Fundamentals of programming and data types

Anatomy & Physiology
of Animals

Anatomy & Physiology of Animals
• Introduction
• Integumentary System
• Skeletal System
• Muscular System
• Circulatory System
• Digestive System
• Respiratory System
• Nervous System
• Urinary System
• Endocrine System

Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of form and
structure.
• Gross anatomy is the study of structures
that can be seen with the naked eye.
• Microscopic anatomy is the study of
structures that require a microscope to be
seen.

Physiology
• Physiology is related to the functions of
the body and all its parts, including cells,
tissues and organs.
• The study of anatomy and physiology is
generally divided into the function and
integration often organ systems.

Organ Systems
1. Integumentary system (skin)
2. Skeletal system (bones)
3. Muscular system (muscles)
4. Circulatory system (heart & blood vessels)
5. Digestive system (stomach & intestines)

organ Systems…
6. Nervous system (nerves)
7. Respiratory system (lungs & passageways)
8. Urinary system (kidneys & bladder)
9. Endocrine system (glands & hormones)
10. Reproductive system (organs involved in
producing offspring)

Integumentary System…
The integumentary system is the exterior
covering of the body and is essential for:
• Regulating body temperature
• Balancing water
• Protecting internal organs

egumentary System…
The integumentary system consists of skin
and skin appendages, including:
• Hair
• Nails
• Horns
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands

Skin (Function)
• The primary function of skin is to act as
a protective layer against disease,
infection, the sun, and other potentially
harmful elements.

Skin (Epidermis)
• The skin of animals consists of two layers,
the epidermis and the dermis.
• The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin
and contains no blood cells.
• The epidermis is a superficial covering of
stratified epithelial tissue comprised of an
external layer of dead cells sitting on a lower
layer of living cells.

Skin (Dermis)
• The dermis is the inner layer of the skin and
contains blood vessels, lymph vessels,
nerves, glands, hair follicles, and muscle
fibers.
• The dermis is a deeper layer of dense,
irregular connective tissue.

Sebaceous Gland
Loose Connective
Tissue
Hair Follicle
Arteriole
Fat Cells
Arrector Pili Muscle
Epidermis
Dermis
> Subcutaneous
_ Layer
Sweat Gland
Skin
Hair
Nerve Fiber

Skin
Skin Appendages (modified extensions) derived
from the skin include:
• Hair
• Scales
• Hoofs
• Feathers
• Claws
• Horns
• Nails

Skin
• Coat coverings differ between animals
species.
• Goats, horses, cattle, and swine have hair;
sheep have wool, and poultry have feathers.
• Hair, wool and feather are all comprised of
protein and are essential for regulating body
temperature.

Skin
• Each hair follicle has a small bundle of
smooth muscle fibers (arrector pili) that can
contract to pull the hair perpendicular to the
skin surface.
• The arrector pili muscles are stimulated to
contract involuntarily by the nervous system
in times of stress or cold.
• When all hairs are standing perpendicular,
they trap more air and keep the animal’s
body warmer.

Glands
• The principle glands of the skin are sweat
glands and sebaceous glands.
• Sweat glands release water to cool the
body.
• Sebaceous glands secrete oil substances
to lubricate the skin and hair.

Sensory Receptors
Sensory receptors in the dermis of the skin
detect touch, pain, heat, and cold. Sensory
receptors include:
• Merkel cells
• Meissner’s corpuscles
• Paccinian corpuscles
• Free nerve endings

Sensory Receptors…
• Merkel cells respond to very light pressure.
• Meissner’s corpuscles are sensitive to
touch and are found in delicate areas such
as the lips and fingertips.

• Paccinian corpuscles detect pressure.
• Free nerve endings sense heat and cold
as well as touch.
Sensory Receptors…

Skeletal System…
• The skeletal system is the framework of the
body.
• The skeletal system is made up of bones
and connective tissue and provides structural
support for all of the other organ systems.

Skull
Proximal Phalanx
Middle Phalanx
Distal Phalanx
Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal
Vertebrae Vertebrae Vertebrae
Femur
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Proximal Phalanx
Middle Phalanx
Distal Phalanx
Skeleton of a Goat

Skeletal System
• The skeletal system protects the organs of
the body.
• The skull protects the brain, ribs protect the
lungs, and vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
• The skeleton also works in conjunction with
the muscles to allow movement of the different
body parts.

Skeletal System…
The skeleton is made up of the axial skeleton
and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton consists of those bones on
the midline of the body including:
• Skull
• Vertebrae
• Ribs
• Sternum

Skeletal System…
The appendicular skeleton is comprised of
those bones coming off the midline of the
body including:
• Forelegs (arms)
• Hindlegs (legs)
• Bones in the pelvic region

Bones
Bones are divided into four classes.
• Long bones
• Flat bones
• Short bones
• Irregular bones

• Long bones, found in the limbs, are the
supporting columns and levers for the
skeletal system and the body.
• Flat bones protect the body’s organs and
serve as an area of muscle attachment.
Bones…

Bones…
• Short bones, such as the bones in the
knee hock joint, diffuse concussion, diminish
friction, and change the direction of tendons.
• Irregular bones are those found in the
vertebral column.

Bones…
• Bone is made up of organic and inorganic
matter.
• The organic matter is mostly collagen and
gives bone flexibility and resilience.
• The inorganic matter is mostly tricalcium
phosphate and gives bone rigidity and
hardness.

Bones…
• The inner core of the bone is soft tissue
called bone marrow.
• Some of bone marrow consists of yellow
fat, called yellow marrow.

Bones
• The outer portion of bone marrow is
comprised of red tissue, called red
marrow.
• The red marrow is responsible for blood
cell and platelet formation.

Bones…
• Bone is a living tissue that changes
constantly.
• Bone undergoes continuous deposition
(creation of new bone material) and resorption
(removal of old bone material).

Bones
• Bone is formed from cartilage when the
animal is an embryo. This process is
known as endochondral ossification or
endochondral bone formation.

Bones
• The bone forming cells are known as
osteoblasts.
• Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes, or
mature bone cells.

Osteoprogenitor
Osteoclast
Progenito
Growth
Plate
Formation of Bone Cells
at a Growth Plate

A. Growing Bone
Articular
Cartilage
Bone Formation
Picture
Epiphyseal
Cartilage
Cancellous
(spongy) Bone
Compact Bone
Epiphyseal
Cartilage
Articular
Cartilage
B. Mature Bone
Articular
Cartilage
Proximal
Epiphysis
Metaphysis
Periosteum
Medullary Cavity Diaphysis
Endosteum
Metaphysis ~
Distal Epiphysis
Cancellous
(spongy) Bone
- Compact
Bone
Medullary Cavity
Periosteum
Endosteum
Articular
Cartilage
Longitudinal Section of a Long
Bone in a Young Animal

Bones
Bone formation occurs at a growth plate:
• Primary ossification occurs at the
metaphyseal growth plate.
• Secondary ossification occurs at the
epiphyseal growth plate. The secondary
ossification site is in the center of the
epiphysis.

Bone Formation in a Long Bone…

Connective Tissue
Connective tissue binds tissues together
to give form and strength to organs and
provide protection and leverage.

Connective Tissue…
Four types of connective tissues exist
within the skeletal system:
• Ligaments
• Tendons
• Cartilage
• Fascia

Ligaments / Tendons
• Ligaments connect bone to bone
• Tendons attach muscle to bone

Three types of cartilage found in the
body:
• Hyaline cartilage is found on the ends of
bones and acts as cushioning in joints.
• Elastic cartilage makes up body parts
such as the ears.
• Fibrocartilage provides cushioning
between the inter vertebral discs.
Cartilage

Fascia
• Fascia is located between the skin and the
underlying muscle or bone. It is comprised
of two layers. The top layer, superficial
fascia, is attached to the skin while the
bottom layer, deep fascia, covers the
muscle or bone.

Joints
Joints are articulations (unions) between
bones. Three types of joints are found in
the body:
• Freely movable
• Partially/Slightly movable
• Immovable

Joints…
• Joints can be highly movable - for
example, the shoulder
• Partially movable - for example, the ribs
• Immovable - for example, suture joints
between the plates of the skull.

Synovial Joints
Allow the greatest range of movement
such as:
• Gliding
• Flexion
• Extension
• Hyperextension
• Rotation
• Adduction
• Abduction
• Circumduction

Muscular System…
• The muscular system, in conjunction with
the skeletal system, allows the movement
of internal structures, limbs, and the body
as a whole.

Muscles can be categorized by their:
• Function
(skeletal, visceral, or cardiac)
• Activation method
(voluntary or involuntary)
• Physiology
(smooth, striated or unstrained)
Muscles

Skeletal Muscles
• Skeletal muscles are striated, voluntary
muscles that are involved in the movement
of the skeleton.
• Skeletal muscles can be intentionally
controlled by the animal.

Visceral Muscles…
• Smooth or visceral muscles are
involuntary, unstraited muscles found in
the digestive organs and blood vessels of
the body.
• Visceral muscles function automatically
and can not be controlled by the animal.

Cardiac Muscles
• Cardiac muscle is involuntary, striated
muscle found only in the heart.
• No conscious control of cardiac muscle
occurs in the animal, but it can be
regulated by the autonomic nervous
system.

Superficial Muscles of a Horse

Movement
Skeletal muscles can be divided into
four functional groups:
• Flexors
• Extensors
• Abductors
• Adductors

Movement
• Many muscles work in pairs so that when
one contracts (flexes or shortens) the
other one relaxes (extends or lengthens).
This relationship is know as antagonism.
• Muscles that work together to perform a
movement are referred to as synergists.

Movement
• Flexor muscles
decrease the
angle between
two lever bones
when they
contract.
Example: Biceps

Movement
• Extensor muscles
increase the angle
between two lever
(bones) when they
contract.
Example: Triceps

Movement
• Abductor muscles
move limbs away
from the median
plane (the middle
or main part of the
body).
Example: Deltoids

Movement
• Adductor muscles pull limbs toward the
median plane (middle or main part of the
body). Example: Pectoralis Major

Attachment
• Most skeletal muscles attach to two
different bones.
• The point of origin is on the most stable
or least movable bone while the
insertion point is on the more movable
bone.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of
fibers or cells that stretch from one tendon,
or connective tissue, to the other tendon.
• These bundles of fibers lie parallel to each
other within the muscle sheath making the
muscle appear striped, or striated.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Each bundle consists of fibers, which are
individual cells with multiple nuclei.
• Individual muscle fibers are made up of
bundles of myofibrils enclosed in a series
of sarcomeres. They are made up of thick
filaments of myosin and thin filaments of
actin.

Contraction
• Muscle contraction occurs as a result of a
process known as sliding-filament action.
• Each individual sarcomere contracts as a
result of the actin and myosin filaments
sliding over each other.

Muscle Contraction
• Energy utilized for muscle contraction
comes primarily from non-protein sources
such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
glycogen and body fats.

Circulatory System
The circulatory system includes the heart,
veins, capillaries, arteries, lymph vessels, and
lymph glands. The circulatory system is
responsible for:
• Distributing blood throughout the body
• Removing wastes
• Mounting immune responses to infection
• Aiding in regulating body temperature

Blood
• Blood provides organs, tissues and cells with
oxygen, nutrients, gasses, hormones, and
antibodies, and removes carbon dioxide and
metabolic wastes.

Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system is responsible for
draining fluid from the body and is an
important defense mechanism against
infection.

Heart
• The heart is a muscle and is divided into
the left and right side. Each side is made
up of an atrium and a ventricle.
• The atria receive blood, either from the lungs
or the rest of the body.

Heart
• Blood then passes into the ventricle before
being pumped out of the heart again.
• Deoxygenated or venous blood coming
from the body enters the right atrium,
passes through the right V.A.
(atrioventricular) valve and into the right
ventricle.

Heart
• It is then pumped through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs.
• Oxygenated or arterial blood returns from
the lungs via the pulmonary vein and
enters the left atrium; it then passes
through the left A.V. valve and into the left
ventricle before being pumped out of the
heart to the rest of the body via the aorta.

Blood Vessels
Five types of blood vessels exist within
the body:
• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Veins
• Venules
• Capillaries

Blood Vessels
• Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood
away from the heart.
• Arterioles are small arterial branches that
deliver blood to capillaries.

Blood Vessels
• Veins are blood vessels that convey
blood from tissues back to the heart.
• Venules are small veins that collect blood
from capillaries and delivers it to a vein.

Blood Vessels
• Blood vessels gradually become smaller
as they migrate away from the heart.
• Arteries divide into arterioles and veins
divide into venules.

Capillaries
• Capillaries are the smallest blood
vessels. Capillaries are involved in the
transfer of oxygen, nutrients and gases to
the cells of the body and the removal of
carbon dioxide and metabolic waste.
• Capillaries have very thin membranes, so
the components of blood can diffuse
across the membrane and enter cells.

Capillaries
• Interaction of molecules flowing in and
out of blood at the capillary bed.

Circulation Systems
The two main circulation systems within
the body are the:
• Pulmonary System
• Systemic System

Circulation System
• The pulmonary system delivers blood to
and from the lungs.
• The systemic system circulates blood
throughout the rest of the body.

Composition of Blood
Blood is composed of:
• Red cells (erythrocytes),
• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Plasma

Blood
• Red blood cells are the most numerous
and contain a protein called hemoglobin.
• Hemoglobin contains the mineral iron and
is responsible for carry oxygen in the blood.
• Red blood cells deliver oxygen to cells and
aid in the removal of carbon dioxide.

Blood
• White blood cells are responsible for the
body’s immune response, or defense against
infection.
• There are two types of white blood cells,
granulocytes and agranulocytes (lymphoid
cells) which aid in combating foreign bodies,
bacteria, viruses and other infective agents.

Blood
• Platelet (thrombocyte) is a fragment of
cytoplasm enclosed in a cell membrane and
lacking a nucleus; found in circulating blood,
platelets play a role in clotting.
• Plasma is the yellowish extracellular fluid
found in blood vessels. Plasma is 90% water.

Lymphatic System
• They lymphatic system is comprised of
lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph organs
and areas of lymph tissue within the
intestinal wall.
• Lymphatic organs include bone, marrow,
tonsils, thymus, and the spleen.

Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system maintains internal
fluid balance and is an important component
of the body’s immune system.
• Lymph vessels are thin-walled and blind-
ended. They originate in the body tissue and
take lymph towards the heart.

Lymphatic System
• Lymph nodes are located throughout the
body along the lymph vessels.
• Lymph nodes filter lymph and act as a
barrier against infection by harboring
lymphocytes, monocytes and plasma cells.

Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of:
• Mouth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach (or stomachs)
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus

Digestive System
• The digestive system breaks down
various nutrients found in feed into
molecules that can be used by the
cells of the body.

Digestive System
Stages of the digestive process include:
• Biting
• Chewing
• Swallowing and mixing of food
• Digestion and absorption of nutrients
• Excretion of waste

Digestive System
• Digestion is the chemical breakdown of
complex food into simple nutrients and
ultimately into molecules that are small
enough to pass across the wall of the
intestines.
• The passage of molecules across the
intestinal wall in to the blood or lymph
system is called absorption.

Digestive System
• Animals such as cattle, sheep, horses,
and rabbits, which depend entirely on
plants for food are called herbivores.
• Other species, such as dogs and cats,
which depend almost entirely on the flesh
of other animals for food, are called
carnivores.

Digestive System
• Species such as swine, poultry, and
humans, which consume both flesh and
plants, are called omnivores.
• Different species of animals have digestive
tracts adapted to the most efficient use of
the feed they consume.

Digestive System
• Food must be broken down chemically
into molecules before it can enter the
blood stream of an animal and be used
by its cells.

Digestive System
Most food that is eaten by animals can
be broken down into:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Vitamins and minerals

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are polysaccharides, which
are made up of multiple monosaccharides.
• Polysaccharides include, starch, cellulose,
hemicellulose, and glycogen.

Digestive System
• Starch is made up of multiple glucose
molecules; therefore glucose is a
monosaccharide.
• Enzymes that hydrolyze polysaccharides
are named after the specific
polysaccharide that they break down.

Digestive System
• Starch is broken down by amylase, cellulose is
broken down by cellulase and sucrose is broken
down by sucrase.
• The suffix “ase” indicates that the
compound is an enzyme.

Proteins
• To maintain metabolic function,
animals must obtain amino acids from
their diet to be able to synthesize
protein.
• Proteins are broken down into amino
acids by enzymes called proteases
and peptidases.
• Proteases break down large protein
molecules and peptidases break down
small protein molecules.

Lipids
Lipids (fats) fall into three categories:
• Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Waxes

Triglycerides
• Triglycerides are made up of glycerol
molecule and three fatty acid molecules.
• Enzymes called lipases break down
triglycerides.

Digestive System
Animals can be divided into three groups
based on their digestive systems:
• Ruminants
• Monogastrics
• Hindgut

Ruminants
Sheep, cattle, goats, and deer are ruminant
animals. They have four stomachs instead of
one.
The four stomachs are:
• Rumen
• Reticulum
• Abomasum
• Omasum

Rumen
• The largest chamber of the of the ruminant
stomach
• Contains millions of microbes, bacteria, and
protozoa
• Lining composed of many papillae that aid
in the absorption of nutrients
• Produces a large amount of methane gas,
mainly methane and carbon dioxide

Rumen
• When an animal eats, these microbes,
bacteria, and protozoa digest the food
as it enters the rumen.
• Nutrients are then released to be used
by the ruminant animal.

Monogastrics
• Swine and poultry are monogastric animals,
which means they have a single glandular
stomach.
• Swine have a digestive system that is
anatomically and physiologically similar to the
human digestive system.

Hindgut
• Horses, donkeys, and rabbits are examples
of hindgut fermenters.
• Hindgut fermenters have a larger than
normal cecum or hindgut.
• These animal require microbes to break
down cellulose so that they can digest high-
fiber plant material such as grass.

Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of:
• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Non-ruminant Stomach
• Ruminant Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Accessory digestive organs

Mouth end
• The tongue and lips are used to
select food that that animal intends
to ingest.
• Food is chewed or physically
broken down to smaller pieces by a
process called mastication.

Mouth
Saliva provides:
• Lubrication so the food may be
swallowed
• Enzymes that break down the nutrients
Food moves down the esophagus to
the stomach in a wave-like motion
called peristalsis.

Esophagus
• The esophagus is a tube-like tract
that connects the pharynx to the
stomach.
•When an animal swallows, the larynx
rises so that the epiglottis closes off
the trachea, thus preventing food
from entering the air passageway.

Non-ruminant Stomach
•The non-ruminant stomach is a
storage chamber that holds food
particles.
•The breakdown of food particles by
enzymes continues in the stomach.

Ruminant Stomach
• Food particles enter the rumen and microbes
start eating or digesting these particles.
• The microbes produce waste or by-products
which can then be used by the animal. Some
of the microbes pass into the intestines where
they are digested by the animal.
• Ruminants get their main source of protein
(approximately 70%) from digesting the
microbes that pass into the small intestine.

Ruminant Stomach
•All ruminants are herbivores. They
consume grasses and other plant
materials containing larges amount
of cellulose.
•Microorganisms in the digestive
system of ruminants synthesize all
amino acids essential to the animal.

Ruminant Stomach
•Methane and carbon dioxide gas is
expelled by belching and, to a lesser
extent, absorbed into the blood.
•If the gases are allowed to
accumulate in the rumen, they may
cause bloat (an abnormal inflation
or distension of the rumen).

Ruminant Stomach
•Ruminants chew food, then swallow
it and start to digest it.
•They are then able to regurgitate the
food and remasticate it (chew it
more). This function helps to break
down the fibrous material further and
allows the microbes the access food
particles.

Small Intestine
Absorption is the main function of the
small intestine. The small intestine includes:
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum
The inside the small intestine is covered by
villi, highly vasculated, finger-like
projections that greatly increase the
absorptive surface area.

Large Intestine
The large intestine consists of:
• Cecum
•Ascending colon
•Transverse colon
•Descending colon
•Sigmoid colon

Large Intestine
•The large intestine removes water
and prepares the dry waste matter
for feces and finally defecation.
•Fecal material is excreted via the
rectum. It passes through the
rectum and then exits the body
through the anus.

Accessory Digestive Organs
Accessory digestive organs are
associated with the digestive system:
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder

Salivary Glands
•Salvia has pH balancing properties
and provides enzymes that begin
the chemical breakdown of
nutrients.

Pancreas
The pancreas is made up of an
endocrine and exocrine gland.
• The endocrine gland produces insulin.
• The exocrine gland produces enzymes.

Liver
• Molecules in the liver are converted to
compounds that animals need for tissue
growth, nerve formation, enzyme
synthesis, and many other functions.
• The liver also excretes bile, which is
stored in the gallbladder.

Gallbladder
• The gallbladder is where bile is stored.
• Bile has properties that allow it to
emulsify fats, increasing the efficiency
at which they are digested.

Digestive System (Poultry)
• Poultry do not have teeth to physically
break down their food. The glandular
stomach of poultry is called
proventriculus.
• Before reaching the proventriculus, food
is stored in an enlargement of the gullet,
called the crop, where it is softened.

•Feed passes from the
proventriculus to the ventriculus, or
gizzard, which crushes and grinds
coarse feed.

• Feed passes from the gizzard into the
duodenum.
• Pancreatic juices are secreted containing
enzymes that aid in the digestion of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
• Liver bile, which is also secreted into the
duodenum, aids in the digestion of lipids.
• Absorption takes place in the small intestine.

Respiratory System
•Provides oxygen to the blood.
•Excretes waste gases such as
carbon dioxide.
•Creates noise via the voice box (in
most animals) or the syrinx (in birds)

Respiratory System
The respiratory system includes:
• Lungs
• Nostrils
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea

Respiratory System
• Nostrils are the external openings of the
respiratory tract that lead to the nasal
cavity.
• Air and food pass through the pharynx, but
not at the same time.
• The Larynx controls breathing and prevents
the inhalation of foreign objects into the
lungs.

Trachea
• The trachea (windpipe) contains rings of
cartilage that are rigid and prevent it
from collapsing.
• The trachea enters the chest cavity as a
single tube to the base of the heart
where it divides into to two braches
called primary bronchi.

Bronchi / Lungs
• Each bronchi passes into one of the
lungs.
• Inside the lungs, the bronchi branch into
smaller bronchi and finally into very
small tubes called bronchioles.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The bronchioles open into alveolar
ducts, which lead to the smallest
portions of the respiratory system
called alveoli.
• Oxygen is diffused from the
bloodstream into the alveoli so it can
be exhaled out of the body.

LUNG
•Lungs The primary function of the
lungs is to exchange gases with the
atmosphere.
•Gas absorbed by the lungs during
inhalation is oxygen.
•Gas exhaled is carbon dioxide.

INHALATION
• Muscles of the diaphragm contract
causing the thoracic cavity to enlarge
and a vacuum to be created. The
lungs to expand and air is drawn into
them.

EXHALATION
The diaphragm muscles relax,
causing contraction of the chest
muscles, which decreases the
thoracic cavity size, resulting in the
retraction of alveolar elastic fibers.

BREATHING RATES
• Breathing Rates
• Breathing rates of animals are controlled by
nerve cells in a portion of the brain called the
medulla oblongata.
• The rate at which the brain stimulates
breathing is affected by the carbon dioxide
content of the blood, body temperature, and
messages from other parts of the brain.

NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTS)
The nervous system is composed to two
major parts.
• The central nervous system includes the
brain and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system includes
nerves found in all other regions of the
body.

NERVOUS SYSTEM (FUNCTION)
Functions of the nervous system
include:
• Coordinating physical movement of
the body.
• Responding to the action of all the
senses; hearing, sight, smell, taste,
and touch.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nerve cells or neurons, consist of:
• A single long fiber (axon)
• Several branched threads (dendrites)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Dendrites receive messages from other
nerves or organs.
• An electrical impulse passes along the axon
and is then conducted (passed on) to
another dendrite or to an effector organ,
such as a muscle, which is stimulated to
move or react.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The space between the axon terminals of
one neuron and subsequent dendrites of
the next neuron is a synapse.
• Before an impulse can reach the brain, it
must travel along a series of neurons and
synapses. Some impulses are sent directly to
an effector organ.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Nerves occur as single neurons or
in bundles, called nerve trunks.
•Ganglions are the nerve bundles
that occur outside of the brain
and spinal cord.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Nerves that receive stimuli and carry
them to the central nervous system are
known as the sensory or afferent
neurons.
• Nerves that carry messages from the
brain to muscles or glands are called
motor or efferent neurons.

BRAIN
The brain is made up of four major parts:
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata

CEREBRUM
• The cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain.
• The cerebrum is responsible for the
decision-making or thinking processes
that control voluntary muscle activity
and for reactions to stimuli that are
processed by the senses.

CEREBRUM
The cerebrum is divided into the left and
right side or hemisphere. Each
hemisphere is divided into four lobes:
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital

BRAIN
• The right hemisphere processes
creative and emotional stimuli.
• The left hemisphere processes actions
and is involved in learning.
• The right side controls the left side of
the body and the left side controls the
right.

CEREBELLUM
The Cerebellum serves as a coordinator
of messages from other parts of the
brain to the body.
• The Cerebellum also coordinates the
action of voluntary muscles in activities
such as walking, running, eating, and
talking.

BRAIN (REFLEX ACTIONS)
• Involuntary (reflex actions), such as
blinking, vomiting, breathing, and
swallowing are controlled by the pons
and medulla oblongata, which act
independently of the other two parts
of the brain.

SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is located at the center
of the vertebral column.
• The spinal cord is the main avenue for
message transferal between the brain
and the other parts of the body.

SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord is divided into segments; A
pair of spinal nerves extends to the body from
each part.
• The spinal cord receives messages from
sensory nerve fibers in various parts of the
body and transmits them to the brain.
• Motor nerve fibers in the spinal cord then
transmit the response from the brain back to
the body.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The peripheral nervous system is
responsible for transmitting messages
between the outer part of the body
and the brain.
• The peripheral nervous system is made
up of somatic and autonomic nerves.

•Somatic nerves include all the
nerve structures located outside
the brain and spinal cord.
•They convey sensations from
sensory organs such as the eyes
and nose.

• Autonomic nerves are also located
outside of the central nervous system.
• Autonomic nerves control the
functions of muscles in internal organs,
such as the heart and stomach.

URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system:
•Removes wastes
•Helps maintain the correct
balance of water and minerals in
the body

URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system includes the:
•Kidneys
•Ureters
•Bladder
•Urethra

URINARY SYSTEM (KIDNEY)
Each kidney is composed of:
•An outer tissue layer, call the renal
cortex
•An inner portion called the renal
medulla

KIDNEYS
• Filter waste products from the blood
including mineral salts, urea, uric acid,
and creatinine.
• Regulate blood composition and
maintain normal internal life support
conditions.

URETERS
Ureters
are the tubules connecting
the kidneys with the bladder.
They are responsible for:
• Transporting urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.

Urinary System
(anterior or ventral
view)

BLADDER / URETHRA
•The bladder is an expandable sac
that stores the urine until it is
excreted from the animal’s body.
•Urine passes through an elastic
tube called the urethra to be
removed from the body.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• A network of glands that secrete
hormones, which provide chemical
control of various functions of the
body.
• Endocrine glands secrete chemical
compounds called hormones into the
blood system.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Hormones are secreted from a
secretory cell in a gland and act on a
target cell at another part of the body.
• Target cells must have receptors for
the specific hormone.

HORMONES
Hormones play an important role in
body functions including:
•Growth
•Fattening
•Reproduction
•Lactation
•Egg Laying

HORMONES
There are three types of hormones
that can be grouped by their
chemical structure:
•Steroids
•Peptides
•Amines

STEROIDS
•Lipids that are secreted by the
gonads, adrenal cortex and
placenta.
•Two common steroid hormones
are progesterone and
testosterone.

PEPTIDES
•Short chains of amino acids
secreted by the pituitary gland,
parathyroid gland, heart, stomach,
kidneys, and liver.
•Peptide hormones include
oxytocin, luteinizing hormone,
thyrotropin releasing hormone.

AMINES
•Secreted from the adrenal
medulla and the thyroid.
•Amine hormones include
epinephrine, norepinephrine, T3
(triiodothyroxin), and T4
(tetraiodothyroxin).

HYPOTHALAMUS GLAND
•The hypothalamus gland is located
directly above the pituitary gland
near the base of the brain.
•The hypothalamus gland
coordinates hormonal activity in
the pituitary gland.

PITUITARY GLAND
• Stimulatory and inhibitory hormones are
produced by the hypothalamus and
transported to the anterior pituitary.
• Hormones are transported to the anterior
pituitary through the blood.
• The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin,
travel to the pituitary by means of nerve cells.

PITUITARY GLAND
• The pituitary gland is located at the
base of the brain.
• It is composed of two parts, the
anterior and posterior pituitary glands.
• The pituitary controls the hormonal
secretions of numerous endocrine
glands.

THYROID GLAND
Thyroid Gland consists of two connected lobes
located on either side of the trachea or
windpipe.
• Thyroxine, produced by the thyroid gland
controls body metabolism and growth.
• Calcitonin, also produced by the thyroid
controls the calcium level in the blood and
promotes the incorporation of calcium into
the bone.

PARATHYROID GLANDS
•The parathyroid glands include
four small gland embedded in the
thyroid.
•The parathyroid glands produce
parathyroid hormone, which
maintains the level of calcium and
phosphorus in the blood.

ADRENAL GLANDS
• The adrenal glands, consisting of the a
medulla and a cortex, are located in
front of the center of the kidneys.
• The medulla produces
norephinephrine, which helps maintain
blood pressure and stimulates smooth
muscles.

ADRENAL GLANDS
• The cortex produces steroids, which are
involved in carbohydrate and fat
metabolism.
• The production of hormones by endocrine
glands is carefully balanced, and an
imbalance can result in illness or improper
development of the animal

Fundamentals of programming and data types

More Related Content

Similar to Fundamentals of programming and data types (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Fundamentals of programming and data types