Front matter
- 1. Designerly Ways of Knowing
- 2. Board of International Research in Design, BIRD Members: Klaus Thomas Edelmann Michael Erlhoff Simon Grand Wolfgang Jonas Ralf Michel Beat Schneider
- 3. Nigel Cross Designerly Ways of Knowing Birkhäuser Basel · Boston · Berlin
- 4. Contents Foreword BIRD 009 Preface 011 Acknowledgements 015 1. DESIGNERLY WAYS OF KNOWING 017 Design in General Education 019 Educational Criteria 020 Ways of Knowing in Design 022 Design Processes 022 Design Products 026 Intrinsic Value of Design Education 027 The Discipline of Design 029 2. THE NATURE AND NURTURE OF DESIGN ABILITY 033 Nature 033 What Do Designers Do? 033 Studies of Designing 035 Design Ability is Possessed by Everyone 038 Design Ability Can Be Damaged or Lost 039 Design as a Form of Intelligence 041 Nurture 043 Learning to Design 043 Design Education in the Open 045 The Development of Design Ability 046 3. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DESIGN 049 Research in Design Thinking 049 What Expert Designers Say About Designing 051 The Role of Sketching in Design 054 Can a Machine Design? 058 Computation and Cognition 060 4. CREATIVE COGNITION IN DESIGN I: THE CREATIVE LEAP 065 An Example of a Creative Leap 066 Identifying the Leap 070 Modelling the Leap 072 Combination 073 Mutation 074 Analogy 075 First Principles 075 CONTENTS 005
- 5. Emergence 076 Not Leaping but Bridging 078 Appendix A 079 Appendix B 081 5. CREATIVE COGNITION IN DESIGN II: CREATIVE STRATEGIES 085 Studies of Outstanding Designers 085 Victor Scheinman 085 Kenneth Grange 090 Gordon Murray 092 Comparing the Strategies 093 Design Expertise 097 6. UNDERSTANDING DESIGN COGNITION Problem Formulation 099 Goal Analysis 100 Solution Focusing 101 Co-evolution of Problem and Solution 102 Problem Framing 102 Solution Generation 103 Fixation 104 Attachment to Concepts 105 Generation of Alternatives 106 Creativity 107 Sketching 108 Process Strategy 109 Structured Processes 109 Opportunism 110 Modal Shifts 111 Novices and Experts 112 Issues in Design Cognition 113 Summary: Problem Formulation 114 Summary: Solution Generation 115 Summary: Process Strategy 116 7. DESIGN AS A DISCIPLINE 119 Scientific Design 121 Design Science 122 Science of Design 123 Design as a Discipline 123 Design Research 124 References 129 Index 137 006 DESIGNERLY WAYS OF KNOWING
- 6. Foreword BIRD If international design research is to develop, it is essential that fundamental positions and important results are readily accessible to the research community. Productive research debate and innovative research programmes thrive on locating, shaping and demarcating themselves in relation to existing viewpoints. BIRD supports the publication of books and articles that are internationally significant in this context, encouraging an exchange of views between researchers, and vigorous analysis of important perspectives. Nigel Cross has helped to lay the foundations for design research in recent decades and has developed an influential position for this fundamental debate. In a series of major research contributions to understanding the “designerly ways of knowing” collected in this book, Nigel Cross proposes discussing the particular qualities of design practice as research practice on three levels: • Design research must first of all address the epistemology of design: how precisely can designers know? • Secondly, design research must address design practice: what part do designers play in the design process? • Thirdly, design research must address the artefacts in the design process: what does the design process bring into being? There are design opportunities and open questions for design research on all three planes. In addressing the epistemology of design, Nigel Cross’s work suggests examining current research into knowledge and science. His work raises further questions for design research: how does research create and develop knowledge? How do research methods shape forms of knowledge within research? How can this knowledge, which is often implicit and emerges in the form of embodied experiences, be made accessible to the research debate? Interest in design practice and processes corresponds with the current “practice turn” focus in the social sciences. From this perspective, design research needs close links with design as social practice. Essentially it is about describing and understanding design as a creative designerly action (design research), embedded in different contexts and processes, situations and communities, expectation structures and media contexts. This shifts attention to the complex associations between creative processes and created artefacts, starting with research questions like: what are the dynamics at work between design processes, design strategies, artefacts and use forms? What is the significance of different artefacts in the design process itself, from sketches and moodboards via prototypes and models to objects and instructions for use? Which research methods open up access to these questions? Nigel Cross has done important preliminary work for these research debates with his contributions to design research over the past 25 years, which are collected together in this book. FOREWORD 009
- 7. Preface This book traces the development of a personal research programme over a period of many years. The starting point for the programme was a realisation that research in design seemed to have no clear goal of what it was trying to achieve. A key insight for me was to realise that if we wanted to develop a robust, independent discipline of design (rather than let design be subsumed within paradigms of science or the arts), then we had to be much more articulate about the particular nature of design activity, design behaviour and design cognition. We had to build a network of argu- ments and evidence for ‘designerly ways of knowing’. The research programme has included some empirical, laboratory-based work, but has also included theoretical reflection, and attempts to review and syn- thesise the work of other researchers. I have reported this work at various times and in various places – in lectures, conference presentations and journal papers. In this book I have brought together a selected series of these reports, trying to trace a coherent thread, and to lay out some of the network of arguments and evi- dence referred to above. My goal has been to understand how designers think, or the nature of design expertise, trying to establish its particular strengths and weak- nesses, and giving credit where it might be due for design cognition as an essen- tial aspect of human intelligence. The versions of the reports and papers now pub- lished here have been revised in order to aid coherence and avoid overlap. Chapter 1, ‘Designerly Ways of Knowing’, was first published as a contribution to a series on ‘Design as a Discipline’ in the journal Design Studies, which aimed to establish the theoretical bases for treating design as a coherent discipline of study. The first contribution in the series had been from Bruce Archer, in the very first issue of Design Studies in 1979, in which he outlined arguments for a ‘third area’ of education – design. At that time, the subject of ‘design’ was being introduced into secondary schools in the UK for the first time, meaning that it was becoming part of general, not specialist education. Also at that time, my colleagues and I at the new Open University had been facing similar issues concerned with how to develop a form of design education that was relevant for ‘everyone’, and was not necessar- ily aimed at preparing students for a professional role in design practice. In my contribution to the debate I attempted to develop further an understanding of this ‘third area’ by contrasting it with the other two – sciences and humanities – and to go on to consider the criteria which design must satisfy to be acceptable as a part of general education. I argued that such an acceptance must imply a reorienta- tion from the instrumental aims of conventional, professionally orientated design education, towards intrinsic values of design as a valid subject of study for every- one. These intrinsic values, I suggested, must derive from the deep, underlying pat- terns of how designers think and act, or the ‘designerly ways of knowing’. Because of their common concern with these fundamental ‘ways of knowing’, I suggested PREFACE 011
- 8. that both design research and design education were thereby contributing to the development of design as a discipline. I also suggested that this emerging view that ‘there are designerly ways of knowing’ could form the axiomatic ‘touch-stone theory’ for research within design as a discipline. The second chapter, ‘The Nature and Nurture of Design Ability’, is based on my inaugural lecture as Professor of Design Studies in the Open University, which I delivered in 1989. The first part of my lecture concentrated on the nature of design ability, for which I drew upon a variety of studies and investigations into design activity and designer behaviour. From a review of these studies, I summarised design ability as comprising abilities of resolving ill-defined problems, adopting solution-focused cognitive strategies, employing abductive or appositional think- ing and using non-verbal modelling media. These abilities are highly developed in skilled designers, but I suggested that they are also possessed to some degree by everyone. I then outlined a case for design ability as a fundamental form of human intelligence, thus seeking to provide a much broader foundation for establish- ing ‘designerly ways of knowing’. In the second part of my lecture I argued that understanding the nature of design ability is necessary in order to enable design educators to nurture its development in their students. I discussed the nurture of this ability through design education, with particular reference to the problem of providing design education through the distance-learning media of the Open Uni- versity. In the chapter here, I have revised the second part of the lecture so as to make it less focused on the special concerns of the Open University, and hopefully more relevant to all design educators, although still emphasising that ‘open-ness’ is a key principle for modern design education. Chapter 3, ‘Natural and Artificial Intelligence in Design’, arose from the chal- lenge of being asked to give the keynote lecture to the international conference on Artificial Intelligence in Design, in 1998. Rather than discussing ‘artificial intelli- gence’, I chose to concentrate on the ‘natural intelligence’ of design. The lecture addressed what we know about the ‘natural intelligence’ of design ability, and the nature of design activity. My starting point was the observation that the ability to design is widespread amongst all people, but some people appear to be better designers than others. I used quotations and comments from some acknowledged expert designers to reinforce general findings about the nature of design activ- ity that have come from design research. I also referred to and analysed the role of sketching in design in order to exemplify some of the complexity of designing. Finally, I made some comments about the value and relevance of research into arti- ficial intelligence (AI) in design. I suggested that one aim of research in AI in design should be to help inform understanding of the natural intelligence of design abil- ity, to help us better to understand such natural intelligence, or human cognition. A key aspect of human cognition in the context of design is creative thinking. The next two chapters report some studies of creative cognition in design. In Chapter 4, ‘The Creative Leap’, I report an attempt to analyse how creative 012 DESIGNERLY WAYS OF KNOWING
- 9. thinking happens in design, through one case study which was captured in a proto- col study experiment. The ‘creative leap’, in which a novel concept emerges – per- haps quite suddenly – as a potential design solution, is widely regarded as a char- acteristic feature of creative design. The investigation reported here is based on an example of a ‘creative leap’ which occurred during a recorded laboratory study of the activity of a small design team. The characteristics and context of this ‘crea- tive leap’ are reconstructed from the recorded material, and I use the commonly accepted procedures underlying generic descriptive models of creative design to try to provide further insight into the example. I also make some observations of potential implications for computer modelling of creative design. I conclude that the perceptual act underlying creative insight in design is not so much a ‘leap’, but more akin to ‘bridging’ between problem space and solution space. This fits with the appositional nature of design thinking, in that the bridging concept embodies satisfactory relationships between problem and solution. Chapter 5, ‘Creative Strategies’, continues the line of investigation into creative cognition in design. Three studies of innovative design in engineering and product design are reported. As well as the small team design project reported in Chapter 4, my colleagues and I had been able to capture in the same series of experiments the think-aloud protocols of an outstanding engineering designer, Victor Scheinman. I have also been fortunate enough to be able to conduct some in-depth interviews with a couple of other truly outstanding designers – the prod- uct designer Kenneth Grange and the Formula One racing car designer Gordon Murray. In this chapter I present an example of each of these outstanding design- ers’ approaches to a particular design problem that they faced. I have tried to draw comparisons between the three examples, and there do appear to be some striking similarities in their adoption of a strategic design approach, despite the very dif- ferent project examples. I develop a general descriptive model from the examples, showing how strategic knowledge in creative design is exercised at three levels: low-level articulated knowledge of first principles, an intermediate-level of tacit personal and situated knowledge applied within the particular problem and its context, and high-level implicit and explicit knowledge of problem goals and criteria. All three outstanding designers seem to exercise this strategic knowledge in similar ways in creating novel design proposals. The studies of Victor Scheinman and the three-person design team in the pre- vious two chapters drew upon the experimental method of protocol analysis, which has become the most widely used technique for investigating design cognition. Chapter 6, ‘Understanding Design Cognition’, reviews a number of protocol and other such empirical studies of design activity, and summarises results relevant to understanding the nature of design cognition from an interdisciplinary, domain- independent overview. The results are presented grouped into three major aspects of design cognition – the formulation of problems, the generation of solutions, and the utilisation of design process strategies. I draw parallels and comparisons PREFACE 013
- 10. between results, and I find many similarities of design cognition across domains of professional practice. Perhaps the most interesting conclusion is that it seems that the ‘intuitive’ behaviour of experienced designers is often highly appropriate to the special nature of design tasks, although appearing to be ‘unprincipled’ in theory. The final chapter returns to the starting theme of ‘Design as a Discipline’. It begins by unravelling some of the history of concern with relationships between design and science. In the original conference paper I was seeking to develop a view of design as a discipline based upon a science of design, but not a ‘design sci- ence’. As in Chapter 1, I argue that the underlying axiom of this discipline is that there are forms of knowledge peculiar to the awareness and ability of a designer. In the latter part of the chapter I outline the ways in which this discipline of design, and the understanding of designerly ways of knowing, can be pursued through design research. I identify three sources of design knowledge as research loci: peo- ple, processes and products. These are the foundation stones for understanding designerly ways of knowing. In selecting this particular set of speeches, papers and reports, I have tried to construct some of the argument, and to assemble some of the evidence that sup- ports the concept of ‘designerly ways of knowing’. I believe that this concept can now be justified, and that – thanks to the work of several other design researchers besides myself – we now have a much clearer view of what constitutes the particular nature of design cognition. The span of time covered by the papers that formed the original versions of the seven chapters here is some twenty years. One might have hoped that much more would have been achieved over such a long period. But the discipline of design is still quite young, and it still has a relatively small research base. I hope that this book might serve to record the coming of age of the discipline, to cement the dis- cipline’s foundations, and to suggest ways forward for a new and rapidly growing generation of design researchers. Nigel Cross 014 DESIGNERLY WAYS OF KNOWING
- 11. Acknowledgements My wife Anita has also been my working partner in much of the research reported here, and she has been a constant source of inspiration and support. The Open University has provided me with time and resources to undertake personal research, and with study leave in order to complete this book. Chapter 4 and part of Chapter 5 are based on data from the Delft Protocols Workshop, 1994, organised by Kees Dorst, Henri Christiaans and myself at Delft University of Technology, in association with Steve Harrison and Scott Minneman of Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. The Workshop was made possible by financial and practical support provided by the Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering of Delft University of Technology, Xerox PARC and the Engineering Design Center of Stanford University. Above all, gratitude is due to Victor Scheinman and the other designers who willingly participated in the experiments, provided their time and talent free of charge, and allowed their design activity to be observed and analysed. Kenneth Grange and Gordon Murray generously provided time to discuss their work, reported in Chapter 5. I am grateful to the following for permission to republish papers: to Elsevier for Chapters 1, 2 and 3 from Design Studies; to the Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition, University of Sydney, for Chapter 4 from Computational Models of Creative Design III and Chapter 5 from Strategic Knowledge and Concept Formation III; to Elsevier for Chapter 6 from Design Knowing and Learning; to the Politecnico di Milano for Chapter 7 from Design+Research. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources of illustrations: Figures 3.1, 3.2 Iain Fraser and Rod Henmi, Envisioning Architecture, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York; Figure 4.2 Joachim Gunter, Eckart Frankenberger and Peter Auer, Figure 4.3 Maryliza Mazijoglou, Stephen Scrivener and Sean Clark, Figure 4.4 David Radcliffe, Figure 4.5 Gabriela Goldschmidt, all from Analysing Design Activity (eds. N Cross, H Christiaans and K Dorst), John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chiches- ter, reproduced with permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 015