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Chapter 6 – Organizational Structure and Design
6-113
Copyright ©2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER
6
ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURE AND
DESIGN
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter students should be able to:
1. Describe 6 key elements in organizational design.
2. Identify the contingency factors that favor the mechanistic model or the organic model.
3. Compare and contrast traditional and contemporary organizational designs.
4. Discuss the design challenges faced by today’s organizations.
Management Myth
MYTH: Bureaucracies are inefficient.
TRUTH: Bureaucratic organizations are still alive and well and continue to dominate most
medium-sized and large organization.
SUMMARY
This chapter discusses the key concepts and their components and how managers create a
structured environment where employees can work efficiently and effectively. Once the
organization’s goals, plans, and strategies are in place, managers must develop a structure that
will best facilitate the attainment of those goals.

6-114
I. WHAT ARE THE SIX KEY ELEMENTS IN ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN?
Learning Catalytics Question: Instructor Directions and Follow-Up
Question
Type
Question Answer/Response For the Instructor
Word
Cloud
What are the six
key elements in
organizational
design?
Options: work
specialization,
departmentalization,
authority,
responsibility and
power, span of
control,
centralization and
decentralization,
and formalization
Use this at the start of class to aid
students' recall of the six key elements of
organizational design.
A. Introduction
1. Organization design decisions are typically made by senior managers.
2. Organization design applies to any type of organization.
3. Formulated by management writers such as Henri Fayol and Max Weber in the
early 1900s.
4. These principles still provide valuable insights into designing effective and
efficient organizations.
B. What Is Work Specialization?
1. Work specialization is dividing work activities into separate jobs tasks.
a) Individuals specialize in doing part of an activity.
b) Work specialization makes efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers
hold.
2. Some tasks require highly developed skills; others lower skill levels.
3. Excessive work specialization or human diseconomies, can lead to boredom,
fatigue, stress, low productivity, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and high
turnover. (See Exhibit 6-1.)
4. Today's view is that specialization is an important organizing mechanism for
employee efficiency, but it is important to recognize the economies work
specialization can provide as well as its limitations.
C. What Is Departmentalization?
1. Departmentalization is when common work activities are grouped back together so
work gets done in a coordinated and integrated way.

6-115
2. There are five common forms of departmentalization (see Exhibit 6-2).
a) Functional Groups - employees based on work performed (e.g., engineering,
accounting, information systems, human resources)
b) Product Groups - employees based on major product areas in the corporation
(e.g., women’s footwear, men’s footwear, and apparel and accessories)
c) Customer Groups - employees based on customers’ problems and needs (e.g.,
wholesale, retail, government)
d) Geographic Groups - employees based on location served (e.g., North, South,
Midwest, East)
e) Process Groups - employees based on the basis of work or customer flow (e.g.,
testing, payment)
3. With today's focus on the customer, many companies are using cross-functional
teams, which are teams made up of individuals from various departments and that
cross traditional departmental lines.
D. What are Authority and Responsibility?
1. The chain of command is the continuous line of authority that extends from upper
organizational levels to the lowest and clarifies who reports to whom.
2. An employee who has to report to two or more bosses might have to cope with
conflicting demands or priorities.
3. Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position, to give orders and
expect the orders to be obeyed.
4. Each management position has specific inherent rights that incumbents acquire
from the position’s rank or title.
a) Authority is related to one’s position and ignores personal characteristics.
5. When managers delegate authority, they must allocate commensurate
responsibility.
a) When employees are given rights, they assume a corresponding obligation to
perform and should be held accountable for that performance.
b) Allocating authority without responsibility creates opportunities for abuse.
c) No one should be held responsible for something over which he or she has no
authority.
6. What are the different types of authority relationships?
a) The early management writers distinguished between two forms of authority.
(1) Line authority entitles a manager to direct the work of an employee.
(a) It is the employer-employee authority relationship that extends from
top to bottom.

6-116
(b) See Exhibit 6-3.
(c) A line manager has the right to direct the work of employees and make
certain decisions without consulting anyone.
(d) Sometimes the term “line” is used to differentiate line managers from
staff managers.
(e) Line emphasizes managers whose organizational function contributes
directly to the achievement of organizational objectives (e.g.,
production and sales).
(2) Staff managers have staff authority (e.g., human resources and payroll).
(a) A manager’s function is classified as line or staff based on the
organization’s objectives.
(b) As organizations get larger and more complex, line managers find that
they do not have the time, expertise, or resources to get their jobs done
effectively.
(c) They create staff authority functions to support, assist, advice, and
generally reduce some of their informational burdens.
(d) Exhibit 6-4 illustrates line and staff authority.
7. What is Unity of Command?
a) The chain of command is the continuous line of authority that extends from
upper organizational levels to the lowest and clarifies who reports to whom.
b) An employee who has to report to two or more bosses might have to cope with
conflicting demands or priorities.
c) Therefore, the early management writers argued that an employee should have
only one superior (Unity of command).
d) If the chain of command had to be violated, early management writers always
explicitly designated that there be a clear separation of activities and a
supervisor responsible for each.
e) The unity of command concept was logical when organizations were
comparatively simple.
f) There are instances today when strict adherence to the unity of command
creates a degree of inflexibility that hinders an organization’s performance.
8. How does the contemporary view of authority and responsibility differ from the
historical view?
a) The early management writers assumed that the rights inherent in one’s formal
position in an organization were the sole source of influence.
b) This might have been true 30 or 60 years ago.
c) It is now recognized that you do not have to be a manager to have power, and
that power is not perfectly correlated with one’s level in the organization.

6-117
d) Authority is but one element in the larger concept of power.
9. How do authority and power differ?
a) Authority and power are frequently confused.
b) Authority is a right, the legitimacy of which is based on the authority figure’s
position in the organization.
(1) Authority goes with the job.
c) Power refers to an individual’s capacity to influence decisions.
(1) Authority is part of the larger concept of power.
(2) Exhibit 6-5 visually depicts the difference.
d) Power is a three-dimensional concept.
(1) It includes not only the functional and hierarchical dimensions but also
centrality.
(2) While authority is defined by one’s vertical position in the hierarchy, power is
made up of both one’s vertical position and one’s distance from the
organization’s power core, or center.
e) Think of the cone in Exhibit 6-5 as an organization.
(1) The closer you are to the power core, the more influence you have on
decisions.
(2) The existence of a power core is the only difference between A and B in
Exhibit 6-5.
f) The cone analogy explicitly acknowledges two facts:
(1) The higher one moves in an organization (an increase in authority), the closer
one moves to the power core.
(2) It is not necessary to have authority in order to wield power because one can
move horizontally inward toward the power core without moving up.
(a) Example, administrative assistants, “powerful” as gatekeepers with
little authority.
(3) Low-ranking employees with contacts in high places might be close to the
power core.
(4) So, too, are employees with scarce and important skills.
(a) The lowly production engineer with twenty years of experience might
be the only one in the firm who knows the inner workings of all the old
production machinery.
g) Power can come from different areas.
(1) John French and Bertram Raven have identified five sources, or bases, of
power.
(a) See Exhibit 6-6.

6-118
(b) Coercive power -based on fear; Reward power - based on the ability
to distribute something that others value; Legitimate power - based on
one’s position in the formal hierarchy; Expert power - based on one’s
expertise, special skill, or knowledge; Referent power -based on
identification with a person who has desirable resources.
E. What is Span of Control?
1. How many employees can a manager efficiently and effectively direct?
2. This question received a great deal of attention from early management writers.
3. There was no consensus on a specific number but early writers favored small spans
of less than six to maintain close control.
4. Level in the organization is a contingency variable.
a) Top managers need a smaller span than do middle managers, and middle
managers require a smaller span than do supervisors.
5. There is some change in theories about effective spans of control.
6. Many organizations are increasing their spans of control.
7. The span of control is increasingly being determined by contingency variables.
a) The more training and experience employees have, the less direct supervision
needed.
8. Other contingency variables should also be considered; similarity of employee
tasks, the task complexity, the physical proximity of employees, the degree of
standardization, the sophistication of the organization’s management information
system, the strength of the organization’s value system, the preferred managing
style of the manager, etc.
A Question of Ethics
A small percentage of companies are revealing to employees details about everything from
financials to staff performance reviews. Advocates of this approach say it is a good way to build
trust and allow employees to see how they are making contributions to the company. Critics say
open management can be expensive and time consuming. As work becomes more collaborative
the sharing of details may become inevitable.
Questions for students to consider:
• What ethical issues they see in the case?
• What are the implications for (a) managers and (b) employees?

6-119
F. How Do Centralization and Decentralization Differ?
1. Centralization is a function of how much decision-making authority is pushed
down to lower levels in the organization.
2. Centralization-decentralization is a degree phenomenon.
3. By that, we mean that no organization is completely centralized or completely
decentralized.
4. Early management writers felt that centralization in an organization depended on
the situation.
a) Their objective was the optimum and efficient use of employees.
b) Traditional organizations were structured in a pyramid, with power and
authority concentrated near the top of the organization.
c) Given this structure, historically, centralized decisions were the most
prominent.
5. Organizations today are more complex and are responding to dynamic changes.
a) Many managers believe that decisions need to be made by those closest to the
problem.
6. Today, managers often choose the amount of centralization or decentralization that
will allow them to best implement their decisions and achieve organizational goals.
7. One of the central themes of empowering employees was to delegate to them the
authority to make decisions on those things that affect their work.
a) That’s the issue of decentralization at work.
b) It doesn’t imply that senior management no longer makes decisions.
G. What is Formalization?
1. Formalization refers to how standardized an organization’s jobs are and the extent
to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.
2. Early management writers expected organizations to be fairly formalized, as
formalization went hand-in-hand with bureaucratic-style organizations.
3. Today, organizations rely less on strict rules and standardization to guide and
regulate employee behavior.

6-120
II. WHAT CONTINGENCY VARIABLES AFFECT STRUCTURAL CHOICE?
Learning Catalytics Question: Instructor Directions and Follow-Up
Question
Type
Question Answer/Response For the Instructor
Region Families are
organizations that
function best when
roles and
responsibilities are
clearly defined.
Was your family
more mechanistic
or organic?
There is no correct
answer.
Use the structure of the college/university
to explain how organizations function.
A. Introduction
1. The most appropriate structure to use will depend on contingency factors.
2. The more popular contingency variables are strategy, size, technology, and
environment.
B. How Is a Mechanistic Organization Different from an Organic Organization?
1. Exhibit 6-7 describes two organizational forms.
2. The mechanistic organization (or bureaucracy) was the natural result of combining
the six elements of structure.
a) The chain-of-command principle ensured the existence of a formal hierarchy of
authority.
b) Keeping the span of control small created tall, impersonal structures.
(1) Top management increasingly imposed rules and regulations.
c) The high degree of work specialization created simple, routine, and
standardized jobs.
d) Departmentalization increased impersonality and the need for multiple layers
of management.
3. The organic form is a highly adaptive form that is a direct contrast to the
mechanistic one.
a) The organic organization’s loose structure allows it to change rapidly as needs
require.
(1) Employees tend to be professionals who are technically proficient and trained
to handle diverse problems.

6-121
(2) They need very few formal rules and little direct supervision.
b) The organic organization is low in centralization.
4. When each of these two models is appropriate depends on several contingency
variables.
C. How Does Strategy Affect Structure?
1. An organization’s structure should facilitate goal achievement.
a) Strategy and structure should be closely linked.
b) Certain structural designs work best with different organizational strategies.
2. Accordingly, organizational structure should follow strategy. If management
makes a significant change in strategy, it needs to modify its structure as well.
D. How Does Size Affect Structure?
1. There is historical evidence that an organization’s size significantly affects its
structure.
2. Large organizations—employing 2,000 or more employees—tend to have more
work specialization, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and rules and
regulations than do small organizations.
3. The relationship is not linear; the impact of size becomes less important as an
organization expands.
a) Example, once an organization has around 2,000 employees, it is already fairly
mechanistic—an additional 500 employees will not have much effect.
b) Adding 500 employees to an organization that has only 300 members is likely
to result in a shift toward a more mechanistic structure.
E. How Does Technology Affect Structure?
1. Every organization uses some form of technology to convert its inputs into outputs.
2. To attain its objectives, the organization uses equipment, materials, knowledge,
and experienced individuals and puts them together into certain types and patterns
of activities.
a) For example, your tablet or smartphone has a standardized assembly line.
b) For example, your resume is custom design and print.
c) For example, your bottle of Ibuprofen was manufactured using a continuous
flow production line by the pharmaceutical company.
From the Past to the Present
Joan Woodward (British scholar) found that distinct relationships exist between size of
production runs and the structure of the firm. The effectiveness of organizations was related to
“fit” between technology and structure. Most studies focused on the processes or methods that
transform inputs into outputs and how they differ by their degree of routine.
Three categories, representing three distinct technologies, had increasing levels of complexity

6-122
and sophistication. Unit production described the production of items in units or small batches.
Mass production described large batch manufacturing. The most technically complex group,
process production, included continuous-process production. The more routine the technology,
the more standardized and mechanistic the structure can be. Organizations with more non-routine
technology are more likely to have organic structures. See Exhibit 6-8.
Discuss This:
• Why is (a) mechanistic structure more appropriate for an organization with routine
technology and (b) organic structure more appropriate for an organization with
nonroutine technology?
• Does Woodward’s framework still apply to today’s organizations? Why or why not?
F. How Does Environment Affect Structure?
1. Mechanistic organizations are most effective in stable environments.
2. Organic organizations are best matched with dynamic and uncertain environments.
3. The environment-structure relationship is why so many managers have
restructured their organizations to be lean, fast, and flexible.
III. WHAT ARE SOME COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS?
A. The main designs are simple, functional and divisional.
1. See Exhibit 6-9.
B. What Is a Simple Structure?
1. Most organizations start as an entrepreneurial venture with a simple structure.
2. There is low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a
single person, and little formalization.
3. The simple structure is most widely used in smaller businesses.
4. The strengths of the simple structure are that it is fast, flexible, and inexpensive to
maintain, and accountability is clear.
5. Major weaknesses.
a) It is effective only in small organizations.
b) It becomes increasingly inadequate as an organization grows; its few policies
or rules to guide operations and its high centralization result in information
overload at the top.
c) As size increases, decision making becomes slower and can eventually stop.
d) It is risky since everything depends on one person.
C. What is the functional structure?
1. Many organizations do not remain simple structures because structural
contingency factors dictate it.

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6-123
2. As the number of employees rises, informal work rules of the simple structure give
way to more formal rules.
3. Rules and regulations are implemented; departments are created, and levels of
management are added to coordinate the activities of departmental people.
4. At this point, a bureaucracy is formed.
5. Two of the most popular bureaucratic design options are called the functional and
divisional structures.
6. Why do companies implement functional structures?
a) The functional structure merely expands the functional orientation.
b) The strength of the functional structure lies in work specialization.
(1) Economies of scale, minimizes duplication of personnel and equipment,
makes employees comfortable and satisfied.
c) The weakness of the functional structure is that the organization frequently
loses sight of its best interests in the pursuit of functional goals.
D. What is the divisional structure?
1. An organization design made up of self-contained units or divisions.
2. Health care giant Johnson & Johnson, for example, has three divisions:
pharmaceuticals, medical devices and diagnostics, and consumer products.
3. The chief advantage of the divisional structure is that it focuses on results.
a) Division managers have full responsibility for a product or service.
b) It also frees the headquarters from concern with day-to-day operating details.
4. The major disadvantage is duplication of activities and resources.
a) The duplication of functions increases the organization’s costs and reduces
efficiency.
E. What Contemporary Organizational Designs Can Managers Use?
1. See Exhibit 6-10 for the three contemporary organization designs.
a) Team structure is when the entire organization consists of work groups or
teams.
b) Team members have the authority to make decisions that affect them, because
there is no rigid chain of command.
c) Companies such as Amazon, Boeing, Hewlett-Packard, Louis Vuitton,
Motorola, and Xerox extensively use employee teams to improve productivity.
d) In these teams, Employees must be trained to work on teams, receive cross-
functional skills training, and be compensated accordingly.
2. The matrix structure assigns specialists from different functional departments to
work on projects led by a project manager.

6-124
a) Exhibit 6-11 illustrates the matrix structure of a firm.
b) The unique characteristic of the matrix is that employees in this structure have
at least two bosses, a dual chain of command: their functional departmental
manager and their product or project managers.
c) Project managers have authority over the functional members who are part of
that manager’s team.
d) Authority is shared between the two managers.
(1) Typically, the project manager is given authority over project employees
relative to the project’s goals.
(2) Decisions such as promotions, salary recommendations, and annual reviews
remain the functional manager’s responsibility.
e) To work effectively, project, and functional managers must communicate and
coordinate.
f) The primary strength of the matrix is that it can facilitate coordination of a
multiple set of complex and interdependent projects while still retaining the
economies that result from keeping functional specialists grouped together.
g) The major disadvantages of the matrix are in the confusion it creates and its
propensity to foster power struggles.
3. Project structure - is when employees continuously work on projects.
a) Tends to be more flexible
b) The major advantages of that are that employees can be deployed rapidly to
respond to environmental changes, no ridged hierarchical structure to slow
down decision-making, managers serve as facilitators, mentors, and coaches to
eliminate or minimize organizational obstacles.
c) The two major disadvantages of the project structure are the complexity of
assigning people to projects and the inevitable task and personality conflicts
that arise.
4. What is a boundaryless Organization?
a) A boundaryless organization, coined by former GE CEO, Jack Welch, is not
defined or limited by boundaries or categories imposed by traditional
structures.
b) It blurs the historical boundaries surrounding an organization by increasing its
interdependence with its environment.
c) There are two types of boundaries:
(1) Internal—the horizontal ones imposed by work specialization and
departmentalization and the vertical ones that separate employees into
organizational levels and hierarchies.
(2) External—the boundaries that separate the organization from its customers,
suppliers, and other stakeholders.

6-125
5. A virtual organization consists of a small core of full-time employees and outside
specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on projects.
6. A network organization - is one that uses its own employees to do some work
activities and networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product
components or work processes. Also called a modular organization by
manufacturing firms.
Technology and the Manager’s Job - The Changing World of Work
It is almost cliché to say that technology has had a dramatic impact on how people work. Mobile
communication and technology has allowed organizations to stay connected. Hand-held devices,
cellular phones, webcams, etc. allow employees to work virtually. Information technology
continues to grow and become an integral part of the way business is conducted. However, one
challenges caused by some the high level of integrated technology is security. Software and other
disabling devices have helped in this arena and many companies are developing creative
applications for their workforce.
Discuss This:
• What benefits do you see with being able to do work anywhere, anytime? (Think in terms of
benefits for an organization and for its human resources.)
• What other issues, besides security, do you see with being able to do work anywhere,
anytime? (Again, think about thisfor an organization and for itsemployees.)
IV. WHAT ARE TODAY'S ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN CHALLENGES?
A. How Do You Keep Employees Connected?
1. Choosing a design that will best support and facilitate employees doing their work
efficiently and effectively, creates challenges.
2. A major structural design challenge for managers is finding a way to keep widely
dispersed and mobile employees connected to the organization.
B. How Do Global Differences Affect Organizational Structure?
1. Researchers have concluded that the structures and strategies of organizations
worldwide are similar, “while the behavior within them is maintaining its cultural
uniqueness.”
2. When designing or changing structure, managers may need to think about the
cultural implications of certain design elements, such as rules and bureaucratic
mechanisms.
C. How Do You Build a Learning Organization?
1. Building a learning organization is a mindset in which the learning organization
has developed the capacity to continuously adapt and change because all members
take an active role in identifying and resolving work-related issues.

6-126
2. Employees are practicing knowledge management.
a) Continually acquiring and sharing new knowledge.
b) Willing to apply that knowledge in making decisions or performing their work.
3. According to some organizational design theorists, an organization’s ability to
learn and to apply that learning may be the only sustainable source of competitive
advantage.
See Exhibit 6-12 for characteristics of a learning organization.
a) Members share information and collaborate on work activities throughout the
entire organization.
b) Minimize or eliminate existing structural and physical boundaries.
(1) Employees are free to work together and to collaborate.
(2) Teams tend to be an important feature of the structural design.
(3) Managers serve as facilitators, supporters, and advocates.
c) For a learning organization to "learn" information is shared openly, in a timely
manner, and as accurately as possible.
d) Leadership creates a shared vision for the organization’s future and keeps
organizational members working toward that vision.
(1) Leaders should support and encourage the collaborative environment.
e) A learning organization’s culture is one in which everyone agrees on a shared
vision and everyone recognizes the inherent interrelationships among the
organization’s processes, activities, functions, and external environment.
f) There is a strong sense of community, caring for each other, and trust.
(1) Employees feel free to openly communicate, share, experiment, and learn
without fear of criticism or punishment.
g) Organizational culture is an important aspect of being a learning organization.
A learning organization’s culture is one in which everyone agrees on a shared
vision and everyone recognizes the inherent interrelationships among the
organization’s processes, activities, functions, and external environment.
D. How Can Managers Design Efficient and Effective Flexible Work Arrangements?
1. As organizations adapt their structural designs to fit a diverse workforce, growing
competition, customer demands and new technology, we see more of them adopting
flexible working arrangements.
2. Such arrangements not only exploit the power of technology, but give organizations
the flexibility to deploy employees when and where needed.
3. Telecommuting is a work arrangement in which employees work at home and are
linked to the workplace by their computer.

6-127
a) Telecommuting provides the company a way to grow without having to incur
any additional fixed costs such as office buildings, equipment, or parking lots.
b) Some companies view the arrangement as a way to combat high gas prices and
to attract talented employees who want more freedom and control.
c) Some managers are reluctant to have their employees become “laptop hobos”
wasting time surfing the Internet or playing online games instead of working.
d) Employees often express concerns about being isolated.
e) Managing the telecommuters then becomes a matter of keeping employees
feeling like they’re connected and engaged, a topic we delve into at the end of
the chapter as we look at today’s organizational design challenges.
4.Compressed workweek, which is a workweek where employees work longer hours
per day but fewer days per week.
a) Flextime (also known as flexible work hours), which is a scheduling system in
which employees are required to work a specific number of hours a week but
are free to vary those hours within certain limits.
b) Job sharing—the practice of having two or more people split a full-time job.
5. Contingent Workers are temporary, freelance, or contract workers whose
employment is contingent upon demand for their services.
a) As organizations eliminate full-time jobs through downsizing and other means
of organizational restructuring, they often rely on a contingent workforce to fill
in as needed.
b) One of the main issues businesses face with their contingent workers,
especially those who are independent contractors or freelancers, is classifying
who actually qualifies as one.
REVIEW AND APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1 Describe six key elements in organizational design. The first element, work
specialization, refers to dividing work activities into separate job tasks. The
second, departmentalization, is how jobs are grouped together, which can be one
of five types: functional, product, customer, geographic, or process. The third—
authority, responsibility, and power—all have to do with getting work done in an
organization. Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to
give orders and expect those orders to be obeyed. Responsibility refers to the
obligation to perform when authority has been delegated. Power is the capacity of

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washed to cleanse them from all impurities, in order to ensure their
being free from taint; after which, drain the meat, and it will take the
salt much quicker for the washing.—Examine it well; and be careful
to take all the kernels out of beef.
Some persons like salted meat to be red. For this purpose, saltpetre
is necessary. Otherwise, the less use is made of it the better, as it
tends to harden the meat. Sweet herbs, spices, and even garlic, may
be rubbed into hams and tongues, with the pickle, according to
taste. Bay salt gives a nice flavour. Sugar is generally used in curing
hams, tongues and beef; for the two latter some recommend lump
sugar, others treacle, to make the meat eat short.
In cold weather salt should be warmed before the fire. Indeed, some
use it quite hot. This causes it to penetrate more readily into the
meat than it does when rendered hard and dry by frost.
Salting troughs or tubs should be clean, and in an airy place. After
meat of any kind has been once well rubbed, keep it covered close,
not only with the lid of the vessel, but, in addition, with the thick
folds of some woollen article, in order to exclude the air. This is
recommended by good housekeepers; yet in Hampshire the trough is
sometimes left uncovered, the flitches purposely exposed to the air.

To cure Bacon.
As soon as the hog is cut up, sprinkle salt thickly over the flitches,
and let them lie on a brick floor all night. Then wipe the salt off, and
lay them in a salting trough. For a large flitch of bacon, allow 2
gallons of salt, 1 lb. of bay salt, 4 cakes of salt prunella, a ¼ lb. of
saltpetre, and 1 lb. of common moist sugar; divide this mixture into
two parts; rub one half into it the first day, and rub it in well. The
following day rub the other half in, and continue to rub and turn the
flitch every day for three weeks. Then hang the flitches to drain, roll
them in bran, and hang them to smoke, in a wood-fire chimney. The
more quickly, in reason, they are smoked, the better the bacon will
taste.
To cure a Ham.
Let a leg of pork hang for three days; then beat it with a rolling pin,
and rub into it 1 oz. of saltpetre finely powdered, and mixed with a
small quantity of common salt; let it lie all night. Make the following
pickle: a quart of stale strong beer, ½ lb. of bay salt, ½ lb. of
common salt, and the same of brown sugar; boil this twenty
minutes, then wipe the ham dry from the salt, and with a wooden
ladle, pour the pickle, by degrees, and as hot as possible, over the
ham; and as it cools, rub it well into every part. Rub and turn it
every day, for a week; then hang it, a fortnight, in a wood-smoke
chimney. When you take it down, sprinkle black pepper over the
bone, and into the holes, to keep it safe from hoppers, and hang it
up in a thick paper bag.
Another.

For one of 16 lb. weight. Rub the rind side of the ham with ¼ lb. of
brown sugar, then rub it with 1 lb. of salt, and put it in the salting-
pan, then rub a little of the sugar, and 1 oz. of saltpetre, and 1 oz.
salt prunel, pounded, on the lean side, and press it down; in three
days turn it and rub it well with the salt in the pan, then turn it in the
pickle for three weeks; take it out, scrape it well, dry it with a clean
cloth, rub it slightly with a little salt, and hang it up to dry.
Another.
Beat the ham well on the fleshy side with a rolling pin, then rub into
it, on every part, 1 oz. of saltpetre, and let it lie one night. Then take
a ½ pint of common salt, and a ¼ pint of bay salt, and 1 lb. of
coarse sugar or treacle; mix these ingredients, and make them very
hot in a stew-pan, and rub in well for an hour. Then take ½ a pint
more of common salt and lay all over the ham, and let it lie on till it
melts to brine; keep the ham in the pickle three weeks or a month,
till you see it shrink. This is sufficient for a large ham.
Another, said to be equal to the Westphalian.
Rub a large fat ham well, with 2 oz. of pounded saltpetre, 1 oz. of
bay salt, and a ¼ lb. of lump sugar: let it lie two days. Prepare a
pickle as follows: boil in 2 quarts of stale ale, 1 lb. of bay salt, 2 lb.
of common salt, ¾ lb. of lump sugar, 2 oz. of salt prunella, 1 oz. of
pounded black pepper, and ½ an oz. of cloves; boil this well, and
pour it boiling hot over the ham. Rub and turn it every day for three
weeks or a month; then smoke it for about a fortnight.
To cure a Mutton Ham.

A hind quarter must be cut into the shape of a ham: rub into it the
following mixture: ¼ lb. saltpetre, ¼ lb. bay salt, 1 lb. common salt,
and ¼ lb. loaf sugar; rub well, every other day, for a fortnight, then
take it out, press it under a weight for one day, then hang it to
smoke ten or fifteen days. It will require long soaking, if kept any
length of time, before it is dressed. Boil very gently, three hours. It is
eaten cut in slices, and these broiled for breakfast or lunch.—Or; the
ham smoked longer, not boiled, but slices very thinly shaved to eat
by way of relish at breakfast.
To pickle Pork.
For a hog of 10 score.—When it is quite cold, and cut up in pieces,
have well mixed 2 gallons of common salt, and 1½ lb. of saltpetre;
with this, rub well each piece of pork, and as you rub, pack it in a
salting tub, and sprinkle salt between each layer. Put a heavy weight
on the top of the cover, to prevent the meat's swimming. If kept
close and tight in this way, it will keep for a year or two.
Leg of Pork.
Proceed as above, salt in proportion, but leave out the saltpetre if
you choose. The hand and spring also, in the same way—and a week
sufficient for either. Rub and turn them every day.
Pig's Head in the same way, but it will require two weeks.
To pickle a Tongue.
Rub the tongue over with common salt; and cut a slit in the root, so
that the salt may penetrate. Drain the tongue next day, and rub it

over with 2 oz. of bay salt, 2 oz. of saltpetre, and 2 oz. of lump or
coarse sugar, all mixed together. This pickle should be poured over
the tongue, with a spoon, every day, as there will not be sufficient
liquor to cover it. It will be ready to dress in three weeks or a month.
To salt Beef.
Be sure to take out the kernels, and also be sure to fill up the holes
with salt, as well as those which the butcher's skewers have made.
In frosty weather, take care that the meat be not frozen; also, to
warm the salt before the fire, or in a frying pan.
For a piece of 20 lb. weight.—Sprinkle the meat with salt, and let it
lie twenty-four hours; then hang it up to drain. Take 1 oz. of
saltpetre, a ½ oz. of salt prunella, a ¼ lb. of very coarse sugar, 6 oz.
of common salt, all finely powdered, and rub it well into the beef.
Rub and turn it every day. It will be ready to dress in ten days, but
may be kept longer.
To salt a Round of Beef.
For one of 30 lb. weight.—Rub common salt well into it all over and
in every part, cover it well with salt: rub it well next day, pouring the
brine over the meat. Repeat this every day for a fortnight, when it
will be ready. Let it drain for 15 minutes, when you are going to cook
it. You may, if you wish it to look red, add 4 oz. salt prunel, and 1 lb.
saltpetre to the pickle.
An Edge Bone.

To one of 10 or 12 lb. weight allow ¾ lb. of salt, and 1 oz. of moist
sugar. Rub these well into the meat. Repeat the rubbing every day,
turning the meat also, and it will be ready to dress in four or five
days.
Tongue Beef.
After the tongues are taken out of the pickle, wash and wipe dry a
piece of flank or brisket of beef; sprinkle with salt, and let it lie a
night; then hang it to drain, rub in a little fresh salt, and put the beef
into the pickle; rub and turn it every day for three or four days, and
it will be ready to dress, and if the pickle have been previously well
prepared, will be found to have a very fine flavour.
To smoke Beef.
Cut a round into pieces of 5 lb. weight each, and salt them very well;
when sufficiently salted, hang the pieces in a wood-smoke chimney
to dry, and let them hang three or four weeks. This may be grated,
for breakfast or luncheon. Another.—Cut a leg of beef like a ham,
and to one of 14 lb. make a pickle of 1 lb. salt, 1 lb. brown sugar, 1
oz. saltpetre, and 1 oz. bay salt. Rub and turn the ham every day for
a month, then roll it in bran and smoke it. Hang it in a dry place.
Broil it in slices.
To make pickle for Brawn.
To rather more than a sufficient quantity of water to cover it, put 7
or 8 handsful of bran, a few bay leaves, also salt enough to give a
strong relish; boil this an hour and a half, then strain it. When cold,

pour the pickle from the sediment into a pan, and put the meat into
it.
Any of these pickles may be used again. First boil it up and take off
all the scum.
THE SEASONS FOR MEAT, POULTRY, GAME, AND VEGETABLES.
It is always the best plan to deal with a respectable butcher, and to
keep to the same one. He will find his interest in providing his
regular customers with good meat, and the best is always the
cheapest, even though it may cost a little more money.
Beef is best and cheapest from Michaelmas to Midsummer.
Veal is best and cheapest from March to July.
Mutton is best from Christmas to Midsummer.
Grass Lamb is best from Easter to June.
House Lamb comes in in February.
Poultry is in the greatest perfection, when it is in the greatest plenty,
which it is about September.
Chickens come in the beginning of April, but they may be had all the
year round.

Fowls are dearest in April, May, and June, but they may be had all
the year round, and are cheapest in September, October, and
November.
Capons are finest at Christmas.
Poulards, with eggs, come in in March.
Green Geese come in in March, and continue till September.
Geese are in full season in September, and continue till February.
Turkey Poults come in in April, and continue till June.
Turkeys are in season from September till March, and are cheapest in
October and November.
Ducks are in season from June till February.
Wild Ducks, Widgeons, Teal, Plovers, Pintails, Larks, Snipes,
Woodcocks, from the end of October till the end of March.
Tame Pigeons are in season all the year, Wild Pigeons from March till
September.
Pea-Fowl (young ones) from January till June.
Partridges from 1st September till January.
Pheasants from 1st October till January.

Grouse from the 12th of August till Christmas, also Black Cocks and
Grey Hens.
Guinea Fowls from the end of January till May; their eggs are much
more delicate than common ones.
Hares from September to March.
Leverets from March to September.
Rabbits all the year round.
Fish.
The seasons of Fish frequently vary; therefore the surest way to
have it good is to confide in the honesty of respectable fishmongers;
unless, indeed, you are well acquainted with the several sorts, and
have frequent practice in the choosing of it. No fish when out of
season can be wholesome food.
Turbot is in season from September to May. Fish of this kind do not
all spawn at the same time; therefore, there are good as well as bad
all the year round. The finest are brought from the Dutch coast. The
belly of a Turbot should be cream coloured, and upon pressing your
finger on this part, it should spring up. A Turbot eats the better for
being kept two or three days. Where there is any apprehension of its
not keeping, a little salt may be sprinkled on it, and the fish hung in
a cool dry place.
Salmon.—This favourite fish is the most unwholesome of all. It ought
never to be eaten unless perfectly fresh, and in season. Salmon is in
season from Christmas till September. The Severn Salmon, indeed, is

in season in November, but it is then obtained only in small
quantities. This, and the Thames Salmon, are considered the best.
That which comes from Scotland, packed in ice, is not so good.
Salmon Peel are very nice flavoured, but much less rich than large
Salmon; come in June.
Cod is in perfection at Christmas; but it comes in, generally, in
October; in the months of February and March it is poor, but in April
and May it becomes finer. The Dogger Bank Cod are considered the
best. Good Cod fish are known by the yellow spots on a pure white
skin. In cold weather they will keep a day or two.
Skate, Haddocks, Soles, Plaice, and Flounders are in season in
January, as well as Smelts and Prawns. In February, Lobsters and
Herrings become more plentiful; Haddocks not in such good flavour
as they were. In March Salmon becomes plentiful, but is still dear.
And in this month the John Dory comes in.
In April Smelts and Whiting are plentiful; and Mackerel and Mullet
come in; also river Trout.
In May Oysters go out of season, and Cod becomes not so good;
excepting these, all the fish that was in season at Christmas, is in
perfection in this month.
In June Salmon, Turbot, Brill, Skate, Halibut, Lobsters, Crabs,
Prawns, Soles, Eels and Whiting are plentiful and cheap. Middling
sized Lobsters are best, and must weigh heavy to be good. The best
Crabs measure about eight inches across the shoulders. The silver
eel is the best, and, next to that, the copper-brown backed eel. A
humane method of putting this fish to death is to run a sharp-
pointed skewer or fine knitting needle into the spinal marrow,
through the back part of the skin, and life will instantly cease.

In July fish of all sorts plentiful, except Oysters, and about at the
cheapest. Cod not in much estimation.
In the months of August and September, particularly the former, fish
is considered more decidedly unwholesome than at any other time of
the year, and more especially in London. Oysters come in, and
Turbot and Salmon go out of season. In choosing Oysters, natives
are best; they should be eaten as soon after they are opened as
possible. There are various ways of keeping and feeding oysters, for
which see Index.
In October Cod comes in good season, also Haddocks, Brill, Tench,
and every sort of shell fish.
In November most sorts of fish are to be got, but all are dear.
Oysters are excellent in this month.
Fresh Herrings from November to January.
River Eels all the year.
Red Mullet come in May.
Flounders and Plaice in June.
Sprats beginning of November.
Gurnet is best in the spring.
Sturgeon in June.
Yarmouth Mackerel from May till August.

Vegetables.
Artichokes are in season from July to October.
Jerusalem Artichokes from September till June.
Asparagus, forced, may be obtained in January; the natural growth,
it comes in about the middle of April, and continues through May,
June, and July.
French Beans, forced, may be obtained in February, of the natural
growth, the beginning of July; and they continue in succession
through August.
Red Beet is in season all the year.
Scotch Cale in November.
Brocoli in October.
Cabbage of most sorts in May, June, July, and August.
Cardoons from November till March.
Carrots come in in May.
Cauliflowers, the beginning of June.
Celery, the beginning of September.
Corn Salad, in May.

Cucumbers may be forced as early as March; of their natural growth
they come in July, and are plentiful in August and September.
Endive comes in in June, and continues through the winter.
Leeks come in in September, and continue till the Spring.
Lettuce, both the Coss and the Cabbage, come in about April, and
continue to the end of August.
Onions, for keeping, in August.
Parsley, all the year.
Parsnips come in in October; but they are not good until the frost
has touched them.
Peas, the earliest forced, come in about the beginning of May; of
their natural growth, about the beginning of June, and continue till
the end of August.
Potatoes, forced, in the beginning of March; and the earliest of
natural growth in May.
Radishes, about the beginning of March.
Small Salad, in May and June; but may be had all the year.
Salsify and Scorzonera, in July and August.

Sea Kale may be found as early as December or January, but of the
natural growth it comes in in April and May.
Eschalots, for keeping, in August and three following months.
Spring Spinach, in March, April, and three following months.
Winter Spinach from October through the winter.
Turnips, of the garden, in May; but the field Turnips, which are best,
in October.

C H A P T E R V.
THE KITCHEN.
The benefit of a good kitchen is well known to every housekeeper,
but it is not every mistress that is aware of the importance of having
a good cook. I have seen kitchens which, though fitted up with every
convenience, and certainly at considerable expense, yet failed to
send forth good dinners, merely because the lady of the house was
not happy in her choice of a cook. I do not in the least admire
gourmands, or gourmandism; and yet I would be more particular in
selecting the servant who is to perform the business of preparing the
food of the family, than I should deem it necessary to be in selecting
any of the other servants. In large establishments there is a greater
quantity of cookery to be performed, and, consequently, a greater
quantity of waste is likely to be caused by unskilful cooks, than there
can be in small families; but even in the latter considerable waste
may be the consequence of saving a few pounds a year in the wages
of a cook. An experienced cook knows the value of the articles
submitted to her care; and she knows how to turn many things to
account which a person unacquainted with cooking would throw
away. A good cook knows how to convert the remains of one dinner
into various dishes to form the greater part of another dinner; and
she will, also, be more capable than the other of forwarding her
mistress's charitable intentions; for her capability in cooking will
enable her to take advantage of everything which can be spared
from the consumption of the family, to be converted into nourishing
food for the poor, for those of her own class who have not the
comfort of a home such as she herself enjoys. The cook who knows
how to preserve the pot-liquor of fresh meat to make soup, will,
whenever she boils mutton, fowls, or rabbits, &c., &c., carefully scum
it, and, by adding peas, other vegetables, or crusts of bread, and
proper seasonings, make some tolerable soup for poor people, out of
materials which would otherwise be thrown away.

To be a good cook she must take pleasure in her occupation; for the
requisite painstaking cannot be expected from a person who dislikes
the fire, or who entertains a disgust for the various processes
necessary to convert meat into savoury dishes. But a cook who takes
pride in sending a dinner well dressed to table, may be depended
upon, and that is of great importance to the mistress of a house: for
though Englishmen may not be such connoisseurs in eating as
Frenchmen, I question whether French husbands are more
dissatisfied with a badly-cooked dinner than English husbands are.
Dr. Kitchener observes, "God sends us victuals, but who sends us
cooks?" And the observation is not confined to the Doctor, for the
walls of many a dining-room have echoed it, to the great
discomfiture of the lady presiding at the head of the table. Ladies
might, if they would, be obliged to confess that many ill humours
had been occasioned by either under or over roasted meat, cold
plates, or blunt knives; and perhaps these are grounds for complaint.
Of the same importance as the cooking is neatness in serving the
dinner, for there is a vast difference in its appearance if neatly and
properly arranged in hot dishes, the vegetables and sauces suitable
to the meat, and hot—there is a vast difference between a dinner so
served, and one a part of which is either too much or too little
cooked, the meat parting from the bone in one case, or looking as if
barely warmed through in the other case; the gravy chilled and
turning to grease, some of the vegetables watery, and others
crisped, while the edges of the dishes are slopped, and the block-tin
covers look dull. A leg of mutton or piece of beef, either boiled or
roasted—so commonly the dinner of a plain-living family—requires as
much skill and nicety as the most complicated made dishes; and a
plain dinner well cooked and served is as tempting to the appetite as
it is creditable to the mistress of the house, who invariably suffers in
the estimation of her guests for the want of ability in her servants.
The elegance of the drawing-room they have just left is forgotten by
those who are suffocating from the over-peppered soup; and the
coldness of the plate on which is handed a piece of turbot bearing a
reddish hue, may hold a place in the memory of a visitor, to the total

obliteration of the winning graces, and agreeable conversation, of
the lady at the head of the table.
It is impossible to give particular directions for fitting up a kitchen,
because so much must depend upon the number of servants, and
upon what is required in the way of cookery. It was the fashion
formerly to adorn it with a quantity of copper saucepans, stewpans,
&c., &c., very expensive, and troublesome to keep clean. Many of
these articles, which were regularly scoured once a week, were not,
perhaps, used once in the year. A young lady ought, if she has a
good cook, to be guided by her, in some measure, in the purchase of
kitchen utensils; for the accommodation of the cook, if she be a
reasonable person, ought to be consulted. But, where there is no
kitchen-maid to clean them, the fewer coppers and tins the better. It
is the best plan to buy, at first, only just enough for use, and to
replace these with new ones as they wear out; but all stewpans,
saucepans, frying-pans, &c., &c., should be kept in good order—that
is to say, clean and in good repair.
Some of the best cooks say that iron and block tin answer every
purpose. There is an useful, but somewhat expensive, article, called
the Bain-marie, for heating made dishes and soups, and keeping
them hot for any length of time, without over-cooking them. A Bain-
marie will be found very useful to persons who are in the habit of
having made dishes. A braising kettle and a stock-pot also; and two
or three cast-iron Digesters, of from one to two gallons, for soups
and gravies. Saucepans should be washed and scoured as soon as
possible after they have been used: wood ashes, or very fine sand,
may be used. They should be rinsed in clean water, wiped dry (or
they will rust), and then be turned down on a clean shelf. The upper
rim may be kept bright, but it seems labour lost to scour that part
where the fire reaches; besides which, the more they are scoured
the more quickly they wear out. Copper utensils must be well tinned,
or they become poisonous. Never allow anything to be put by in a
copper vessel; but the fatal consequences of neglect in this particular

are too well known for it to be necessary here to say much in the
way of caution.
The fire-place is a matter of great importance. I have not witnessed
the operations of many of the steam cooking apparatuses, which the
last thirty years have produced, but the few I have seen do not give
me satisfaction. It is certainly desirable that every possible saving
should be made in the consumption of coals; but it is not possible to
have cooking in perfection, without a proper degree of heat; and, as
far as my observation has gone, meat cannot be well roasted unless
before a good fire. I should save in many things rather than in coals;
and am often puzzled to account for the false economy which leads
persons to be sparing of their fuel, whilst they are lavish in other
things infinitely less essential. A cook has many trials of her temper,
but none so difficult to bear as the annoyance of a bad fire; for she
cannot cook her dinner well, however much she may fret herself in
the endeavour; and the waste caused by spoiling meat, fish, poultry,
game, &c., is scarcely made up for by saving a few shillings in coals.
"Economy in fuel" is so popular, that every species of invention is
resorted to, in order to go without fire; and the price of coals is
talked of in a fine drawing room, where the shivering guest turns,
and often in vain, to seek comfort from the fire, which, alas! the
brightly polished grate does not contain. The beauty of the cold
marble structure which rises above it, and is reflected in the opposite
mirror, is a poor compensation for the want of warmth. I advise
young housekeepers to bear in mind, that of the many things which
may be saved in a house, without lessening its comforts, firing is not
one.
It is best to lay in coals in the month of August or September, to last
until the spring. They should be of the best kind; paid for in ready
money, to prevent an additional charge for credit. The first year of
housekeeping will give a pretty correct average to go by: and then
the consumption should be watched, but not too rigidly.

To return to the fire-place.—Perhaps there is no apparatus more
convenient for a family of moderate style of living than the common
kitchen range, that which has a boiler for hot water on one side, and
an oven on the other side. It is a great convenience to have a
constant supply of hot water, and an advantage to possess the
means of baking a pie, pudding, or cake; and this may always be
done, when there is a large fire for boiling or roasting. There is a
great difference in the construction of these little ovens. We have
had several, and only three which answered; and these were all, I
believe, by different makers.—A Hot plate is also an excellent thing,
as it requires but little fire to keep it sufficiently hot for any thing
requiring gradual cooking; and is convenient for making preserves,
which should never be exposed to the fierceness of a fire. The
charcoal stoves are useful, and so easily constructed that a kitchen
should not be without one. There is a very nice thing, called a Dutch
Stove, but I do not know whether it is much in use in England. On a
rather solid frame-work, with four legs, about a foot from the
ground, is raised a round brick-work, open at the top sufficiently
deep to receive charcoal, and in the front, a little place to take out
the ashes; on the top is a trivet, upon which the stew-pan, or
preserving-pan, or whatever it may be, is placed. This is easily
moved about, and in the summer could be placed anywhere in the
cool, and would, therefore, be very convenient for making preserves.
—Where there is much cooking, a Steamer is convenient; it may be
attached to the boiler of the range. I have seen lamb and mutton
which had been steamed, and which in appearance was more
delicate than when boiled, and equally well flavoured. But there is an
uncertainty in cooking meat by steam, and, besides, there is no
liquor for soup. Puddings cook well by steam.—The Jack is an article
of great consequence, and also a troublesome one, being frequently
out of repair. A Bottle-jack answers very well for a small family; and
where there is a good meat screen (which is indispensable), a stout
nail and a skein of worsted will, provided the cook be not called
away from the kitchen, be found to answer the purpose of a spit.

There are now so many excellent weighing-machines, of simple
construction, that there ought to be one in every kitchen, to weigh
joints of meat as they come from the butcher, and this will enable
the cook to weigh flour, butter, sugar, spices, &c., &c.
The cook should be allowed a sufficiency of kitchen cloths and
brushes, suitable to her work. Plates and dishes will not look clear
and bright unless rinsed in clean water, after they are washed, then
drained, and wiped dry with a cloth which is not greasy. A handful of
bran in the water will produce a fine polish on crockery ware.

As they do not cost much, there need be no hesitation to allow
plenty of jelly-bags, straining cloths, tapes, &c. &c. These should be
very clean, and scalded in hot water before they are used.
There should be a table in the middle of the kitchen, or so situated
as not to be exposed to a current of air, to arrange the dishes upon,
that blunders may not be committed in placing them upon the
dining-table. Much of the pleasure which the lady at the head of her
table may feel at seeing her guests around her, is destroyed by the
awkward mistakes of servants in waiting; who, when they discover
that they have done wrong, frequently become too frightened and
confused to repair the error they have committed.
The cook in a small family should have charge of the beer; and
where there are no men servants, it should be rather good than
weak, for the better in quality, the more care will be taken of it.
When more is drawn than is wanted, a burnt crust will keep it fresh
from one meal to another, but for a longer time it should be put into
a bottle, and corked close; it would be well for the cook to keep a
few different sized bottles, so that the beer may not stand to
become flat before she bottle it.
A clock, in or near the kitchen, will tend to promote punctuality. But
the lady herself should see to its being regulated, or this piece of
furniture may do more harm than good. There is nothing fitter to be
under lock and key than the clock, for, however true to time, when
not interfered with, it is often made to bear false testimony. That
good understanding which sometimes subsists between the clock
and the cook, and which is brought about by the instrumentality of a
broom-handle, or some such magic, should be noted by every
prudent housekeeper as one of the things to be guarded against.
The kitchen chimney should be frequently swept; besides which, the
cook should, once or twice a week, sweep it as far as she can reach;

for where there are large fires in old houses, accidents sometimes
occur; and the falling of ever so little soot will sometimes spoil a
dinner.
Every lady ought to make a receipt-book for herself. Neither my
receipts nor those of any cookery book can be supposed to give
equal satisfaction to every palate. After performing any piece of
cookery according to the directions given in a book, a person of
common intelligence would be able to discover whatever was
displeasing to the taste, and easily alter the receipt, and so enter it
in her own book that the cook could not err in following it. This plan
would be found to save much trouble.
As soon after breakfast as she conveniently can, the mistress of a
house should repair to the kitchen; which ought to be swept, the
fire-place cleaned, tea-kettles, coffee-pots, and anything else used in
preparing the breakfast, put in their appropriate places, and the
cook ready to receive her orders for the day. Without being
parsimonious, the mistress should see, with her own eyes, every
morning, whatever cold meat, remains of pastry, bread, butter, &c.,
&c., there may be in the larder, that she may be able to judge of the
additional provision required. Having done that, she should proceed
to the store-room, to give the cook, the housemaid, and others,
such stores as they may require for the day. This will occupy but
very little time, if done regularly every morning; and having done
this, she should proceed to make her purchases at once, lest
visitors, or any accidental circumstance, cause her to be late in her
marketing, and so derange the regularity of the dinner hour, the
servants' work, &c., &c. Many ladies, in consequence of their own ill
health, or that of their children, are compelled to employ their
servants to market for them; but when they can avoid doing so it is
better. I do not say this from a suspicion that either tradespeople or
servants are always likely to take advantage of an opportunity to
impose upon their customers or their employers, but because this
important part of household management ought to be conducted by

some one of the family, who must necessarily be more interested in
it than servants can be. Besides, more judgment is required in
marketing than all servants possess. A servant, for instance, is sent
to a fishmonger's for a certain quantity of fish, and she obeys the
order given her and brings home the fish, but at a higher price,
perhaps, than her mistress expected. Now if the lady had gone
herself, and found that the weather, or any other circumstance, had
raised the price of fish for that day, she would probably have made a
less expensive one suit her purpose, or turned to the Butcher or
Poulterer to supply her table. Also it is a hindrance to a servant to be
sent here and there during the early part of the day, not to mention
the benefit which the lady of the house would derive by being
compelled to be out of doors, and in exercise, for even a short time,
every day.
Although I like French cookery, I am not sufficiently acquainted with
the interior of French kitchens to know whether we should improve
in the fitting up of ours by imitating our neighbours. When I was
abroad, and had opportunities of informing myself upon this subject,
I had not the present work in contemplation. And though it is the
object of travellers in general to inquire into almost every thing while
passing through a foreign country, it happened once to me to meet
with so much discouragement, when prying into the culinary
department of a large Hotel in the south of France, that I hesitated
to enter a foreign kitchen again. I was then on the way to Italy, and
from what was afterwards told me respecting the kitchens of the
latter country, I have reason to think that my resolution was not
unwise, since, had it been overcome by fresh curiosity, I might have
been induced to starve from too intimate knowledge of the mode in
which the dishes of our table were prepared. We had, at the hotel I
am speaking of, fared sumptuously for three days. There were,
among other things, the finest poultry and the most delicate pastry
imaginable. But some chicken broth was wanted for an invalid of our
party, and the landlord suggested that if Mademoiselle would herself
give directions to the cook, the broth might, perhaps, be the better

made; and he went, accordingly, to announce my intended visit to
the important person who commanded in the kitchen. Upon
receiving intimation that all was ready, I descended, and was
introduced to the said cook, who met me at the door of a large,
lofty, vaulted apartment, the walls of which were black, not from any
effect of antiquity, but from those of modern smoke, and decorated
with a variety of copper utensils, all nearly as black on their outsides
as the walls on which they hung. Of what hue their insides might be
I did not ascertain; and, at the moment, my attention was suddenly
diverted by the cook, who, begging me to be seated, placed a chair
by the side of a large, wild-looking fire-place. I had not expected to
see a tall, thin and bony, or a short and fat woman, like the cook of
an English kitchen; I imagined a man, somewhat advanced in age,
and retaining some traces of the ancien regime, with large features
and a small body, with grizzly and half-powdered hair, and, perhaps,
a pigtail; at all events, with slippers down at heel, hands unclean,
and a large snuff-box. It was, therefore, not without surprise that I
found the very contrary of this in the personage who, dressed in a
white apron, white sleeves, and white night cap of unexceptionable
cleanness, and bowing with a grace that would have done credit to
the most accomplished petit maître of the last century, proceeded to
relate how he had been instructed in the art of making chicken broth
by an English Miledi, who in passing into Italy for the benefit of her
health, had staid some weeks at the Hotel de l'Europe. His detail of
the process of broth-making was minute, and no doubt scientific, but
unhappily for the narrator, it was interrupted by his producing a
delicate white fowl, which he without ceremony laid on the kitchen
table, which stood in the middle of the room, and rivalled the very
walls themselves in blackness. I was assured, by the first glance at
this table, by reason of the fragments of fish, fowl, and pastry,
strewed over it, that the same piece of furniture served every
purpose of chopping-block and paste-board. When, therefore, under
these circumstances, I saw the preparation for the broth just going
to commence, the exclamation of "Dirty pigs!" was making its way to
my lips, and I, in order to avoid outraging the ears of French
politeness, in the spot of all France most famous for the romantic,

made the best of my way out of the kitchen, and endeavoured,
when the next dinner-time arrived, to forget that I had ever seen it.
Whenever afterwards the figure of this black table appeared to my
fancy, like a spectre rising to warn me against tasteful and delicate
looking entremets, I strove to forget the reality; but I never
recovered the feeling of perfect security in what I was about to eat
until the sea again rolled between me and the kitchen of the Hotel
de l'Europe, and I again actually saw the clear bright fire, the
whitened hearth, the yellow-ochred walls, the polished tins, the
clean-scrubbed tables and chairs, and the white dresser cloths, of
the kitchen, such as I had always been used to see at my own
home.

C H A P T E R V I .
JOINTING, TRUSSING, AND CARVING.
Below will be found the figures of the five larger animals, followed
by a reference to each, by which the reader, who is not already
experienced, may observe the names of all the principal joints, as
well as the part of the animal from which the joint is cut. No book
that I am acquainted with, except that of Mrs. Rundell, has taken
any notice of this subject, though it is a matter of considerable
importance, and one as to which many a young housekeeper often
wishes for information.
Venison.
1. Shoulder.
2. Neck.
3. Haunch.
4. Breast.
5. Scrag.
Beef.

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