flow statement usually reflects
elements of statement of profit and loss and changes in balance sheet
elements; accordingly, this Framework identifies no elements that are unique
to this statement.
48. The presentation of these elements in the balance sheet and the
statement of profit and loss involves a process of sub-classification. For
example, assets and liabilities may be classified by their nature or function in
the business of the enterprise in order to display information in the manner
most useful to users for purposes of making economic decisions.
Financial Position
49. The elements directly related to the measurement of financial position
are assets, liabilities and equity. These are defined as follows:
(a) An asset is a resource controlled by the enterprise as a result of
past events from which future economic benefits are expected to
flow to the enterprise.
(b) A liability is a present obligation of the enterprise arising from
past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an
outflow from the enterprise of resources embodying economic
benefits.
(c) Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the enterprise after
deducting all its liabilities.
50. The definitions of an asset and a liability identify their essential features
but do not attempt to specify the criteria that need to be met before they are
recognised in the balance sheet. Thus, the definitions embrace items that
are not recognised as assets or liabilities in the balance sheet because they
do not satisfy the criteria for recognition discussed in paragraphs 81 to 97.

In particular, the expectation that future economic benefits will flow to or
from an enterprise must be sufficiently certain to meet the probability criterion
in paragraph 82 before an asset or liability is recognised.
51. In assessing whether an item meets the definition of an asset, liability
or equity, consideration needs to be given to its underlying substance and
economic reality and not merely its legal form. Thus, for example, in the
case of hire purchase, the substance and economic reality are that the hire
purchaser acquires the economic benefits of the use of the asset in return
for entering into an obligation to pay for that right an amount approximating
to the fair value of the asset and the related finance charge. Hence, the hire
purchase gives rise to items that satisfy the definition of an asset and a
liability and are recognised as such in the hire purchaser’s balance sheet.
Assets
52. The future economic benefit embodied in an asset is the potential to
contribute, directly or indirectly, to the flow of cash and cash equivalents to
the enterprise. The potential may be a productive one that is part of the
operating activities of the enterprise. It may also take the form of con-
vertibility into cash or cash equivalents or a capability to reduce cash outflows,
such as when an alternative manufacturing process lowers the costs of
production.
53. An enterprise usually employs its assets to produce goods or services
capable of satisfying the wants or needs of customers; because these goods
or services can satisfy these wants or needs, customers are prepared to pay
for them and hence contribute to the cash flows of the enterprise. Cash
itself renders a service to the enterprise because of its command over other
resources.
54. The future economic benefits embodied in an asset may flow to the
enterprise in a number of ways. For example, an asset may be:
(a) used singly or in combination with other assets in the production
of goods or services to be sold by the enterprise;
(b) exchanged for other assets;
(c) used to settle a liability; or
(d) distributed to the owners of the enterprise.

55. Many assets, for example, plant and machinery, have a physical form.
However, physical form is not essential to the existence of an asset; hence
patents and copyrights, for example, are assets if future economic benefits
are expected to flow from them and if they are controlled by the enterprise.
56. Many assets, for example, receivables and property, are associated
with legal rights, including the right of ownership. In determining the existence
of an asset, the right of ownership is not essential; thus, for example, an item
held under a hire purchase is an asset of the hire purchaser since the hire
purchaser controls the benefits which are expected to flow from the item.
Although the capacity of an enterprise to control benefits is usually the result
of legal rights, an item may nonetheless satisfy the definition of an asset
even when there is no legal control. For example, know-how obtained from
a development activity may meet the definition of an asset when, by keeping
that know-how secret, an enterprise controls the benefits that are expected
to flow from it.
57. The assets of an enterprise result from past transactions or other past
events. Enterprises normally obtain assets by purchasing or producing them,
but other transactions or events may also generate assets; examples include
land received by an enterprise from government as part of a programme to
encourage economic growth in an area and the discovery of mineral deposits.
Transactions or other events expected to occur in the future do not in
themselves give rise to assets; hence, for example, an intention to purchase
inventory does not, of itself, meet the definition of an asset.
58. There is a close association between incurring expenditure and obtaining
assets but the two do not necessarily coincide. Hence, when an enterprise
incurs expenditure, this may provide evidence that future economic benefits
were sought but is not conclusive proof that an item satisfying the definition
of an asset has been obtained. Similarly, the absence of a related expenditure
does not preclude an item from satisfying the definition of an asset and thus
becoming a candidate for recognition in the balance sheet.
Liabilities
59. An essential characteristic of a liability is that the enterprise has a
present obligation. An obligation is a duty or responsibility to act or perform
in a certain way. Obligations may be legally enforceable as a consequence
of a binding contract or statutory requirement. This is normally the case, for
example, with amounts payable for goods and services received. Obligations

also arise, however, from normal business practice, custom and a desire to
maintain good business relations or act in an equitable manner. If, for example,
an enterprise decides as a matter of policy to rectify faults in its products
even when these become apparent after the warranty period has expired,
the amounts that are expected to be expended in respect of goods already
sold are liabilities.
60. A distinction needs to be drawn between a present obligation and a
future commitment. A decision by the management of an enterprise to
acquire assets in the future does not, of itself, give rise to a present obligation.
An obligation normally arises only when the asset is delivered or the enterprise
enters into an irrevocable agreement to acquire the asset. In the latter case,
the irrevocable nature of the agreement means that the economic
consequences of failing to honour the obligation, for example, because of the
existence of a substantial penalty, leave the enterprise with little, if any,
discretion to avoid the outflow of resources to another party.
61. The settlement of a present obligation usually involves the enterprise
giving up resources embodying economic benefits in order to satisfy the
claim of the other party. Settlement of a present obligation may occur in a
number of ways, for example, by:
(a) payment of cash;
(b) transfer of other assets;
(c) provision of services;
(d) replacement of that obligation with another obligation; or
(e) conversion of the obligation to equity.
An obligation may also be extinguished by other means, such as a creditor
waiving or forfeiting its rights.
62. Liabilities result from past transactions or other past events. Thus, for
example, the acquisition of goods and the use of services give rise to trade
creditors (unless paid for in advance or on delivery) and the receipt of a bank
loanresultsinanobligationtorepaytheloan.Anenterprisemayalsorecognise
future rebates based on annual purchases by customers as liabilities; in this
case, the sale of the goods in the past is the transaction that gives rise to the
liability.

63. Some liabilities can be measured only by using a substantial degree of
estimation. Such liabilities are commonly described as ‘provisions’. Examples
include provisions for payments to be made under existing warranties and
provisions to cover pension obligations.
Equity
64. Although equity is defined in paragraph 49 as a residual, it may be sub-
classified in the balance sheet. For example, funds contributed by owners,
reserves representing appropriations of retained earnings, unappropriated
retained earnings and reserves representing capital maintenance adjustments
may be shown separately. Such classifications can be relevant to the decision-
making needs of the users of financial statements when they indicate legal
or other restrictions on the ability of the enterprise to distribute or otherwise
apply its equity. They may also reflect the fact that parties with ownership
interests in an enterprise have differing rights in relation to the receipt of
dividends or the repayment of capital.
65. The creation of reserves is sometimes required by law in order to give
the enterprise and its creditors an added measure of protection from the
effects of losses. Reserves may also be created when tax laws grant
exemptions from, or reductions in, taxation liabilities if transfers to such
reserves are made. The existence and size of such reserves is information
that can be relevant to the decision-making needs of users. Transfers to
such reserves are appropriations of retained earnings rather than expenses.
66. The amount at which equity is shown in the balance sheet is dependent
on the measurement of assets and liabilities. Normally, the aggregate amount
of equity only by coincidence corresponds with the aggregate market value
of the shares of the enterprise or the sum that could be raised by disposing of
either the net assets on a piecemeal basis or the enterprise as a whole on a
going concern basis.
67. Commercial, industrial and business activities are often undertaken by
means of enterprises such as sole proprietorships, partnerships and trusts
and various types of government business undertakings. The legal and
regulatory framework for such enterprises is often different from that
applicable to corporate enterprises. For example, unlike corporate enterprises,
in the case of such enterprises, there may be few, if any, restrictions on the
distribution to owners or other beneficiaries of amounts included in equity.
Nevertheless, the definition of equity and the other aspects of this Framework
that deal with equity are appropriate for such enterprises.

Performance
68. Profit is frequently used as a measure of performance or as the basis
for other measures, such as return on investment or earnings per share. The
elements directly related to the measurement of profit are income and
expenses. The recognition and measurement of income and expenses, and
hence profit, depends in part on the concepts of capital and capital maintenance
used by the enterprise in preparing its financial statements. These concepts
are discussed in paragraphs 101 to 109.
69. Income and expenses are defined as follows:
(a) Income is increase in economic benefits during the accounting
period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or
decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than
those relating to contributions from equity participants.
(b) Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the
accounting period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets
or incurrences of liabilities that result in decreases in equity, other
than those relating to distributions to equity participants.
70. The definitions of income and expenses identify their essential features
but do not attempt to specify the criteria that need to be met before they are
recognised in the statement of profit and loss. Criteria for recognition of
income and expenses are discussed in paragraphs 81 to 97.
71. Income and expenses may be presented in the statement of profit and
loss in different ways so as to provide information that is relevant for economic
decision-making. For example, it is a common practice to distinguish between
those items of income and expenses that arise in the course of the ordinary
activities of the enterprise and those that do not. This distinction is made on
the basis that the source of an item is relevant in evaluating the ability of the
enterprise to generate cash and cash equivalents in the future. When
distinguishing between items in this way, consideration needs to be given to
the nature of the enterprise and its operations. Items that arise from the
ordinary activities of one enterprise may be extraordinary in respect of
another.
72. Distinguishing between items of income and expense and combining
them in different ways also permits several measures of enterprise
performance to be displayed. These have differing degrees of inclusiveness.

For example, the statement of profit and loss could display gross margin,
profit from ordinary activities before taxation, profit from ordinary activities
after taxation, and net profit.
Income
73. The definition of income encompasses both revenue and gains. Revenue
arises in the course of the ordinary activities of an enterprise and is referred
to by a variety of different names including sales, fees, interest, dividends,
royalties and rent.
74. Gains represent other items that meet the definition of income and may,
ormaynot,ariseinthecourseoftheordinaryactivitiesofanenterprise. Gains
represent increases in economic benefits and as such are no different in
nature from revenue. Hence, they are not regarded as a separate element in
this Framework.
75. The definition of income includes unrealised gains. Gains also include,
for example, those arising on the disposal of fixed assets. When gains are
recognised in the statement of profit and loss, they are usually displayed
separately because knowledge of them is useful for the purpose of making
economic decisions.
76. Variouskindsofassetsmaybereceivedorenhancedbyincome;examples
include cash, receivables and goods and services received in exchange for
goods and services supplied. Income may also result in the settlement of
liabilities. For example, an enterprise may provide goods and services to a
lender in settlement of an obligation to repay an outstanding loan.
Expenses
77. The definition of expenses encompasses those expenses that arise in the
course of the ordinary activities of the enterprise, as well as losses. Expenses
that arise in the course of the ordinary activities of the enterprise include, for
example, cost of goods sold, wages, and depreciation. They take the form of
an outflow or depletion of assets or enhancement of liabilities.
78. Losses represent other items that meet the definition of expenses and
may, or may not, arise in the course of the ordinary activities of the enterprise.
Losses represent decreases in economic benefits and as such they are no
different in nature from other expenses. Hence, they are not regarded as a
separate element in this Framework.

79. Losses include, for example, those resulting from disasters such as fire
and flood, as well as those arising on the disposal of fixed assets. The
definition of expenses also includes unrealised losses. When losses are
recognised in the statement of profit and loss, they are usually displayed
separately because knowledge of them is useful for the purpose of making
economic decisions.
Capital Maintenance Adjustments
80. The revaluation or restatement of assets and liabilities gives rise to
increases or decreases in equity. While these increases or decreases meet
the definition of income and expenses, they are not included in the statement
of profit and loss under certain concepts of capital maintenance. Instead,
these items are included in equity as capital maintenance adjustments or
revaluation reserves. These concepts of capital maintenance are discussed in
paragraphs 101 to 109 of this Framework.
RecognitionoftheElementsofFinancialStatements
81. Recognition is the process of incorporating in the balance sheet or
statement of profit and loss an item that meets the definition of an element
and satisfies the criteria for recognition set out in paragraph 82. It involves
the depiction of the item in words and by a monetary amount and the inclusion
of that amount in the totals of balance sheet or statement of profit and loss.
Items that satisfy the recognition criteria should be recognised in the balance
sheet or statement of profit and loss. The failure to recognise such items is
not rectified by disclosure of the accounting policies used nor by notes or
explanatory material.
82. An item that meets the definition of an element should be recognised if:
(a) it is probable that any future economic benefit associated with
the item will flow to or from the enterprise; and
(b) the item has a cost or value that can be measured with reliability.
83. In assessing whether an item meets these criteria and therefore qualifies
for recognition in the financial statements, regard needs to be given to the
materiality considerations discussed in paragraph 30. The interrelationship
between the elements means that an item that meets the definition and
recognition criteria for a particular element, for example, an asset,

automatically requires the recognition of another element, for example, income
or a liability.
The Probability of Future Economic Benefits
84. The concept of probability is used in the recognition criteria to refer to
the degree of uncertainty that the future economic benefits associated with
the item will flow to or from the enterprise. The concept is in keeping with
the uncertainty that characterises the environment in which an enterprise
operates. Assessments of the degree of uncertainty attaching to the flow of
future economic benefits are made on the basis of the evidence available
when the financial statements are prepared. For example, when it is probable
that a receivable will be realised, it is then justifiable, in the absence of any
evidence to the contrary, to recognise the receivable as an asset. For a large
population of receivables, however, some degree of non-payment is normally
considered probable; hence, an expense representing the expected reduction
in economic benefits is recognised.
Reliability of Measurement
85. The second criterion for the recognition of an item is that it possesses
a cost or value that can be measured with reliability as discussed in paragraphs
31 to 38 of this Framework. In many cases, cost or value must be estimated;
the use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of
financial statements and does not undermine their reliability. When, however,
a reasonable estimate cannot be made, the item is not recognised in the
balance sheet or statement of profit and loss. For example, the damages
payable in a lawsuit may meet the definitions of both a liability and an expense
as well as the probability criterion for recognition; however, if it is not possible
to measure the claim reliably, it should not be recognised as a liability or as
an expense.
86. An item that, at a particular point in time, fails to meet the recognition
criteria in paragraph 82 may qualify for recognition at a later date as a result
of subsequent circumstances or events.
87. An item that possesses the essential characteristics of an element but
fails to meet the criteria for recognition may nonetheless warrant disclosure
in the notes, explanatory material or supplementary schedules. This is
appropriate when knowledge of the item is considered to be relevant to the
evaluation of the financial position, performance and cash flows of an

enterprise by the users of financial statements. Thus, in the example given
in paragraph 85, the existence of the claim would need to be disclosed in the
notes, explanatory material or supplementary schedules.
Recognition of Assets
88. An asset is recognised in the balance sheet when it is probable that the
future economic benefits associated with it will flow to the enterprise and
the asset has a cost or value that can be measured reliably.
89. An asset is not recognised in the balance sheet when expenditure has
been incurred for which it is considered improbable that economic benefits
will flow to the enterprise beyond the current accounting period. Instead,
such a transaction results in the recognition of an expense in the statement
of profit and loss. This treatment does not imply either that the intention of
management in incurring expenditure was other than to generate future
economic benefits for the enterprise or that management was misguided.
The only implication is that the degree of certainty that economic benefits
will flow to the enterprise beyond the current accounting period is insufficient
to warrant the recognition of an asset.
Recognition of Liabilities
90. A liability is recognised in the balance sheet when it is probable that an
outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will result from the
settlement of a present obligation and the amount at which the settlement will
take place can be measured reliably. In practice, obligations under contracts
that are equally proportionately unperformed (for example, liabilities for
inventoryorderedbutnotyetreceived)aregenerallynotrecognisedasliabilities
inthefinancialstatements. However,suchobligationsmaymeetthedefinition
of liabilities and, provided the recognition criteria are met in the particular
circumstances,mayqualifyforrecognition.Insuchcircumstances,recognition
of liabilities entails recognition of related assets or expenses.
Recognition of Income
91. Income is recognised in the statement of profit and loss when an increase
in future economic benefits related to an increase in an asset or a decrease
of a liability has arisen that can be measured reliably. This means, in effect,
that recognition of income occurs simultaneously with the recognition of
increases in assets or decreases in liabilities (for example, the net increase in

assets arising on a sale of goods or services or the decrease in liabilities
arising from the waiver of a debt payable).
92. The procedures normally adopted in practice for recognising income,
for example, the requirement that revenue should be earned, are applications
of the recognition criteria in this Framework. Such procedures are generally
directed at restricting the recognition as income to those items that can be
measured reliably and have a sufficient degree of certainty.
Recognition of Expenses
93. Expenses are recognised in the statement of profit and loss when a
decrease in future economic benefits related to a decrease in an asset or an
increase of a liability has arisen that can be measured reliably. This means,
in effect, that recognition of expenses occurs simultaneously with the
recognition of an increase of liabilities or a decrease in assets (for example,
the accrual of employees’ salaries or the depreciation of plant and machinery).
94. Many expenses are recognised in the statement of profit and loss on the
basis of a direct association between the costs incurred and the earning of
specific items of income. This process, commonly referred to as the matching
of costs with revenues, involves the simultaneous or combined recognition of
revenuesandexpensesthatresultdirectlyandjointlyfromthesametransactions
or other events; for example, the various components of expense making up
the cost of goods sold are recognised at the same time as the income derived
from the sale of the goods. However, the application of the matching concept
under this Framework does not allow the recognition of items in the balance
sheet which do not meet the definition of assets or liabilities.
95. When economic benefits are expected to arise over several accounting
periods and the association with income can only be broadly or indirectly
determined, expenses are recognised in the statement of profit and loss on
the basis of systematic and rational allocation procedures. This is often
necessary in recognising the expenses associated with the using up of assets
such as plant and machinery, goodwill, patents and trademarks; in such cases,
the expense is referred to as depreciation or amortisation. These allocation
procedures are intended to recognise expenses in the accounting periods in
which the economic benefits associated with these items are consumed or
expire.
96. An expense is recognised immediately in the statement of profit and

loss when an expenditure produces no future economic benefits. An expense
is also recognised to the extent that future economic benefits from an
expenditure do not qualify, or cease to qualify, for recognition in the balance
sheet as an asset.
97. An expense is recognised in the statement of profit and loss in those
cases also where a liability is incurred without the recognition of an asset,
for example, in the case of a liability under a product warranty.
Measurement of the Elements of Financial
Statements
98. Measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at
which the elements of financial statements are to be recognised and carried
in the balance sheet and statement of profit and loss. This involves the
selection of the particular basis of measurement.
99. A number of different measurement bases are employed to different
degrees and in varying combinations in financial statements. They include
the following:
(a) Historical cost. Assets are recorded at the amount of cash or
cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other consideration
given to acquire them at the time of their acquisition. Liabilities
are recorded at the amount of proceeds received in exchange for
the obligation, or in some circumstances (for example, income
taxes), at the amounts of cash or cash equivalents expected to be
paid to satisfy the liability in the normal course of business.
(b) Current cost. Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash
equivalents that would have to be paid if the same or an equivalent
asset were acquired currently. Liabilities are carried at the
undiscounted amount of cash or cash equivalents that would be
required to settle the obligation currently.
(c) Realisable (settlement) value. Assets are carried at the amount
of cash or cash equivalents that could currently be obtained by
selling the asset in an orderly disposal. Liabilities are carried at
their settlement values, that is, the undiscounted amounts of cash
or cash equivalents expected to be required to settle the liabilities
in the normal course of business.

(d) Present value. Assets are carried at the present value of the
future net cash inflows that the item is expected to generate in
the normal course of business. Liabilities are carried at the present
value of the future net cash outflows that are expected to be
required to settle the liabilities in the normal course of business.
100. The measurement basis most commonly adopted by enterprises in
preparing their financial statements is historical cost. This is usually combined
with other measurement bases. For example, inventories are usually carried
at the lower of cost and net realisable value and pension liabilities are carried
at their present value. Furthermore, the current cost basis may be used as a
response to the inability of the historical cost accounting model to deal with
the effects of changing prices of non-monetary assets.
Concepts of Capital and Capital Maintenance
Concepts of Capital
101. Under a financial concept of capital, such as invested money or
invested purchasing power, capital is synonymous with the net assets or
equity of the enterprise. Under a physical concept of capital, such as operating
capability, capital is regarded as the productive capacity of the enterprise
based on, for example, units of output per day.
102. The selection of the appropriate concept of capital by an enterprise
should be based on the needs of the users of its financial statements. Thus,
a financial concept of capital should be adopted if the users of financial
statements are primarily concerned with the maintenance of nominal invested
capital or the purchasing power of invested capital. If, however, the main
concern of users is with the operating capability of the enterprise, a physical
concept of capital should be used. The concept chosen indicates the goal to
be attained in determining profit, even though there may be some
measurement difficulties in making the concept operational.
Concepts of Capital Maintenance and the Determination
of Profit
103. The concepts of capital described in paragraph 101 give rise to the
following concepts of capital maintenance:
(a) Financial capital maintenance. Under this concept, a profit is

earned only if the financial (or money) amount of the net assets
at the end of the period exceeds the financial (or money) amount
of net assets at the beginning of the period, after excluding any
distributions to, and contributions from, owners during the period.
Financial capital maintenance can be measured in either nominal
monetary units or units of constant purchasing power.
(b) Physical capital maintenance. Under this concept, a profit is
earned only if the physical productive capacity (or operating
capability) of the enterprise at the end of the period exceeds the
physical productive capacity at the beginning of the period, after
excluding any distributions to, and contributions from, owners
during the period.
104. The concept of capital maintenance is concerned with how an
enterprise defines the capital that it seeks to maintain. It provides the linkage
between the concepts of capital and the concepts of profit because it provides
the point of reference by which profit is measured; it is a prerequisite for
distinguishing between an enterprise's return on capital and its return of
capital; only inflows of assets in excess of amounts needed to maintain capital
can be regarded as profit and therefore as a return on capital. Hence, profit
is the residual amount that remains after expenses (including capital
maintenance adjustments, where appropriate) have been deducted from
income. If expenses exceed income, the residual amount is a net loss.
105. The physical capital maintenance concept requires the adoption of
the current cost basis of measurement. The financial capital maintenance
concept, however, does not require the use of a particular basis of
measurement. Selection of the basis under this concept is dependent on the
type of financial capital that the enterprise is seeking to maintain.
106. The principal difference between the two concepts of capital
maintenance is the treatment of the effects of changes in the prices of assets
and liabilities of the enterprise. In general terms, an enterprise has maintained
its capital if it has as much capital at the end of the period as it had at the
beginning of the period. Any amount over and above that required to maintain
the capital at the beginning of the period is profit.
107. Under the concept of financial capital maintenance where capital is
defined in terms of nominal monetary units, profit represents the increase in
nominal money capital over the period. Thus, increases in the prices of

assets held over the period, conventionally referred to as holding gains, are,
conceptually, profits. They may not be recognised as such, however, until
the assets are disposed of in an exchange transaction. When the concept of
financial capital maintenance is defined in terms of constant purchasing power
units, profit represents the increase in invested purchasing power over the
period. Thus, only that part of the increase in the prices of assets that
exceeds the increase in the general level of prices is regarded as profit. The
rest of the increase is treated as a capital maintenance adjustment and, hence,
as part of equity.
108. Under the concept of physical capital maintenance when capital is
defined in terms of the physical productive capacity, profit represents the
increase in that capital over the period. All price changes affecting the
assets and liabilities of the enterprise are viewed as changes in the
measurement of the physical productive capacity of the enterprise; hence,
they are treated as capital maintenance adjustments that are part of equity
and not as profit.
109. The selection of the measurement bases and concept of capital main-
tenance will determine the accounting model used in the preparation of the
financial statements. Different accounting models exhibit different degrees
of relevance and reliability and, as in other areas, management must seek a
balance between relevance and reliability. This Framework is applicable to
a range of accounting models and provides guidance on preparing and
presenting the financial statements under the chosen model.

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