Gateway THEMEMeasuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests.docx

Gateway THEME
Measuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests provide
limited definitions of intelligent behavior.
Je
m
al
C
ou
nt
es
s/
G
et
ty
Im
ag
es
9781285519517, Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind
and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews, Thirteenth
Edition, Coon/Mitterer - © Cengage Learning. All rights
reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

Unlike other species, humans owe their success more to
thinking abilities and intelligence than
to physical strength or speed. That’s why our species is called
Homo sapiens (from the Latin for
man and wise). Our intelligence makes us highly adaptable
creatures. We live in deserts, jungles,
mountains, frenzied cities, placid retreats, and space stations.
Consider Stephen Hawking. He can’t walk or talk. When he was
13, Lou Gehrig’s disease began
to slowly destroy nerve cells in his spinal cord, short-circuiting
messages between his brain and
muscles. Today, he is confined to a wheelchair and “speaks” by
manually controlling a speech syn-
thesizer. Yet, despite his severe disabilities, his brain is
unaffected by the disease and remains
fiercely active. He can still think. Stephen is a theoretical
physicist and one of the best-known sci-
entific minds of modern times. With courage and determination,
he has used his intellect to
advance our understanding of the universe.
What do we mean when we say that a person like Stephen
Hawking is “smart” or “intelligent”?
Can intelligence be measured? Can intelligence tests predict life
success? What are the conse-

quences of having extremely high or low intelligence? These
questions and others concerning
intelligence have fascinated psychologists for more than
100 years. Let’s see what has been
learned and what issues are still debated.
Gateway QUESTIONS
9.1 How do psychologists define intelligence?
9.2 What are typical IQ tests like?
9.3 How do IQ scores relate to sex, age, and
occupation?
9.4 What does IQ tell us about genius?
9.5 What causes intellectual disability?
9.6 How do heredity and environment affect
intelligence?
9.7 Are there alternate views of intelligence?
9.8 Is there a downside to intelligence testing?
303
Intelligence

C h a p te r 9304
Defining Intelligence—
Intelligence Is … You Know, It’s …
Gateway Question 9.1: How do psychologists define
intelligence?
Like many important concepts in psycholog y, intelligence
cannot
be observed directly. Nevertheless, we feel certain it exists.
Let’s
compare two children:
When she was 14 months old, Anne wrote her own name. She
taught her-
self to read at age 2. At age 5, she astounded her kindergarten
teacher by
bringing an iPad to class—on which she was reading an
encyclopedia.
At 10, she breezed through an entire high school algebra course
in 12 hours.
Billy, who is 10 years old, can write his name and can count,
but he has
trouble with simple addition and subtraction problems and finds
multipli-
cation impossible. He has been held back in school twice and is

still incapa-
ble of doing the work his 8-year-old classmates find easy.
Anne is considered a genius; Billy, a slow learner. There seems
little
doubt that they differ in intelligence.
Wait! Anne’s ability is obvious, but how do we know that Billy
isn’t
just lazy? That’s the same question that Alfred Binet faced in
1904
(Benjafield, 2010; Jarvin & Sternberg, 2003). The French
minister
of education wanted to find a way to distinguish slower students
from the more capable (or the capable but lazy). In a flash of
bril-
liance, Binet and an associate created a test made up of
“intellec-
tual” questions and problems. Next, they learned which
questions
an average child could answer at each age. By giving children
the
test, they could tell whether a child was performing up to his or
her
potential (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009; Kaufman, 2000).
Binet’s approach gave rise to modern intelligence tests. At the
same time, it launched an ongoing debate. Part of the debate is
related to the basic difficulty of defining intelligence
(Sternberg,
Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005).
Defining Intelligence
Isn’t there an accepted definition of intelligence? Traditionally,
yes.

Intelligence is the global capacity to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment
(Wechsler,
1939). The core of intelligence is usually thought to consist of a
small set of general mental abilities (called the g-factor) in the
areas
of reasoning, problem solving, knowledge, memory, and
successful
adaptation to one’s surroundings (Barber, 2010; Sternberg,
2004).
Intelligence has traditionally been considered a cognitive, not
an
emotional, capacity. Is there such a thing as emotional
intelligence?
To find out, see Chapter 10, pages 363–364.
BRIDGES
Beyond this, however, there is much disagreement. In fact,
many psychologists simply accept an operational definition of
intelligence by spelling out the procedures they use to measure
it
(Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010). Thus, by selecting items for an
intel-
ligence test, a psychologist is saying in a very direct way, “This
is
what I mean by intelligence.” A test that measures memory,
reason-
ing, and verbal fluency offers a very different definition of
intelli-
gence than one that measures strength of grip, shoe size, length
of

the nose, or the person’s best Guitar Hero score (Goldstein,
2011).
Aptitudes
As a child, Hedda displayed an aptitude for art. Today, Hedda is
a
successful graphic artist. How does an aptitude like Hedda’s
differ
from general intelligence? An aptitude is a capacity for learning
certain abilities. Persons with mechanical, artistic, or musical
apti-
tudes are likely to do well in careers involving mechanics, art,
or
music, respectively (• Figure 9.1).
Are there tests for aptitudes? How are they different from
intelli-
gence tests? Aptitude tests measure a narrower range of abilities
than do intelligence tests (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). For
example,
special aptitude tests predict whether you will succeed in a
single
RANGE OF ABILITIES
Multiple
aptitude tests
Special
aptitude tests
Intelligence tests
Modern intelligence tests are widely used to measure cognitive
abilities. When

properly administered, such tests provide an operational
definition of intelligence.
©
B
ob
D
ae
m
m
ri
ch
/T
he
Im
ag
e
W
or
ks
• Figure 9.1 Special aptitude tests measure a person’s potential
for achieve-
ment in a limited area of ability, such as manual dexterity.
Multiple aptitude tests
measure potentials in broader areas, such as college work, law,
or medicine. Intelli-

gence tests measure a very wide array of aptitudes and mental
abilities.
C
op
yr
ig
ht
©
2
01
3
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in
g,
In
c.

I nte l l i g e n ce 305
Intelligence An overall capacity to think rationally, act
purposefully, and
deal effectively with the environment.
g-factor A general ability factor proposed to underly
intelligence; the core
of general intellectual ability that involves reasoning, problem-
solving
ability, knowledge, and memory.
Operational definition The operations (actions or procedures)
used to
measure a concept.
Aptitude A capacity for learning certain abilities.
Special aptitude test Test to predict a person’s likelihood of
succeeding in
a particular area of work or skill.
Multiple aptitude test Test that measures two or more aptitudes.
General intelligence test A test that measures a wide variety of
mental
abilities.
Psychometric test Any scientific measurement of a person’s
mental

functions.
Reliability The ability of a test to yield the same score, or
nearly the same
score, each time it is given to the same person.
Validity The ability of a test to measure what it purports to
measure.
Objective test A test that gives the same score when different
people
correct it.
Test standardization Establishing standards for administering a
test and
interpreting scores.
Norm An average score for a designated group of people.
area, such as clerical work or computer programming (• Figure
9.2).
Multiple aptitude tests measure two or more types of ability.
These tests tend to be more like intelligence tests. The well-
known
SAT Reasoning Test (SAT), which measures aptitudes for
language,
math, and reasoning, is a multiple aptitude test. So are the tests
required to enter graduate schools of law, medicine, business,
and
dentistry. The broadest aptitude measures are general
intelligence
tests, which assess a wide variety of mental abilities (Cohen &
Swerdlik, 2005).
Psychologists use a variety of aptitude tests to select people for

employment and to advise people about choosing careers. For
more
information, see Chapter 18, pages 608–611.
BRIDGES
Reliability and Validity
Whether it is an intelligence test or aptitude test or, for that
matter,
any other kind of psychometric test—any measurement of a per-
son’s mental functions—there will always be two questions you
should ask about the test: “Is it reliable?” and “Is it valid? ”
To what does reliability refer? If you weigh yourself several
times
in a row, a reliable bathroom scale gives the same weight each
time.
Likewise, a reliable psychometric test must give approximately
the
same score each time a person takes it (Kaplan & Saccuzzo,
2009).
In other words, the scores should be consistent and highly
corre-
lated. It is easy to see why unreliable tests have little value.
Imagine
a medical test for pregnancy or breast cancer, for instance,
which
gives positive and negative responses for the same woman on
the
same day.
To check the reliability of a test, we could give it to a large
group
of people. Then, each person could be tested again a week later
to establish test-retest reliability. We also might want to know

whether scores on one half of the test items match scores on the
other half (split-half reliability). If two versions of a test are
avail-
able, we could compare scores on one version to scores on the
other
(equivalent-forms reliability).
Just because a psychometric test is reliable, however, does not
mean that it should be trusted; test validity is also important. To
see why this is the case, try creating an IQ test with ten
questions
only you could possibly answer. Your test would be very
reliable.
Each time you give the test, everyone scores zero, except you,
who
scores 100 percent (so you thereby proclaim yourself the only
human with any intelligence). Even though we all have days
when
it seems we are the only smart person left on the planet, it
should
be obvious this is a silly example. A test must also have
validity; it
should measure what it claims to measure (Neukrug & Fawcett,
2010). By no stretch of the imagination could a test of
intelligence
be valid if the person who wrote it is the only one who can pass
it.
How is validity established? Validity is usually demonstrated by
comparing test scores to actual performance. This is called
criterion
validity. For example, scores on a test of legal aptitude might
be com-
pared with grades in law school. If high test scores correlate
with high

grades, or some other standard (criterion) of success, the test
might be
valid. Unfortunately, many “free” tests you encounter, such as
those
found in magazines and on the Internet, have little or no
validity.
Objective Testing
Let’s return to your “I’m the Smartest Person in the World IQ
Test”
for a final point. Is your test objective? Actually, it might be. If
your
IQ test gives the same score when corrected by different people,
it
is an objective test. However, objectivity is not enough to
guaran-
tee a fair test. Useful tests must also be standardized (Neukrug
&
Fawcett, 2010).
Test standardization refers to two things. First, it means that
standard procedures are used in giving the test. The
instructions,
answer forms, amount of time to work, and so forth, are the
same
for everyone. Second, it means finding the norm, or average
score,
1. If the driver turns in the direction shown, which
direction will wheel Y turn? A B
2. Which wheel will turn the slowest? Driver X Y
Y
B

A
X
Driver
• Figure 9.2 Sample questions like those found on tests of
mechanical apti-
tude. (The answers are A and the Driver.)
C
op
yr
ig
ht
©
2
01
3
C
en
ga
ge
L
ea
rn
in

g,
In
c.
C h a p te r 9306
made by a large group of people like those for whom the test
was
designed. Without standardization, we couldn’t fairly compare
the
scores of people taking the test at different times. And without
norms, there would be no way to tell whether a score is high,
low,
or average.
Later in this chapter, we will address the question of whether
intelligence tests are valid. For now, let’s take a practical
approach
and learn about some popular standardized IQ tests.
Testing Intelligence—The IQ
and You
Gateway Question 9.2: What are typical IQ tests like?
American psychologists quickly saw the value of Alfred Binet’s
test. In 1916, Lewis Terman and others at Stanford University
revised it for use in North America. After more revisions, the

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5) continue
to
be widely used. The original Stanford-Binet assumed that a
child’s
intellectual abilities improve with each passing year. Today, the
Stanford-Binet (or SB5) is still primarily made up of age-ranked
questions. Naturally, these questions get a little harder at each
age
level. The SB5 is appropriate for people from age 2 to 85�
years
and scores on the test are very reliable (Raid & Tippin, 2009;
Roid, 2003).
Five Aspects of Intelligence
The SB5 measures five cognitive factors (types of mental
abilities)
that make up general intelligence. These are fluid reasoning,
knowl-
edge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and
working
memory. Each factor is measured with verbal questions (those
involving words and numbers), and nonverbal questions (items
that use pictures and objects). Let’s see what each factor looks
like.
Fluid Reasoning
Questions like the following are used to test Fluid Reasoning :
How are an apple, a plum, and a banana different from a beet?
An apprentice is to a master as a novice is to an ____________.
“I knew my bag was going to be in the last place I looked, so I
looked there first.” What is silly or impossible about that?
Other items ask people to fill in the missing shape in a group of
shapes, and to tell a story that explains what’s going on in a

series of
pictures.
Knowledge
The Knowledge factor assesses the person’s knowledge about a
wide range of topics.
Why is yeast added to bread dough?
What does cryptic mean?
What is silly or impossible about this picture? (For example, a
bicycle has square wheels.)
Quantitative Reasoning
Test items for Quantitative Reasoning measure a person’s
ability to
solve problems involving numbers. Here are some samples:
If I have six marbles and you give me another one, how many
marbles will I have?
Given the numbers 3, 6, 9, 12, what number would come next?
If a shirt is being sold for 50 percent of the normal price, and
the price tag is $60, what is the cost of the shirt?
Visual-Spatial Processing
People who have visual-spatial skills are good at putting picture
puzzles together and copying geometric shapes (such as
triangles,
rectangles, and circles). Visual-Spatial Processing questions ask
test
takers to reproduce patterns of blocks and choose pictures that
show how a piece of paper would look if it were folded or cut.
Verbal questions can also require visual-spatial abilities:

Suppose that you are going east, then turn right, then turn
right again, then turn left. In what direction are you facing
now ?
Working Memory
The Working Memory part of the SB5 measures the ability to
use
short-term memory. Some typical memory tasks include the
following :
Correctly remember the order of colored beads on a stick.
After hearing several sentences, name the last word from each
sentence.
Repeat a series of digits (forward or backward) after hearing
them once.
After seeing several objects, point to them in the same order as
they were presented.
If you were to take the SB5, it would yield a score for your
general
intelligence, verbal intelligence, nonverbal intelligence, and
each of
the five cognitive factors (Bain & Allin, 2005). For another per-
spective on the kinds of tasks used in the SB5, see
“Intelligence—
How Would a Fool Do It?”
The Wechsler Tests
Is the Stanford-Binet the only intelligence test? Many other IQ
tests have been developed. Psychologist David Wechsler (1939)
designed one widely used alternative. Whereas the original
Stanford-Binet was better suited for children and adolescents,
the first Wechsler test was specifically designed to test adult

intelligence. The current version is the Wechsler Adult Intelli-
gence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV ). With newer versions
of
the Stanford-Binet and a children’s version of the Wechsler
scales (currently the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—
Fourth Edition or WISC-IV; see Baron, 2005), both alternatives
are now widely used across all ages.
Performance intelligence Intelligence measured by solving
puzzles,
assembling objects, completing pictures, and other nonverbal
tasks.
Verbal intelligence Intelligence measured by answering
questions
involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other
language- or symbol-oriented tasks.
Individual intelligence test A test of intelligence designed to be
given to
a single individual by a trained specialist.
Group intelligence test Any intelligence test that can be
administered to
a group of people with minimal supervision.

Like the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler tests yield a single
overall
intelligence score. In addition, these tests also separate scores
for
performance (nonverbal) intelligence and verbal (language- or
symbol-oriented) intelligence. The abilities measured by the
Wechsler tests and some sample test items are listed in ■ Table
9.1.
Group Tests
The SB5 and the Wechsler tests are individual intelligence tests,
which are given to a single person by a trained specialist. In
con-
trast, group intelligence tests can be given to a large group of
people with minimal supervision. Group tests usually require
people to read, to follow instructions, and to solve problems of
logic, reasoning, mathematics, or spatial skills. The first group
intelligence test was the Army Alpha, developed for World War
I
military inductees. As you can see in ■ Table 9.2, intelligence
test-
ing has come a long way since then.
Scholastic Aptitude Tests
If you’re wondering if you have ever taken an intelligence test,
the
answer is probably yes. As mentioned earlier, the SAT
Reasoning
Test is a multiple aptitude test. So are the American College
Test
(ACT) and the College Qualification Test (CQT). Each of these
group tests is designed to predict your chances for success in
col-
Adapted from Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Sample Items Similar to Those Used on the WAIS-IV
Verbal Comprehension Sample Items or Descriptions
Similarities In what way are a wolf and a coyote alike?
In what way are a screwdriver and a chisel alike?
Vocabulary The test consists of asking, “What is a
____________?” or “What does ____________ mean?” The
words range from
more to less familiar and difficult.
Information How many wings does a butterfly have?
Who wrote Romeo and Juliet?
Perceptual Reasoning
Block Design Copy designs with blocks (as shown at right).
Matrix Reasoning Select the item that completes the matrix.
Visual Puzzles Choose the pieces which go together to form a
figure.
Working Memory
Digit Span Repeat from memory a series of digits, such as 8 5
7 0 1 3 6 2, after hearing it once.
Arithmetic Four girls divided 28 jellybeans equally among
themselves. How many jellybeans did each girl receive?

If 3 peaches take 2 minutes to find and pick, how long will it
take to find and pick a dozen peaches?
Processing Speed
Symbol Search Match symbols appearing in separate groups.
NO
NO
NO
Symbol Search
Coding Fill in the symbols:
3 21244 1 31 2 3 4
X III I 0
■ TABLE 9.1
C h a p te r 9308
Intelligence—How Would a Fool Do It?Human Diversity
You have been asked to sort some objects
into categories. Wouldn’t it be smart to put

the clothes, containers, implements, and
foods in separate piles? Not necessarily.
When members of the Kpelle culture in Libe-
ria were asked to sort objects, they grouped
them together by function. For example, a
potato (food) would be placed together with
a knife (implement). When the Kpelle were
asked why they grouped the objects this
way, they often said that was how a wise
man would do it. The researchers finally
asked the Kpelle, “How would a fool do it?”
Only then did the Kpelle sort the objects into
the nice, neat categories that we Westerners
prefer.
This anecdote, related by cultural psy-
chologist Patricia Greenfield (1997), raises
serious questions about general definitions
of intelligence. For example, among the

Cree of northern Canada, “smart” people are
the ones who have the skills needed to find
food on the frozen tundra (Darou, 1992). For
the Puluwat people in the South Pacific,
smart means having ocean-going naviga-
tion skills necessary to get from island to is-
land (Sternberg, 2004). And so it goes, as
each culture teaches its children the kinds
of “intelligence” valued in that culture —
how the wise man would do it, not the fool
(Barber, 2010; Correa- Chávez, Rogoff, &
Arauz, 2005).
How important do you think the mental abilities
assessed in modern intelligence tests are to this
Bushman hunter in Africa’s Kalahari Desert?
S
hu
tt
er

st
oc
k
Items from the Army Alpha Subtest on “Common Sense”
The Army Alpha was given to World War I army recruits in the
United States as a way to identify potential officers. In these
sample questions, note the curious
mixture of folk wisdom, scientific information, and moralism
(Kessen & Cahan, 1986). Other parts of the test were more like
modern intelligence tests.
1. If plants are dying for lack of rain, you should
h water them
h ask a florist’s advice
h put fertilizer around them
2. If the grocer should give you too much money in making
change, what
is the right thing to do?
h buy some candy for him with it
h give it to the first poor man you meet
h tell him of his mistake
3. If you saw a train approaching a broken track you should

h telephone for an ambulance
h signal the engineer to stop the train
h look for a piece of rail to fit in
4. Some men lose their breath on high mountains because
h the wind blows their breath away
h the air is too rare
h it is always cold there
5. We see no stars at noon because
h they have moved to the other side of the earth
h they are much fainter than the sun
h they are hidden behind the sky
■ TABLE 9.2
©
H
ul
to
n-
D
eu
sc

h
C
ol
le
ct
io
n/
C
or
bi
s
Copyright © 2013 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Mental age The average mental ability displayed by people of a
given age.
Chronological age A person’s age in years.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) An index of intelligence defined as
mental age
divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100.

Deviation IQ An IQ obtained statistically from a person’s
relative standing
in his or her age group; that is, how far above or below average
the
person’s score was relative to other scores.
lege. Because the tests measure general knowledge and a variety
of
mental aptitudes, each can also be used to estimate intelligence.
Intelligence Quotients
What is an “IQ”? Imagine that a child named Yuan can answer
intelligence test questions that an average 7-year-old can
answer.
We could say that 7 is her mental age (average intellectual
perfor-
mance). How smart is Yuan? Actually, we can’t say yet,
because we
don’t know how old Yuan is. If she is 10, she’s not very smart.
If
she’s 5, she is very bright. Thus, although mental age is a good
measure of actual ability, it says nothing about whether overall
intelligence is high or low, compared with other people of the
same age.
Thus, to estimate a child’s intelligence, we also need to know
her
chronological age (age in years). Then, we can relate mental age
to
chronological age. This yields an IQ, or intelligence quotient. A
quotient results from dividing one number into another. When
the
Stanford-Binet was first used, IQ was defined as mental age
(MA)

divided by chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100.
(Multi-
plying by 100 changes the IQ into a whole number rather than a
decimal.)
MA
CA
� 100 � IQ
An advantage of the original IQ was that intelligence could be
compared among children with different chronological and
mental
ages. For instance, 10-year-old Justin has a mental age of 12.
Thus,
his IQ is 120:
1MA2 12
1CA2 10
� 100 � 120 (IQ)
Justin’s friend Suke also has a mental age of 12. However,
Suke’s
chronological age is 12, so his IQ is 100:
1MA2 12
1CA2 12
� 100 � 100 (IQ)
The IQ shows that 10-year-old Justin is brighter than his 12-
year-
old friend Suke, even though their intellectual skills are about
the
same. Notice that a person’s IQ will be 100 when mental age

equals
chronological age. Therefore, an IQ score of 100 is defined as
aver-
age intelligence.
Then does a person with an IQ score below 100 have below
average
intelligence? Not unless the IQ is well below 100. Average
intelli-
gence is usually defined as any score from 90 to 109. The
impor-
tant point is that IQ scores will be over 100 when mental age is
higher than age in years. IQ scores below 100 occur when a
per-
son’s age in years exceeds his or her mental age. An example of
this
situation would be a 15-year-old with an MA of 12:
12
15
� 100 � 80 (IQ)
Deviation IQs
Although the preceding examples may give you insight into IQ
scores, it’s no longer necessary to directly calculate IQs.
Instead,
modern tests use deviation IQs. Tables supplied with the test are
used to convert a person’s relative standing in the group to an
IQ
score. That is, they tell how far above or below average the
person’s
score falls. For example, if you score at the 50th percentile, half
the
people your age who take the test score higher than you and half
score lower. In this case, your IQ score is 100. If you score at

the
84th percentile, your IQ score is 115. If you score at the 97th
per-
centile, your IQ score is 130. (For more information, see the
Statis-
tics appendix near the end of this book.)
©
K
es
/C
ar
to
on
st
oc
k.
co
m
C h a p te r 9310
OK, so how does Stephen Hawking score? When Hawking was
once asked about his IQ, he claimed he didn’t know and joked,

“People who boast about their IQ are losers.”
The Stability of IQ
How old do children have to be before their IQ scores become
stable?
IQ scores are not very dependable until about age 6 (Schuerger
&
Witt, 1989). IQ scores measured at age 3 correlate poorly with
those measured at age 27. In other words, knowing a child’s IQ
at
age 3 tells us very little about what his or her IQ will be 24
years
later. (Recall that a perfect correlation is 1.00 and a correlation
of
0.00 occurs when scores are unrelated.) However, IQs do
become
more reliable as children grow older. Knowing a child’s IQ at
age 11 is a good predictor of his or her IQ later in life (Gow et
al.,
2010). After middle childhood, a person’s IQ scores usually
change
very little from year to year (Canivez & Watkins, 1998; Gow et
al.,
2010; Larsen, Hartmann, & Nyborg, 2008). (See • Figure 9.3).
Variations in Intelligence—
The Numbers Game
Gateway Question 9.3: How do IQ scores relate to sex, age,
and occupation?
IQ scores are classified as shown in ■ Table 9.3. A look at the
per-
centages reveals a definite pattern. The distribution (or
scattering ) of
IQ scores approximates a normal (bell-shaped) curve. That is,

most
15 27 39 51
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Age (years)
C
o
rr
el
at
io
n
c
o
ef
fi
ci
en
t
0.6
3 63 75 87

• Figure 9.3 The stability or reliability of IQ
scores increases rapidly in early childhood. Scores
are very consistent from early adulthood to late
middle age. (Adapted from Gow et al., 2010; Larsen, Hart-
mann, & Nyborg, 2008; Schuerger & Witt, 1989.)
Distribution of Adult IQ Scores
on the WAIS-IV
IQ Description Percent
Above 130 Very superior 2.2
120–129 Superior 6.7
110–119 Bright normal 16.1
90–109 Average 50.0
80–89 Dull normal 16.1
70–79 Borderline 6.7
Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2
■ TABLE 9.3
Derived from Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San
Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Knowledge
Builder Intelligence Tests
RECITE
1. The first successful intelligence test was developed by
__________________________________.
2. If we define intelligence by the obtained score on a written
test, we
are using
a. a circular definition b. an abstract definition c. an
operational
definition d. a chronological definition
3. Place an “R” or a “V” after each operation to indicate
whether it would
be used to establish the reliability (R) or the validity (V) of a
test.
a. Compare score on one half of test items to score on the other
half. ( )
b. Compare scores on test to grades, performance ratings, or
other
measures. ( )
c. Compare scores from the test after administering it on two
sepa-

rate occasions. ( )
d. Compare scores on alternate forms of the test. ( )
4. Establishing norms and uniform procedures for
administering a test
are elements of standardization. T or F?
5. The WAIS-IV is a group intelligence test. T or F?
6. IQ was originally defined as __________________ times
100.
7. Scores on modern intelligence tests are based on one’s
deviation
IQ (relative standing among test takers) rather than on the ratio
between mental age and chronological age. T or F?
REFLECT
Think Critically
8. How well do you think a member of Kpelle culture in Liberia
would
score on the SB5?
Self-Reflect
If you were going to write an intelligence test, what kinds of
questions

would you ask? How much would your questions resemble those
on
standard intelligence tests? Would you want to measure any
mental skills
not covered by established tests?
Answers: 1. Alfred Binet 2. c 3. a. (R), b. (V), c. (R), d. (R) 4.
T 5. F 6. MA/CA
7. T 8. You are right if you suspect the answer is most likely
“poorly.” The
more important question is what this means. Is the person
“slow” or
might there be some question about the test itself (Gardner,
2008; Hen-
rich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010)? Stay tuned for more on this
important
issue.
Normal curve A bell-shaped curve characterized by a large
number of

scores in a middle area, tapering to very few extremely high and
low
scores.
Fluid intelligence The ability to solve novel problems
involving
perceptual speed or rapid insight.
Crystallized intelligence The ability to solve problems using
already
acquired knowledge.
scores fall close to the average and very few are found at the
extremes.
• Figure 9.4 shows this characteristic of measured intelligence.
IQ and Sex
On average, do males and females differ in intelligence? IQ
scores
cannot answer this question because test items were selected to
be
equally difficult for both sexes. However, whereas males and
females do not appear to differ in overall intelligence, general
intel-
ligence tests allow us to compare the intellectual strengths and
weaknesses of men and women (Hyde, 2007). For decades,
women,
as a group, performed best on items that require verbal ability,
vocabulary, and rote learning. Men, in contrast, were best at
items
that require spatial visualization and math (Clements et al.,
2006;
Calvin et al., 2010). Today, such male-female differences have
almost disappeared among children and young adults. The small
differences that remain appear to be based on a tendency for

par-
ents and educators to encourage males, more than females, to
learn
math and spatial skills (Ceci & Williams, 2010).
IQ and Age
How much are IQs affected by age? Don’t be confused by •
Figure 9.3.
The rising curve in that figure indicates that the consistency of
IQ
scores from year to year increases with age. Actual IQ test
scores
stay relatively stable as people age with a small, gradual
increase
until about age 40 and a small slow decline therafter (Larsen,
Hart-
mann, & Nyborg, 2008; Thompson & Oehlert, 2010).
This trend, of course, is an average. Actual IQs reflect a
person’s
education, maturity, and experience, as well as innate
intelligence.
Some people make fairly large gains in IQ, whereas others have
siz-
able losses. How do the two groups differ? In general, those
who
gain in IQ are exposed to intellectual stimulation during early
adulthood. Those who decline typically suffer from chronic ill-
nesses, drinking problems, or unstimulating lifestyles (Honzik,
1984; Nisbett, 2009a,b).
After middle age, the picture gets a bit more complex. Intellec-
tual skills involved in fluid intelligence—solving novel
problems
involving perceptual speed or rapid insight—decline rapidly

after
middle age (Brody, 1992; Lawrence, Myerson, & Hale, 1998).
By
way of compensation, crystallized intelligence—solving prob-
lems using already acquired knowledge —can actually increase
or,
at least, decline very little until advanced age. In other words,
younger people are generally “quick learners” (fluid
intelligence)
but tend to be “wet behind the ears” (lack experience or
crystalized
intelligence). Older people might be a little “slower on the
uptake”
but tend to “know the ropes.” Since IQ tests such as the SB5
and
WAIS test for components of both fluid intelligence and crystal-
lized intelligence, overall, age-related losses are small for most
healthy, well-educated individuals (Rindermann, Flores-
Mendoza,
& Mansur-Alves, 2010; Weintraub 2003).
IQ and Achievement
How do IQ scores relate to success in school, jobs, and other
endeav-
ors? IQ differences of a few points tell us little about a person.
But if we look at a broader ranges of scores, the differences do
become meaningful. For example, a person with an IQ
of 100 would probably struggle with college, whereas one with
an
IQ of 120 would do just fine.
The correlation between IQ and school grades is at least
.50—a sizable association (Calvin et al., 2010; Mayes et al.,
2009). If grades depended solely on IQ, the connection would
be even stronger. However, motivation, special talents, off-
campus educational opportunities, and many other factors influ-

ence grades and school success. The same is true of “real
world”
success beyond school (Strenze, 2007). IQ is also not a good
predictor of success in art, music, writing , dramatics, science,
and leadership. Tests of creativity are much more strongly
related
to achievement in these areas (Kaufman, 2009; Preckel, Holling
,
& Wiese, 2006).
As you might expect, IQ is also related to job status. Persons
holding white-collar, professional positions average higher IQs
than those in blue-collar settings. For example, accountants,
lawyers, and engineers average about 125 in IQ. In contrast,
miners and farm workers average about 90 (Brody, 1992). It is
important to note, however, that a range of IQ scores can be
found in all occupations. Many people of high intelligence,
because of choice or circumstance, have “low-ranking” jobs.
Does the link between IQ and occupation show that professional
jobs require more intelligence? Not as clearly as you might
think.
Higher status jobs often require an academic degree. As a
result,
hiring for professional jobs is biased in favor of a particular
type
of intelligence, namely, the kind measured by intelligence tests
P
er
ce
n
t
Intellectually

disabled
Borderline
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Mean = 101.8 IQ
20
16
12
8
24
4
Dull normal
Average
Bright normal
Superior
Very superior
• Figure 9.4 Distribution of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
scores for
3184 children. (Adapted from Terman & Merrill, 1937/1960.)

C h a p te r 9312
(McClelland, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996). This bias probably
inflates the apparent association between professional jobs and
IQ. The more IQ-like tests are used to select people for jobs, the
stronger the association between IQ and job status. In fact, it
can be argued that high status groups use such tests to protect
their “territory” (Tittle & Rotolo, 2000).
When IQs are extreme—below 70 or above 140—their link
to an individual’s potential for success becomes unmistakable.
Only about 3 percent of the population falls in these ranges.
Nevertheless, millions of people have exceptionally high or low
IQs. Discussions of the intellectually gifted and intellectually
disabled follow.
The Intellectually Gifted—Smart,
Smarter, Smartest
Gateway Question 9.4: What does IQ tell us about genius?
How high is the IQ of a genius? Only 2 people out of 100
score
above 130 on IQ tests. These bright individuals are usually
described as “gifted.” Less than one-half of one percent of the
population scores above 140. These people are certainly gifted
or
perhaps even “geniuses.” However, some psychologists reserve
the
term genius for people with even higher IQs or those who are
exceptionally creative (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).

Gifted Children
Do high IQ scores in childhood predict later ability? To directly
answer this question, Lewis Terman selected 1,500 children
with
IQs of 140 or more. Terman followed this gifted group (the
“Ter-
mites,” as he called them) into adulthood. By doing so, Terman
corrected several popular misconceptions about high
intelligence
(Dai, 2010; Reis & Renzulli, 2010; Shurkin, 1992).
Misconception: The gifted tend to be peculiar, socially
backward people.
Fact: On the contrary, Terman’s gifted subjects, and gifted
people in
general, are socially skilled and above average in leadership
(Feldhusen &
Westby, 2003).
Misconception: Early ripe means later rot; the gifted tend to
fizzle out
as adults.
Fact: This is false. When they were retested as adults, Terman’s
subjects
again scored in the upper IQ ranges.
Misconception: The very bright are physically inferior
“eggheads,”

“nerds,” or weaklings.
Fact: As a group, the gifted were above average in height,
weight, and
physical appearance.
Misconception: Highly intelligent persons are more susceptible
to
mental illness (“Genius is next to insanity”).
Fact: Terman demonstrated conclusively that the gifted enjoy
better
than average mental health and a greater resistance to mental
illness. In
general, the highly gifted tend to be very well adjusted
psychologically (Dai,
2010; Garland & Zigler, 1999).
Misconception: Intelligence has little to do with success,
especially in
practical matters.
Fact: The success of Terman’s subjects was striking. Far more
of them
than average completed college, earned advanced degrees, and
held pro-
fessional positions. As a group, the gifted produced dozens of
books, thou-

sands of scientific ar ticles, and hundreds of shor t stories and
other
publications (Shurkin, 1992; Terman & Oden, 1959). As noted
earlier, IQ
scores are not generally good predictors of real-world success.
However,
when scores are in the gifted range, the likelihood of
outstanding achieve-
ment does seem to be higher.
Giftedness and Achievement
Were all the Termites superior as adults? No. Remember that
high
IQ reveals potential. It does not guarantee success. As adults,
some
of Terman’s gifted subjects committed crimes, were
unemployable,
or were unhappy misfits. Nor does a lower IQ guarantee failure.
Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman, whom many
regard as a genius, had an IQ of 122 (Michalko, 2001).
How did Terman’s more successful Termites differ from the less
successful? Most of them had educated parents who valued
learning
and encouraged them to do the same. In general, successful
gifted
persons tend to have strong intellectual determination—a desire
to
know, to excel, and to persevere (Winner, 2003). Gifted or not,
most successful persons tend to be persistent and motivated to
learn

(Reis & Renzulli, 2010). No one is paid to sit around being
capable
of achievement. What you do is always more important than
what
you should be able to do. That’s why a child’s talents are most
likely
to blossom when they are nurtured with support,
encouragement,
education, and effort (Callahan, 2006).
Identifying Gifted Children
How might a parent spot an unusually bright child? Early signs
of
giftedness are not always purely “intellectual.” Giftedness can
be
either the possession of a high IQ or of special talents or
aptitudes.
The following signs may reveal that a child is gifted: a tendency
to
seek out older children and adults; an early fascination with
expla-
nations and problem solving ; talking in complete sentences as
early
as 2 or 3 years of age; an unusually good memory; precocious
talent
in art, music, or number skills; an early interest in books, along
with
early reading (often by age 3); showing of kindness,
understanding,
and cooperation toward others (Dai, 2010; Distin, 2006).
Notice that this list goes beyond straight g-factor, or general
“academic” intelligence. Children may be gifted in ways other
than
having a high IQ. In fact, if artistic talent, mechanical aptitude,
musical aptitude, athletic potential, and so on are considered,

many children have a special “gift” of one kind or another.
Limiting
giftedness to high IQ can shortchange children with special
talents
or potentials. This is especially true of ethnic minority children,
who may be the victims of subtle biases in standardized
intelligence
tests. These children, as well as children with physical
disabilities,
are less likely to be recognized as gifted (Castellano & Frazier,
2011; Ford & Moore, 2006).
Giftedness Either the possession of a high IQ or special talents
or
aptitudes.
Intellectual disability (formerly mental retardation) The
presence of
a developmental disability, a formal IQ score below 70, or a
significant
impairment of adaptive behavior.
GATE Programs
Being exceptionally bright is not without its problems. Usually,
parents and teachers must make adjustments to help gifted chil-
dren make the most of their talents ( Jolly et al., 2011). The

gifted
child may become bored in classes designed for average
children.
This can lead to misbehavior or clashes with teachers who think
the gifted child a show-off or smart aleck. Extremely bright
chil-
dren may also find classmates less stimulating than older
children
or adults. In recognition of these problems, many schools now
provide special Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) classes
for gifted children. Such programs combine classroom enrich-
ment with fast-paced instruction to satisfy the gifted child’s
appetite for intellectual stimulation (Dai, 2010). Since 1988, the
federally funded Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Children
and Youth Education Act has provided ongoing funds for
research into gifted and talented education programs (Reis &
Renzulli, 2010).
All children benefit from enriched environments. For a
discussion of
enrichment and some guidelines for parents, see Chapter 3,
pages 87–88.
BRIDGES
In the next section, we will discuss intellectual disability.
Intellectual Disability—
A Difference That Makes
a Difference
Gateway Question 9.5: What causes intellectual disability?
Before you begin, take a few moments to read “Meet the Rain

Man,”
in which you will find information about a remarkable mixture
of
brilliance and intellectual disability. And please keep Kim Peek
in
mind as you read on. There is usually much more to
intellectually
disabled people than can be shown by the results of IQ testing
(Treffert, 2010). It is especially important to realize that
intellectu-
ally disabled persons have no handicap when feelings are
concerned.
They are easily hurt by rejection, teasing, or ridicule. Likewise,
they
respond warmly to love and acceptance. They have a right to
self-
respect and a place in the community (Montreal Declaration on
Intellectual Disabilities, 2004). This is especially important
during
childhood, when support from others adds greatly to the
person’s
chances of becoming a well-adjusted member of society.
Levels of Intellectual Disability
A person with mental abilities far below average is termed
intel-
lectually disabled (the former term, mentally retarded, is now
regarded by many as offensive). According to the current
definition
It is wise to remember that there are many
ways in which a child may be gifted. Many
schools now offer Gifted and Talented Edu-

cation programs for students with a variety
of special abilities—not just for those who
score well on IQ tests.
ar
ab
ia
nE
ye
/P
ho
to
lib
ra
ry
B
ig
C
he
es
e
Ph
ot
o/

S
up
er
S
to
ck
These youngsters are participants in the Special Olympics—an
athletic event for
the intellectually disabled. It is often said of the Special
Olympics that “everyone
is a winner—participants, coaches, and spectators.”
K
yl
e
N
os
al
/A
P
Im
ag
es

C h a p te r 9314
listed in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and
Sta-
tistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), intellectual
disabil-
ity begins at an IQ of approximately 70 or below and is
classified as
shown in ■ Table 9.4 (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
The listed IQ ranges are approximate because IQ scores
normally
vary a few points. The terms in the right-hand column are listed
only to give you a general impression of each IQ range.
Currently, a
person’s ability to perform adaptive behaviors (basic skills such
as
dressing, eating, communicating, shopping, and working ) also
fig-
ures into evaluating this disability (American Psychiatric
Associa-
tion, 2000; Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).
A new edition of the DSM, the DSM-5, is scheduled for pub-
lication in 2012. It is quite likely that the new definitions of
levels
of intellectual disability will deemphasize IQ and focus more
heavily on impairment of adaptive behaviors (American
Psychiat-
ric Association, 2010). After all, why label someone with fairly

good adaptive skills “severely intellectually disabled” just
because
his or her IQ falls within a prescribed range? The end result of
such labels is, too often, a placing of needless limitations on the
educational goals of intellectually disabled persons (Harris,
2010;
Kirk et al., 2011).
Are the intellectually disabled usually placed in institutions?
No.
Total care is usually only necessary for the profoundly disabled
(IQ
below 25). Many of these individuals live in group homes or
with
their families. Those who are severely disabled (IQ of 25–40)
and
moderately disabled (IQ of 40–55) are capable of mastering
basic
language and self-help skills. Many become self-supporting by
working in sheltered workshops (special simplified work
environ-
ments). The mildly disabled (IQ of 55–70) make up about
85 per-
cent of all those affected. This group can benefit from carefully
structured education. As adults, these persons, as well as the
bor-
derline disabled (IQ 70–85), are capable of living alone and
they
may marry. However, they tend to have difficulties with many
of
the demands of adult life (Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1990).
Causes of Intellectual Disability
What causes intellectual disability? In 30 to 40 percent of
cases,
no known biological problem can be identified. In many such

instances, the degree of disability is mild, in the 50–70 IQ
range.
Levels of Intellectual Disability
IQ Range
Degree of
Intellectual
Disability
Educational
Classification
Required
Level of
Support
50–55 to 70 Mild Educable Intermittent
35–40 to 50–55 Moderate Trainable Limited
20–25 to 35–40 Severe Dependent Extensive
Below 20–25 Profound Life support Pervasive
■ TABLE 9.4
(Adapted from American Psychiatric Association, 2000.)
Meet the Rain ManThe Clinical File
Meet Kim Peek, the model for Dustin Hoff-
man’s character in the Academy Award–
winning movie Rain Man (Peek & Hanson,

2007). K im began memorizing books at
18 months of age. By the time of his death in
2009, he could recite from memory more
than 9,000 books. He knew all the ZIP codes
and area codes in the United States and
could give accurate travel directions be -
tween any two major U.S. cities. He could
also discuss hundreds of pieces of classical
music in detail and could play most of it
quite well. Amazingly, though, for someone
with such skills, Kim had difficulty with ab-
stract thinking and tests of general intelli-
gence. He was poorly coordinated and
couldn’t button his own clothes ( Treffert,
2010; Treffert & Christensen, 2005).
K i m Pe e k h a d s ava nt s y n d ro m e , i n
which a person of limited intelligence shows
exceptional mental ability in one or more

narrow areas, such as mental arithmetic, cal-
endar calculations, art, or music (Crane et al.,
2010; Young, 2005).
Do savants have special mental powers not
shared by most people? According to one the-
ory, many savants have suffered some form
of damage to their left hemispheres, freeing
them from the “distractions” of language,
concepts, and higher-level thought. This al-
lows them to focus with crystal clarity on
music, drawing, prime numbers, license
plates, TV commercials, and other specific in-
formation ( Young, 2005). Another theory
holds that the per formances of many sa-
vants result from intense practice (Miller,
1999). Perhaps each of us harbors embers of
mental brilliance that intense practice could
fan into full flame (Snyder et al., 2006; Tref-

fert, 2010).
Although savant syndrome hasn’t been
fully explained, it does show that extraordi-
nary abilities can exist apart from general
intelligence.
Once, four months after reading a novel, Kim was
asked about a character. He immediately named
the character, gave the page number on which a
description appeared, and accurately recited
several paragraphs about the character (Treffert &
Christensen, 2005).
©
R
ic
ha
rd
G
re
en

Savant syndrome The possession of exceptional mental ability
in one or
more narrow areas, such as mental arithmetic, calendar
calculations, art,
or music by a person of limited general intelligence.
Familial intellectual disability Mild intellectual disability
associated with
homes that are intellectually, nutritionally, and emotionally
impoverished.
Down Syndrome A genetic disorder caused by the presence of
an extra
chromosome; results in intellectual disability.
Fragile X syndrome A genetic form of intellectual disability
caused by a
defect in the X chromosome.X
Often, other family members are also mildly disabled. Familial
intellectual disability, as this is called, occurs mostly in very
poor households, in which nutrition, intellectual stimulation,
medical care, and emotional support may be inadequate. This
suggests that familial intellectual disability is based largely on
an
impoverished environment. Thus, better nutrition, education,

and early childhood enrichment programs could prevent many
cases of intellectual disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Shan-
non, 2006).
About half of all cases of intellectual disability are organic, or
related to physical disorders (Das, 2000). These include birth
injuries (such as lack of oxygen during delivery), and fetal
damage (prenatal damage from disease, infection, or drugs).
Metabolic disorders, which affect energ y production and use in
the body, also cause intellectual disability. Some forms of intel-
lectual disability are linked to genetic abnormalities, such as
missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes. Malnutrition and
exposure to lead, PCBs, and other toxins early in childhood can
also cause organic intellectual disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton,
& Shannon, 2006). Let’s briefly look at several distinctive
problems.
Down Syndrome
In 1 out of 800 babies, the disorder known as Down syndrome
causes moderate to severe intellectual disability and a shortened
life expectancy of around 49 years. It is now known that Down
syndrome children have an extra 21st chromosome. This condi-
tion, which is called trisomy-21, results from flaws in the par-
ents’ egg or sperm cells. Thus, although Down syndrome is
genetic, it is not usually hereditary (it doesn’t “run in the
family”).
The age of parents is a major factor in Down syndrome. As
people age, their reproductive cells are more prone to errors
dur-
ing cell division. This raises the odds that an extra chromosome
will be present. As you can see in the following figures, the
older a
woman is, the greater the risk (National Institute of Child
Health

and Human Development, 2010):
Mother’s age Incidence of Down syndrome
Under 30 1/11000
Early 40s 1/105
Late 40s 1/12
Fathers, and possibly especially older fathers, also add to the
risk;
in a small percentage of cases, the father is the source of the
extra
chromosome (National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, 2010). Older adults who plan to have children
should carefully consider the odds shown here.
There is no “cure” for Down syndrome. However, these chil-
dren are usually loving and responsive, and they make progress
in a
caring environment. At a basic level, Down syndrome children
can
do most of the things that other children can, only slower. The
best
hope for Down syndrome children, therefore, lies in specially
tai-
lored educational programs that enable them to lead fuller lives.
Fragile X Syndrome
The second most common form of genetic intellectual disability
(after Down syndrome) is fragile X syndrome (Hallahan, Kauff-
man, & Pullen, 2011). Unlike Down syndrome, fragile X syn-
drome is hereditary—it does run in families. The problem is
related
to a thin, frail-looking area on the X (female) chromosome.

Because
fragile X is sex linked (like color-blindness), boys are most
often
affected, at a rate of about 1 out of every 3800 (National Fragile
X
Foundation, 2011).
Fragile X males generally have long, thin faces and big ears.
Physically, they are usually larger than average during
childhood,
but smaller than average after adolescence. Up to three-fourths
of
all fragile X males suffer from hyperactivity and attention
disor-
ders. Many also have a peculiar tendency to avoid eye contact
with
others.
Fragile X males are only mildly intellectually disabled during
early childhood, but they are often severely or profoundly intel-
lectually disabled as adults. When learning adaptive behaviors,
they tend to do better with daily living skills than with language
and social skills (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
The problem called phenylketonuria (FEN-ul-KEET-uh-NURE-
ee-ah) is a genetic disease. Children who have PKU lack an
impor-
tant enzyme. This causes phenylpyruvic (FEN-ul-pye-ROO-vik)
This young woman exhibits the classical features of Down
syndrome: Distinctive
features of this problem are almond-shaped eyes, a slightly
protruding tongue, a

stocky build, and stubby hands with deeply creased palms.
M
ar
ce
l J
an
ko
vi
c/
S
hu
tt
te
rs
to
ck
C h a p te r 9316
acid (a destructive chemical) to collect within their bodies. PKU
is

also linked to very low levels of dopamine, an important
chemical
messenger in the brain. If PKU goes untreated, severe
intellectual
disability typically occurs by age 3.
PKU can be detected in newborn babies by routine medical
testing. Affected children are usually placed on a diet low in
phe-
nylalinine, the substance the child’s body can’t handle.
Carefully
following this diet will usually prevent intellectual disability
(Grosse, 2010). (Phenylalinine is present in many foods. You
might be interested to know that it is also found in Aspartame,
the
artificial sweetener in diet colas.)
Microcephaly
The word microcephaly (MY-kro-SEF-ah-lee) means small-
headedness. The microcephalic person suffers a rare
abnormality
in which the skull is extremely small or fails to grow. This
forces the
brain to develop in a limited space, causing severe intellectual
dis-
ability (Szabó et al., 2010). Although they are typically
institution-
alized, microcephalic persons are usually affectionate, well-
behaved,
and cooperative.
Hydrocephaly
Hydrocephaly (HI-dro-SEF-ah-lee: “water on the brain”) is
caused
by a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within brain cavities.
Pressure

from this fluid can damage the brain and enlarge the head.
Hydro-
cephaly is not uncommon—about 10,000 hydocephalic babies
are
born each year in the United States and Canada. However,
thanks
to new medical procedures, most of these infants will lead
nearly
normal lives. A surgically implanted tube drains fluid from the
brain into the abdomen and minimizes brain damage. Although
affected children usually score below average on mental tests,
severe
intellectual disability usually can be prevented (Rourke et al.,
2002).
Cretinism
Cretinism (KREET-un-iz-um) is another type of intellectual
disabil-
ity that appears in infancy. It results from an insufficient supply
of
thyroid hormone. In some parts of the world, cretinism is
caused by a
lack of iodine in the diet (the thyroid glands require iodine to
func-
tion normally). Iodized salt has made this source of intellectual
dis-
ability rare in developed nations. Cretinism causes stunted
physical
and intellectual growth that cannot be reversed. Fortunately,
cretin-
ism is easily detected in infancy. Once detected, it can be
treated with
thyroid hormone replacement, before permanent damage occurs.
Heredity and Environment—
Super Rats, Family Trees,

and Video Games
Gateway Question 9.6: How do heredity and environment
affect intelligence?
Is intelligence inherited? This seemingly simple question is
loaded
with controversy. Some psychologists believe that intelligence
is
strongly affected by heredity. Others feel that environment is
dominant. Let’s examine some evidence for each view.
In a classic study of genetic factors in learning, Tryon (1929)
managed to breed separate strains of “maze-bright” and “maze-
Knowledge
Builder Variations in Intelligence
RECITE
1. The distribution of IQs approximates a
_________________________
(bell-shaped) curve.
2. Differences in the intellectual strengths of men and women
have
grown larger in recent years. T or F?
3. The association between IQ and high-status professional jobs
proves
that such jobs require more intelligence. T or F?
4. Only about 6 percent of the population scores above 140 on

IQ tests.
T or F?
5. An IQ score below 90 indicates intellectual disability. T or
F?
6. Many cases of intellectual disability without known organic
causes
appear to be ______________________________.
Match:
7. ____ PKU A. Too little thyroid hormone
8. ____ Microcephaly B. Very small brain
9. ____ Hydrocephaly C. 47 chromosomes
10. ____ Cretinism D. Lack of an important enzyme
11. ____ Down syndrome E. Excess of cerebrospinal fluid
12. ____ Fragile X F. Abnormal female chromosome
G. Caused by a lack of oxygen at birth
REFLECT
Think Critically
13. Lewis Terman took great interest in the lives of many of
the “Ter-
mites.” He even went so far as to advise them about what kinds

of
careers they should pursue. What error of observation did
Terman
make?
Self-Reflect
If you measure the heights of all the people in your psychology
class,
most people will be clustered around an average height. Very
few will be
extremely tall or extremely short. Does this ring a bell? Do you
think it’s
normal? (It is, of course; most measured human characteristics
form a
normal curve, just as IQs do.)
Do you think that giftedness should be defined by high IQ or
having
special talents (or both)? To increase your chances of
succeeding in
today’s society, would you prefer to be smart or talented (or
both)? How
about smart, talented, motivated, and lucky!?
As a psychologist you are asked to assess a child’s degree of
intellec-

tual disability. Will you rely more on IQ or the child’s level of
adaptive
behavior? Would you be more confident in your judgment if you
took
both factors into account?
Answers: 1. normal 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. F 6. familial 7. D 8. B 9. E
10. A 11. C
12. F 13. Terman may have unintentionally altered the behavior
of the
people he was studying. Although Terman’s observations are
generally
regarded as valid, he did break a basic rule of scientific
observation.
Phenylketonuria A genetic disease that allows phenylpyruvic
acid to
accumulate in the body.
Microcephaly A disorder in which the head and brain are
abnormally small.y

Hydrocephaly A buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within brain
cavities.
Cretinism Stunted growth and intellectual disability caused by
an
insufficient supply of thyroid hormone.
Eugenics Selective breeding for desirable characteristics.
Fraternal twins Twins conceived from two separate eggs.
Identical twins Twins who develop from a single egg and have
identical
genes.
dull” rats (animals that were extremely “bright” or “stupid” at
learning mazes). After several generations of breeding, the
slowest
“super rat” outperformed the best “dull” rat. This and other
studies
of eugenics (selective breeding for desirable characteristics)
sug-
gest that some traits are highly influenced by heredity.
That may be true, but is maze-learning really a measure of intel-
ligence? No, it isn’t. Tryon’s study seemed to show that
intelligence
is inherited, but later researchers found that the “bright” rats
were
simply more motivated by food and less easily distracted during
testing. When they weren’t chasing after rat chow, the “bright”
rats
were no more intelligent than the supposedly dull rats. Thus,
Try-
on’s study did demonstrate that behavioral characteristics can
be
influenced by heredity. However, it was inconclusive

concerning
intelligence. Because of such problems, animal studies cannot
tell
us with certainty how heredity and environment affect intelli-
gence. Let’s see what human studies reveal.
Hereditary Influences
Most people are aware of a moderate similarity in the
intelligence
between parents and their children, or between brothers and sis-
ters. As • Figure 9.5 shows, the closer two people are on a
family
tree, the more alike their IQs are likely to be.
Does that indicate that intelligence is hereditary? Not
necessarily.
Brothers, sisters, and parents share similar environments as well
as
similar genes (Grigorenko, 2005). To separate heredity and
envi-
ronment, we need to make some selected comparisons.
Twin Studies
Notice in • Figure 9.5 that the IQ scores of fraternal twins are
more alike than those of ordinary brothers and sisters. Fraternal
twins come from two separate eggs fertilized at the same time.
They are no more genetically alike than ordinary siblings. Why,
then, should the twins’ IQ scores be more similar? The reason is
environmental: Parents treat twins more alike than ordinary sib-
lings, resulting in a closer match in IQs.
More striking similarities are observed with identical twins,
who develop from a single egg and have identical genes. At the
top
of • Figure 9.5 you can see that identical twins who grow up in
the

same family have highly correlated IQs. This is what we would
expect with identical heredity and very similar environments.
Now,
let’s consider what happens when identical twins are reared
apart.
As you can see, the correlation drops, but only from .86 to .72.
Psychologists who emphasize genetics believe figures like these
show that differences in adult intelligence are roughly 50
percent
hereditary ( Jacobs et al., 2008; Neisser et al., 1996).
How do environmentalists interpret the figures? They point out
that some separated identical twins differ by as much as 20 IQ
points. In every case in which this occurs, there are large educa-
tional and environmental differences between the twins. Also,
separated twins are almost always placed in homes socially and
educationally similar to those of their birth parents. This would
tend to inflate apparent genetic effects by making the separated
twins’ IQs more alike. Another frequently overlooked fact is
that
twins grow up in the same environment before birth (in the
womb).
If this environmental similarity is taken into account,
intelligence
would seem to be less than 50 percent hereditary (Devlin,
Daniels,
& Roeder, 1997; Turkheimer et al., 2003).
Identical twins also tend to have similar personality traits. This
suggests
that heredity contributes to personality as well as intelligence.
For more
information, see Chapter 12, pages 425–427.

BRIDGES
Environmental Influences
Some evidence for an environmental view of intelligence comes
from families having one adopted child and one biological
child.
As • Figure 9.6 shows, parents contribute genes and
environment
Unrelated
persons
Parents and
children
Siblings
Fraternal twins
Identical twins
Correlation coefficient
.86
.72
.62
.41
.24
.35
.31
.25

0.0
No data available
Reared apart
Reared together
.1 1.0.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
• Figure 9.5 Approximate correlations between IQ scores for
persons with
varying degrees of genetic and environmental similarity. Notice
that the correla-
tions grow smaller as the degree of genetic similarity declines.
Also note that a
shared environment increases the correlation in all cases.
(Adapted from Bouchard,
1983; Henderson, 1982.)
Environment
Environment
Genes
Adopted child
Biological childParent
Parent
• Figure 9.6 Comparison of an adopted child and a biological

child reared in
the same family. (Adapted from Kamin, 1981.)
C h a p te r 9318
to their biological child. With an adopted child they contribute
only environment. If intelligence is highly genetic, the IQs of
bio-
logical children should be more like their parents’ IQs than the
IQs
of adopted children are. However, studies show that children
reared by the same mother resemble her in IQ to the same
degree.
It doesn’t matter whether they share her genes (Kamin, 1981;
Weinberg, 1989).
IQ and Socioeconomic Status
How much can environment alter intelligence? It depends on the
quality of the environment (Turkheimer et al., 2003). One way
to
look at environmental effects is to compare children adopted by
parents of high or low socioeconomic status (SES). As you
might
predict, children who grow up in high SES homes develop
higher
IQs than those reared by lower SES parents. Presumably, the
higher SES homes provide an enriched environment, with better
nutrition, greater educational opportunities, and other
advantages

(Capron & Duyme, 1992).
More importantly, children adopted out of low SES environ-
ments can experience great relative gains in intelligence. That
is,
the IQs of low SES children may be more dramatically
infuenced
by environmental factors than the IQs of high SES children
(Hen-
rich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). In one study, striking
increases
in IQ occurred in 25 children who were moved from an
orphanage
and were eventually adopted by parents who gave them love, a
fam-
ily, and a stimulating home environment. Once considered intel-
lectually disabled and unadoptable, the children gained an
average
of 29 IQ points. A second group of initially less intellectually
dis-
abled children, who stayed in the orphanage, lost an average of
26 IQ points (Skeels, 1966).
A particularly dramatic environmental effect is the fact that
14 nations have shown average IQ gains of from 5 to 25
points
during the last 30 years (Dickens & Flynn, 2001; Flynn, 2007).
Referred to as the Flynn effect, after New Zealand psychologist
James Flynn, these IQ boosts, averaging 15 points, occurred in
far
too short a time to be explained by genetics. It is more likely
that
the gains reflect environmental forces, such as improved
education,
nutrition, and living in a technologically complex society

(Barber,
2010; Johnson, 2005). If you’ve ever tried to play a computer
game
or set up a wireless network in your home, you’ll understand
why
people may be getting better at answering IQ test questions
(Neis-
ser, 1997). The highlight “You Mean Video Games Might Be
Good for Me?” explores this idea further.
If environment makes a difference, can intelligence be taught?
The
traditional answer is “No.” Brief coaching, for instance, has
little
positive effect on aptitude and intelligence test scores (Brody,
1992). More encouraging results can be found in early
childhood
education programs, which provide longer-term stimulating
intel-
lectual experiences for disadvantaged children (Kirk et al.,
2011).
In one study, children from low-income families were given
enriched environments from early infancy through preschool.
By
age 2, their IQ scores were already higher than those in a
control
group. More important, they were still 5 points higher 7 years
later
(Campbell & Ramey, 1994). High-quality enrichment programs
such as Head Start can prevent children from falling behind in
school (Barnet & Barnet, 1998; Ramey, Ramey, & Lanzi, 2001).
Later schooling can also have an impact on IQ. Stephen Ceci
found that people who leave school lose up to 6 points in IQ
per
year. Dropping out of school in the eighth grade can reduce a

per-
son’s adult IQ by up to 24 points. Conversely, IQ rises as
people
spend more time in school (Ceci, 1991). Israeli psychologist
Reuven Feuerstein (FOY-er-shtine) and his colleagues have
devel-
oped a program they call Instrumental Enrichment. Through
hundreds of hours of guided problem solving, students learn to
avoid the thinking flaws that lower IQ scores (Feuerstein et al.,
1986). Feuerstein and others have shown that such training can
You Mean Video Games Might Be Good for Me?Critical
Thinking
Even though the Flynn effect suggests
that environmental factors influence intelli-
gence (Flynn, 2007; Schooler, 1998), we are
left with the question “Which factors?” Psy-
chologist Steven Johnson (2005) believes
that contemporary culture is responsible.
Although he agrees that much popular
media content is too violent or sexual in
nature, he points out that video games, the
Internet, and even television are becoming
more complex. As a result, they demand ever
greater cognitive effort from us. In other

words, it is as important to understand how
we experience the environment as it is to
understand what we experience.
For example, early video games, such as
Pong or PacMan, offered simple, repetitive
visual experiences. In contrast, today’s best-
selling games, such as Call of Duty or The
Sims, offer rich, complicated experiences
that can take 40 or more hours of intense
problem-solving to complete. Furthermore,
players must usually figure out the rules by
themselves. Instructions for completing
popular games, which have been created by
fans, are typically much longer than chapters
in this textbook. Only a complex and engag-
ing game would prompt players to use such
instructions, much less write them for others
to use (Johnson, 2005).

According to Johnson, other forms of
popular culture have also become more
complex, including the Internet and com-
puter software. Even popular television has
become more cognitively demanding. For
example, compared with television dramas
of the past, modern dramas weave plot
lines and characters through an entire sea-
son of programs. In the end, popular cul-
ture may well be inviting us to read, reflect,
and problem-solve more than ever before
(Jaeggi et al., 2008). (Before you uncritically
embrace video games, read “ You M ean
Vi d e o G a m e s M i g h t B e B a d fo r M e ? ” i n
Chapter 6.)

Early childhood education program Programs that provide
stimulating
intellectual experiences, typically for disadvantaged
preschoolers.
Reaction time The amount of time a person must look at a
stimulus to
make a correct judgment about it.
improve thinking abilities and even raise IQs (Feuerstein et al.,
2004; Skuy et al., 2002; Tzuriel & Shamir, 2002).
With our growing understanding of how people think and with
the tireless aid of computers, it may become common in schools
to
“teach intelligence.” Most importantly, improved education and
training in thinking skills can improve the intellectual abilities
of
all children, regardless of what their IQ scores are (Hallahan,
Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011; Hunt, 1995). Even if “teaching
intelli-
gence” doesn’t raise IQ scores, it can give children the abilities
they
need to think better and succeed in life (Perkins & Grotzer,
1997).
Summary To sum up, few psychologists seriously believe that
heredity is not a major factor in intelligence, and all
acknowledge
that environment affects it. Estimates of the impact of heredity
and environment continue to vary. But ultimately, both camps
agree that improving social conditions and education can raise

intelligence.
There is probably no limit to how far down intelligence can
go in an extremely poor environment. On the other hand, hered-
ity does seem to impose upper limits on IQ, even under ideal
conditions. It is telling , nevertheless, that gifted children tend
to
come from homes in which parents spend time with their chil-
dren, answer their questions, and encourage intellectual
explora-
tion (Dai, 2010).
Impoverished and unstimulating environments can severely
restrict
mental development during early childhood. See Chapter 3,
pages 87–88, for more information.
BRIDGES
The fact that intelligence is partly determined by heredity tells
us little of any real value. Genes are fixed at birth. Improving
the
environments in which children learn and grow is the main way
in
which we can assure that they reach their full potential
(Ormrod,
2011; Turkheimer, 1998).
As a final summary, it might help to think of inherited intel-
lectual potential as a rubber band that is stretched by outside
forces. A long rubber band may be stretched more easily, but a
shorter one can be stretched to the same length if enough force
is
applied. Of course, a superior genetic gift may allow for a

higher
maximum IQ. In the final analysis, intelligence reflects
develop-
ment as well as potential, nurture as well as nature (Grigorenko,
2005; Kalat, 2009).
Beyond Psychometric
Intelligence—Intelligent
Alternatives to “g”
Gateway Question 9.7: Are there alternate views of
intelligence?
Until now, we have treated intelligence psychometrically, as a
qual-
ity that can be measured, like height or weight. Other
approaches
share the goal of understanding intelligence in more detail.
Specifi-
cally, let’s have a look at four other approaches to the study of
intelligence:
• Some psychologists are investigating the neural basis for
intelli-
gence. How, they ask, does the nervous system contribute to
differences in IQ?
• A second approach views intelligent behavior as an expression
of thinking skills. Cognitive psychologists believe that the
nervous system is like a fast computer—it’s of little value
unless
you know how to use it.
• Speaking of computers, would it make sense to understand
human intelligence by programming computers? That is one

goal of the field of artificial intelligence.
• A fourth trend involves newer, broader definitions of intelli-
gence. Many psychologists have begun to question the narrow
focus on analytic thinking found in traditional IQ tests.
The Intelligent Nervous System
Do more intelligent people have superior nervous systems? It is
natural
to assume that intelligence, like other human abilities, can be
local-
ized in the nervous system. But where and how does Steven
Hawk-
ing’s nervous system allow him to be so intelligent? This is cur-
rently a vibrant research field (Banich & Compton, 2011). We
can
only briefly explore a few threads here.
One possibility is that intelligent people have faster nervous
systems. Maybe Steven Hawking’s brain is just faster than the
rest
of us. To investigate this possibility, researchers measure how
fast
people process various kinds of information (Bates, 2005). For
example, psychologists have looked at people’s reaction time,
the
time it takes people to respond to a stimulus (see • Figure 9.7).
The flurry of brain activity that follows exposure to a stimulus
can also be recorded. Such studies attempt to measure a
person’s
(a) (b)
• Figure 9.7 Stimuli like those used in reaction time tasks. The
participant
views stimulus (a) followed almost immediately by (b),

ensuring that (a) is only
briefly visible. The participant’s task is to press one key if the
left-hand segment of
(a) is shorter and another if it is longer. Participants with higher
IQs are generally
faster and more accurate at tasks like this (Bates, 2005; Petrill
et al., 2001).
C h a p te r 9320
speed of processing, which is assumed to reflect the brain’s
speed
and efficiency (Reed, Vernon, & Johnson, 2004; Waiter et al.,
2009). In general, people higher in measured IQ perform faster
on reaction time tasks like that shown in • Figure 9.7 (McCrory
& Cooper, 2005). In addition, brain areas that control higher
mental abilities usually become more active during reaction
time
testing (Deary et al., 2001; Waiter et al., 2009). Such observa-
tions suggest that having a quick nervous system is part of what
it
means to be quick, smart, swift, or brainy.
Which brain areas control higher mental abilities? You may
recall from Chapter 2 that the frontal lobes and especially pre-
frontal cortex are related to more complex behaviors. Maybe

those
parts of Steven Hawking’s brain are just bigger than the rest of
us.
Although brain imaging studies confirm the role the frontal
lobes play in intelligence, there is more to the story. As you can
see in • Figure 9.8, even though these brain images reveal that
parts of frontal cortex are larger in people with higher IQs, the
same is true for other parts of cortex (Haier et al, 2004).
Perhaps
we shouldn’t be surprised that a function as complex as intelli-
gence relies on activity of many different brain areas. Also,
noticeable differences between younger (UNM) and older (UCI)
participants suggest that the way the brain expresses
intelligence
changes as we age. Clearly, we do not yet have a complete
picture
of the relationship between the nervous system and intelligence.
Intelligent Information Processing
Much intelligent behavior is an expression of good thinking
skills.
Cognitive psychologist David Perkins believes that how smart
you
are depends on three factors:
• Relatively fixed neural intelligence (the speed and efficiency
of the nervous system);
• Experiential intelligence (specialized knowledge and skills
acquired over time);
• Reflective intelligence (an ability to become aware of one’s
own thinking habits).
Little can be done to change neural intelligence. However, by

add-
ing to personal knowledge and learning to think better, people
can
become more intelligent (Perkins, 1995; Ritchhart & Perkins,
2005). The effects of Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment pro-
gram (described earlier) are a good example of how reflective
intel-
ligence can be improved.
Many psychologists now believe that to make full use of innate
intelligence a person must have good metacognitive skills. Meta
means “beyond,” so metacognitive skills go above and beyond
ordi-
nary thinking. Such skills involve an ability to manage your
own
thinking and problem solving. Typically this means breaking
prob-
lems into parts, establishing goals and subgoals, monitoring
your
progress, and making corrections. Learning metacognitive skills
is
the surest avenue to becoming more intelligent (Hunt, 1995; Ku
&
Ho, 2010).
Metacognitive skills are a large part of what it means to be a
reflective
thinker. See the “Psychology of Studying,” pages 1–8, to remind
yourself (You did read it, right?) how to sharpen your
metacognitive
skills to become a better student.
BRIDGES

Artificial Intelligence
Whereas most efforts have focused on measuring intelligence in
humans, a small group of psychologists and computer scientists
have taken an entirely different approach. Their basic idea is to
build machines that display artificial intelligence (AI). This
usu-
ally refers to creating computer programs capable of doing
things
that require intelligence when done by people (Russell &
Norvig,
2003). As computer scientist Aaron Sloman explains it, “Human
brains don’t work by magic, so whatever it is they do should be
UNM Gray Matter UCI Gray Matter UNM White Matter UCI
White Matter
• Figure 9.8 MRI identification of cortical areas whose size is
correlated with IQ. The left hemisphere is shown in the top row;
the right is on
the bottom. Participants were drawn from two universities, a
younger group from the University of New Mexico (UNM) and
an older group from
the University of California at Irvine (UCI). Brain areas
pictured in red and yellow are larger in people with higher IQs.
(From Haier et al., 2004).

Speed of processing The speed with which a person can
mentally process
information.
Neural intelligence The innate speed and efficiency of a
person’s brain
and nervous system.
Experiential intelligence Specialized knowledge and skills
acquired
through learning and experience.
Reflective intelligence An ability to become aware of one’s
own thinking
habits.
Metacognitive skills An ability to manage one’s own thinking
and
problem solving efforts.
Artificial intelligence (AI) Refers to both the creation of
computer
programs capable of doing things that require intelligence when
done
by people, and to the resulting programs themselves.
doable by machine” (Brooks, 2009). The resulting programs can
then help us understand how people do those same things.
Consider, for example, IBM’s “Watson” supercomputer, which
outperforms even expert humans at playing the television game
Jeopardy (Markoff, 2011). Similarly, Aaron Sloman’s robot, the
“Cubinator,” does a spiffy job of solving Rubik’s Cube puzzles.
Slo-

man hopes the Cubinator’s expertise will help him better under-
stand how humans do mathematics (Sloman, 2008).
How smart are computers and robots? Don’t worry, they are not
very
smart yet. Let’s say you are exchanging instant messages with
someone
you don’t know. You are allowed to make any comments and
ask any
questions you like, for as long as you like. In reality, the
“person” you
are communicating with is a computer. Do you think a computer
could fool you into believing it was human? If it did, wouldn’t
that
qualify it as “intelligent”? You may be surprised to learn that,
to date,
no machine has come close to passing this test (Moor, 2003).
The problem computers face is that we humans can mentally
“shift gears” from one topic to another with incredible
flexibility.
In contrast, machine “intelligence” is currently “blind” outside
its
underlying set of rules (D’Mello, Graesser, & King, 2010). As a
tiny example, u cann understnd wrds thet ar mizpeld. Computers
are very literal and easily stymied by such errors.
Regardless, AI has been successful at very specific tasks (such
as
playing chess or solving a Rubik’s Cube). Much of current AI is
based
on the fact that many tasks—from harmonizing music to
diagnosing
disease—can be reduced to a set of rules applied to a collection
of
information. AI is valuable in situations in which speed, vast

mem-
ory, and persistence are required. In fact, AI programs are better
at
some tasks than humans are. An example is world chess
champion
Garry Kasparov’s loss, in 1997, to a computer called “Deep
Blue.”
Artificial Intelligence and Cognition
Although AI is a long way from duplicating general human
intel-
ligence, AI systems like the Cubinator offer a way to probe
some of
our specific cognitive skills, or intelligences. For instance,
com-
puter simulations and expert systems provide good examples of
how AI is used as a research tool.
Computer simulations are programs that attempt to duplicate
specific human behaviors, especially thinking, decision making,
and problem solving. Here, the computer acts as a “laboratory”
for
testing models of cognition. If a computer program behaves as
humans do (including making the same errors), then the
program
may be a good model of how we think.
Expert systems are computer programs that respond as a human
expert would (Giarratano & Riley, 2005; Mahmoodabadi et al.,
2010). They have demystified some human abilities by
converting
complex skills into clearly stated rules a computer can follow.
Expert systems can predict the weather, analyze geological
forma-
tions, diagnose disease, play chess, read, tell when to buy or

sell
stocks, and perform many other tasks.
Eventually, AI will almost certainly lead to robots that
recognize
voices and that speak and act “intelligently” in specific areas of
abil-
ity. To achieve this, should intelligence be directly programmed
into
computers? Or should computers be designed to learn from
experi-
ence, like the human brain does? (Sporns, 2011). Only time will
tell.
Multiple Intelligences
Defining intelligence as a g-factor (general ability) has been
contro-
versial. For example, consider William, a grade-school student
two
years behind in reading, who shows his teacher how to solve a
dif-
ficult computer-programming problem. Or what about his class-
mate, Malika, who is poor in math but plays intricate pieces of
piano music? Both of these children show clear signs of what
we
earlier referred to as aptitudes. And, as we have seen, autistic
savants
like Kim Peek have even more extreme intellectual strengths
and
weaknesses. Such observations have convinced many
psychologists
that it is time to forge new, broader definitions of intelligence.
Their
basic goal is to better predict “real-world” success—not just the
likelihood of success in school (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2006).

The “Cubinator” solving a Rubik’s Cube at the 2007 Rubik’s
Cube World Champi-
onships. The winner, in 10 seconds, was a person. The
Cubinator took 26 seconds.
To what extent is the way the Cubinator comes up with
solutions helpful for
understanding how humans do it?
B
el
a
S
za
nd
el
sz
ky
/A
P
Im
ag
es

C h a p te r 9322
Knowledge
Builder Heredity, Environment, and Alternate
Views of Intelligence
RECITE
1. Selective breeding for desirable characteristics is called
______________________________.
2. The closest similarity in IQs would be observed for
a. parents and their children b. identical twins reared apart c.
frater-
nal twins reared together d. siblings reared together
3. Most psychologists believe that intelligence is 90 percent
hereditary.
T or F?
4. Except for slight variations during testing, IQ cannot be
changed. T or F?
5. Reaction time has been used as a measure of
___________________
intelligence.

a. experiential b. neural c. reflective d. analytical
6. According to Howard Gardner’s theory, which of the
following is not
measured by traditional IQ tests?
a. intrapersonal skills b. spatial skills c. logical skills d.
linguistic skills
REFLECT
Think Critically
7. Dropping out of school can lower tested IQ and attending
school can
raise it. What do these observations reveal about intelligence
tests?
8. Is it ever accurate to describe a machine as “intelligent”?
Frames of Mind
One such psychologist is Howard Gardner of Harvard
University.
Gardner (2003, 2004, 2008) theorizes that there are actually
eight
distinctly different kinds of intelligence. These are different
mental
“languages” that people use for thinking. Each is listed below,
with
examples of pursuits that make use of them.
1. Language (linguistic abilities)—writer, lawyer, comedian.
2. Logic and math (numeric abilities)—scientist, accountant,

programmer.
3. Visual and spatial (pictorial abilities)—engineer, inventor,
artist.
4. Music (musical abilities)—composer, musician, music critic.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic (physical abilities)—dancer, athlete,
surgeon.
6. Intrapersonal (self-knowledge)—poet, actor, minister.
7. Interpersonal (social abilities)—psychologist, teacher,
politician.
8. Naturalist (an ability to understand the natural environ-
ment)—biologist, medicine man, organic farmer.
To simplify a great deal, people can be “word smart,” “number
smart,” “picture smart,” “music smart,” “body smart,” “self
smart,”
“people smart,” and/or “nature smart.”
Most of us are probably strong in only a few types of intelli-
gence. In contrast, geniuses like Albert Einstein seem to be able
to
use nearly all of the intelligences, as needed, to solve problems.
If Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is correct, tradi-
tional IQ tests measure only a part of real-world intelligence—
namely, linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial abilities. A
further implication is that our schools may be wasting a lot of
human potential (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickinson, 2003). For
example, some children might find it easier to learn math or
read-
ing if these topics were tied into art, music, dance, drama, and
so
on. Already, many schools are using Gardner’s theory to

cultivate a
wider range of skills and talents (Campbell, Campbell, &
Dickin-
son, 2003; Kornhaber & Gardner, 2006).
A Look Ahead
As promised earlier, the Psycholog y in Action section of this
chapter
addresses questions concerning the validity of intelligence tests
and
their fairness to various groups. The issues raised go to the
heart of
the question “What is intelligence?” In addition to being highly
interesting and culturally relevant, this topics should round out
your understanding of intelligence.
According to Howard Gardner’s theory, bodily-kinesthetic skills
reflect one of
eight distinct types of intelligence.
Self-Reflect
Why do you think studies of hereditary and environmental
influences on
intelligence have provoked such emotional debate? Which side
of the
debate would you expect each of the following people to favor:
teacher,
parent, school administrator, politician, medical doctor, liberal,
conserva-
tive, bigot?

Would you rather have your own intelligence measured with a
speed
of processing test or a traditional IQ test? Why?
Here’s a mnemonic: New experiences reflect three kinds of
intelligence.
Can you define neural, experiential, and reflective intelligence
in your own
words?
Make your own list of specialized intelligences. How many
items on
your list correspond to the 8 intelligences identified by
Gardner?
Answers: 1. eugenics 2. b 3. F 4. F 5. b 6. a 7. Such
observations remind
us that intelligence tests are affected by learning and that they
measure
knowledge as well as innate cognitive abilities. 8. Rule-driven
expert sys-
tems may appear “intelligent” within a narrow range of problem
solving.
However, they are idiots at everything else. This is usually not
what we
have in mind when discussing human intelligence.

M
ar
ti
n
B
ur
ea
u/
A
FP
/G
et
ty
Im
ag
es
Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner’s
theory that there are several specialized types

of intellectual ability.
you may actually know what your IQ is. If
not, the following self-administered test will
provide a rough estimate of your IQ. Most
people are curious about how they would
score on an intelligence test. Why not give the
Dove test a try?
If you scored 14 on this exam, your IQ is
approximately 100, indicating average intelli-
gence. If you scored 10 or less, you are intel-
lectually disabled. With luck and the help of a
special educational program, we may be able
to teach you a few simple skills!
Isn’t the Dove Test a little unfair? No, it is
very unfair. It was written in 1971 by African-
American sociologist Adrian Dove as “a half
serious attempt to show that we’re just not
talking the same language.” Dove tried to
slant his test as much in favor of urban, Afri-
can American culture as he believes the typi-
cal intelligence test is biased toward a Euro-
pean American, middle-class background
( Jones, 2003). (Because of its age, the test is
probably now also unfair even for younger
African Americans.)
Dove’s test is a thought-provoking reply to
the fact that African American children score
an average of about 15 points lower on stan-
dardized IQ tests than European American
children. By reversing the bias, Dove has
shown that intelligence tests are not equally

valid for all groups. Psychologist Jerome
Kagan once remarked, “If the Wechsler and
Binet scales were translated into Spanish,
Swahili, and Chinese and given to every
10-year-old in Latin America, East Africa,
and China, the majority would obtain IQ
scores in the mentally retarded range.”
Culture-Fair Testing
Certainly we cannot believe that children of
different cultures are all intellectually dis-
abled. The fault must lie with the test (White,
2006). Cultural values, traditions, and experi-
ences can greatly affect performance on tests
designed for Western cultures (Sternberg &
Grigorenko, 2005; Neisser et al., 1996). For
example, our culture places a high value on
logic and formal reasoning. Other cultures
regard intuition as an important part of what
it means to be smart (Norenzayan et al.,
2002). Imagine giving the Stanford-Binet to a
Intelligent Intelligence Testing—User Beware!
Psychology
in Action
Gateway Question 9.8: Is there a
downside to intelligence testing?
During their lifetimes, most people take an
intelligence test, or one of the closely related
scholastic aptitude tests. If you have ever
taken an individually administered IQ test,
Time limit: 5 minutes.

Circle the correct answer.
1. T-bone Walker got famous for playing
what?
a. trombone b. piano c. T-flute
d. guitar e. “hambone”
2. A “gas head” is a person who has a
a. fast-moving car. b. stable of “lace.”
c. “process.” d. habit of stealing
cars. e. long jail record for arson
3. If you throw the dice and 7 is showing
on the top, what is facing down?
a. 7 b. snake eyes c. boxcars d. little
joes e. 11
4. Cheap chitlings (not the kind you
purchase at a frozen-food counter)
will taste rubbery unless they are
cooked long enough. How soon can
you quit cooking them to eat and enjoy
them?
a. 45 minutes b. 2 hours c. 24 hours
d. 1 week (on a low flame)
e. 1 hour
5. Bird or Yardbird was the jacket jazz
lovers from coast to coast hung on
a. Lester Young b. Pegg y Lee
c. Benny Goodman d. Charlie
Parker e. Birdman of Alcatraz

6. A “handkerchief head” is
a. a cool cat. b. a porter. c. an Uncle
Tom. d. a hoddi. e. a preacher
7. Jet is
a. an East Oakland motorcycle
club. b. one of the gangs in West
Side Story. c. a news and gossip
magazine. d. a way of life for the
very rich
Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test
8. “Bo Diddley” is a
a. game for children. b. down-home
cheap wine. c. down-home singer.
d. new dance. e. Moejoe call
9. Which word is most out of place here?
a. splib b. blood c. gray d. spook
e. black
10. If a pimp is uptight with a woman who
gets state aid, what does he mean when
he talks about “Mother’s Day”?
a. second Sunday in May b. third
Sunday in June c. first of every
month d. none of these e. first
and fifteenth of every month
11. Many people say that “Juneteenth”

( June 10th) should be made a legal
holiday because this was the day when
a. the slaves were freed in the United
States. b. the slaves were freed in
Texas. c. the slaves were freed in
Jamaica. d. the slaves were freed in
California. e. Martin Luther King
was born. f. Booker T. Washington
died
12. If a man is called a “blood,” then he is a
a. fighter b. Mexican-American
c. Black d. hungry hemophile
e. red man or Indian
13. What are the Dixie Hummingbirds?
a. a part of the KKK b. a swamp
disease c. a modern gospel group
d. a Mississippi Negro paramilitary
strike force e. deacons
14. The opposite of square is
a. round. b. up c. down d. hip
e. lame
Answers: 1. d 2. c 3. a 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. c
9. c 10. c 11. b 12. c 13. c 14. d

C h a p te r 9324 C h a p te r 9324
in St. Louis and found that the African Amer-
ican group averaged 36 points higher than the
European American group.
Second, it is no secret that as a group
African Americans are more likely than
European Americans to live in environments
that are physically, educationally, and intel-
lectually impoverished. When unequal edu-
cation is part of the equation, IQs may tell us
little about how heredity affects intelligence
(Sternberg , Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005;
Suzuki & Aronson, 2005). Indeed, one study
found that placing poor African American
children into European American adoptive
families increased the children’s IQs by an
average of 13 points, bringing them into line
with those of European American children
(Nisbett, 2005). That is, providing African
American children with the same environ-
mental experiences available to European
American children erased IQ differences.
A tantalizing hint that lower African
American IQ scores are not genetic is pro-
vided by Ray Friedman and his colleagues at
Vanderbilt University who administered a
20-item test to African American and Euro-
pean American students. Before the election
of Barack Obama, African American stu-
dents performed more poorly than European

American students. During the election,
African American students performed just as
well as their European American counter-
parts. Apparently, President Obama is pro-
viding a role model, inspiring better academic
performance in African American students
(Tite, 2009).
Further, although IQ predicts school per-
formance, it does not predict later career suc-
cess (McClelland, 1994). In this regard,
“street smarts,” or what psychologist Robert
Sternberg calls practical intelligence (Stemler
& Sternberg, 2006), is often seen by minority
cultures as more important than “book learn-
ing,” or what Sternberg calls analytic intelli-
gence (Sankofa et al., 2005).
Most psychologists have concluded that
there is no scientific evidence that group dif-
ferences in average IQ are based on genetics.
In fact, studies that used actual blood group
testing found no significant correlations
between ethnic ancestry and IQ scores. This
is because it does not even make genetic sense
to talk about “races” at all—obvious external
markers, like skin color, have little to do with
underlying genetic differences (Bonham et al.,
2005; Sternberg, 2007). Group differences in
IQ and Race
Historically, African American children in
the United States scored an average of about
15 points lower on standardized IQ tests
than European-American children. As a
group, Japanese American children scored

above average in IQ. Could such differences
be genetic? One persistent claim is that Afri-
can Americans score below average in IQ
because of their “genetic heritage” and
because they are genetically incapable of
climbing out of poverty (Hernstein & Mur-
ray, 1994; Rushton & Jensen, 2005). Psy-
chologists have responded to such claims
with a number of counterarguments.
First, psychologists reiterate the point
made by the Dove Test. The assumptions,
biases, and content of standard IQ tests do
not always allow meaningful comparisons
between ethnic, cultural, or racial groups
(White, 2006). As Leon Kamin (1981) says,
“The important fact is that we cannot say
which sex (or race) might be more intelligent,
because we have no way of measuring ‘intelli-
gence.’ We have only IQ tests.”
Kamin’s point is that the makers of IQ
tests decided in advance to use test items that
would give men and women equal IQ scores.
It would be just as easy to put together an IQ
test that would give African Americans and
European Americans equal scores. Differ-
ences in IQ scores are not a fact of nature, but
a decision by the test makers. That’s why
European Americans do better on IQ tests
written by European Americans, and African
Americans do better on IQ tests devised by
African Americans. Another example of this
fact is an intelligence test made up of
100 words selected from the Dictionary of
Afro-American Slang. Williams (1975) gave

the test to 100 African American and
100 European American high school students
young Bushman hunter. If tracking prey is
what he values and is good at, then what
would it mean if (when?) he got a low IQ
score? (Feel free to reread “Intelligence—
How Would a Fool Do It?” near the begin-
ning of this chapter.)
To avoid this problem, some psychologists
have tried to develop culture-fair tests that do
not disadvantage certain groups. A culture-
fair test is designed to minimize the impor-
tance of skills and knowledge that may be
more common in some cultures than in oth-
ers. (For a sample of culture-fair test items, see
• Figure 9.9.)
Culture-fair tests attempt to measure
intelligence without, as much as possible,
being influenced by a person’s verbal skills,
cultural background, and educational level.
Their value lies not just in testing people from
other cultures. They are also useful for testing
children in the United States who come from
poor communities, rural areas, or ethnic
minority families (Stephens et al., 1999).
However, no intelligence test can be entirely
free of cultural influences. For instance, our
culture is very “visual,” because children are
constantly exposed to television, movies,
video games, and the like. Thus, compared
with children in developing countries, a child
who grows up in the United States may be
better prepared to take both nonverbal tests

and traditional IQ tests.
Since the concept of intelligence exhibits
diversity across cultures, many psychologists
have begun to stress the need to rethink the
concept of intelligence itself (Greenfield, 1997;
Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2005). If we are to
find a truly culture-fair way to measure intelli-
gence, we first need to identify those core cog-
nitive skills that lie at the heart of human intel-
ligence the world around (Gardner, 2008;
Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010).
?
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
?
(a) Sample series problem (b) Sample matrix problem
• Figure 9.9 Sample items like those often found on culture-fair
intelligence tests. (a) Sample series problem.
Which pattern correctly continues the series of patterns shown
at the top left? (Number 4.) (b) Sample matrix
problem. Which pattern fits best completes the matrix of
patterns shown at the top right? (Number 1.) The idea is
that the ability to read and the mastery of culturally relevant
knowledge should not be necessary to do well. Nev-
ertheless, do you think illiterate street orphans from Sao Paulo,
Brazil, or Aboriginals living in the desert of the Aus-
tralian outback would find these items as easy to complete as

you did? If not, can you think of any alternative truly
culture-fair ways to test intelligence across different cultures?
Co
py
rig
ht
©
2
01
3
Ce
ng
ag
e
Le
ar
ni
ng
, I
nc
.

I nte l l i g e n ce 325 I nte l l i g e n ce 325
Culture-fair test A test designed to minimize
the importance of skills and knowledge that
may be more common in some cultures than
in others.
tests, overuse of class time to prepare students
for the tests (instead of teaching general
skills), and in the case of intelligence tests,
the charge that tests are often biased. Also,
most standardized tests demand passive rec-
ognition of facts, assessed with a multiple-
choice format. They do not, for the most
part, test a person’s ability to think critically
or creatively or to apply knowledge to solve
problems. Various “high-stakes tests,” which
can make or break a person’s career could be
improved by: (1) removing all questions that
favor one group over another; (2) using digi-
tal video-based testing , when possible, to
reduce the importance of verbal skills; and
(3) providing a pre-test orientation for all test
takers, so that people who can afford coach-
ing won’t have an unfair advantage (Sackett
et al., 2001).
High Stakes Testing Intelligence tests are a
double-edged sword; we have learned much
from their use yet they have the potential to

do great harm. In the final analysis, it is impor-
tant to remember—as Howard Gardner has
pointed out—that creativity, motivation,
physical health, mechanical aptitude, artistic
ability, and numerous other qualities not mea-
sured by intelligence tests contribute to the
achievement of life goals. Also, remember
that IQ is not intelligence. IQ is an index of
intelligence (as narrowly defined by a particu-
lar test). Change the test and you change the
score. An IQ is not some permanent number
stamped on the forehead of a child that for-
ever determines his or her potential. The real
issue is what skills people have, not what their
test scores are (Hunt, 1995).
The Whole Human: Wisdom
In the final analysis, intelligence reflects devel-
opment as well as potential, nurture as well as
nature (Grigorenko, 2005). Moreover, the
fact that intelligence is partly determined by
heredity tells us little of any real value. Genes
are fixed at birth. Improving the environ-
ments in which children learn and grow is the
group of college students with straight A’s to
another group with poor grades, he found no
differences in later career success (McClelland,
1994).
Standardized Testing
In addition to IQ tests, 400 to 500 million
standardized multiple-choice tests are given
in schools and workplaces around the nation
each year. Many, like the SAT Reasoning Test,
may determine whether a person is admitted

to college. Other tests—for employment,
licensing, and certification—directly affect
the lives of thousands by qualifying or dis-
qualifying them for jobs.
Widespread reliance on standardized intel-
ligence tests and aptitude tests raises questions
about the relative good and harm they do. On
the positive side, tests can open opportunities
as well as close them. A high test score may
allow a disadvantaged youth to enter college,
or it may identify a child who is bright but
emotionally disturbed. Test scores may also be
fairer and more objective than arbitrary judg-
ments made by admissions officers or employ-
ment interviewers. Also, tests do accurately
predict academic performance. The fact that
academic performance does not predict later
success may call for an overhaul of college
course work, not an end to testing.
On the negative side, mass testing can
occasionally exclude people of obvious abil-
ity. In one case, a student who was seventh in
his class at Columbia University, and a mem-
ber of Phi Beta Kappa, was denied entrance
to law school because he had low scores on
the Law School Admissions Test. Other com-
plaints relate to the frequent appearance of
bad or ambiguous questions on standardized
IQ scores are based on cultural and environ-
mental diversity, as much as on heredity
(Neisser et al., 1996; Nisbett, 2005). To con-
clude otherwise reflects political beliefs and
biases, not scientific facts.

Questioning IQ—Beyond
the Numbers Game
African Americans are not the only segment
of the population with reason to question the
validity of intelligence testing and the role of
heredity in determining intelligence. The
clarifications they have won extend to others
as well.
Consider the 9-year-old child confronted
with this question on an intelligence test:
“Which of the following does not belong
with the others? Roller skates, airplane, train,
bicycle.” If the child fails to answer “airplane,”
does it reveal a lack of intelligence? It can be
argued that an intelligent choice could be
based on any of these alternatives: Roller
skates are not typically used for transporta-
tion; an airplane is the only nonland item; a
train can’t be steered; a bicycle is the only item
with just two wheels. The parents of a child
who misses this question may have reason to
be angry since educational systems tend to
classify children and then make the label
stick.
Court decisions have led some states to
outlaw the use of intelligence tests in public
schools. Criticism of intelligence testing has
also come from the academic community. Har-
vard University psychologist David McClel-
land believes that IQ is of little value in predict-
ing real competence to deal effectively with the
world. McClelland concedes that IQ predicts
school performance, but when he compared a

“Yes We Can.” President
Obama’s intelligence is
inspiring millions of
Americans and others
around the world to
aspire to greater aca-
demic success. His
example is particularly
important to African
Americans.
A
P
Im
ag
es

C h a p te r 9326 C h a p te r 9326
convergent thinking, intelligence, and reason,
spiced with creativity and originality (Meeks
& Jeste, 2009). People who are wise approach
life with openness and tolerance (Helson &
Srivastava, 2002).
tests may make a total mess of her life. Like-
wise, people can be intelligent without being
creative; and clear, rational thinking can lead
to correct, but uninspired, answers (Solomon,
Marshall, & Gardner, 2005). In many areas of
human life, wisdom represents a mixture of
main way in which we can ensure that they
reach their full potential (Grigorenko &
Sternberg, 2003; White, 2006).
Perhaps most importantly, people can be
intelligent without being wise. For example, a
person who does well in school and on IQ
Chapter in Review Gateways to Intelligence
9.1 How do psychologists define intelligence?
9.1.1 Intelligence refers to the general capacity (or g-factor)
to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with
the
environment.
9.1.2 In practice, intelligence is operationally defined by
intelligence tests, which provide a useful but narrow estimate of
real-world intelligence.

9.1.3 General intelligence is distinguished from specific
aptitudes. Special aptitude tests and multiple aptitude tests are
used to assess a person’s capacities for learning various
abilities.
Aptitude tests measure a narrower range of abilities than
general
intelligence tests do.
9.1.4 To be of any value, a psychological test must be reliable
(give consistent results). A worthwhile test must also have
validity,
meaning that it measures what it claims to measure. Widely
used
intelligence tests are also objective (they give the same result
when
scored by different people) and standardized (the same
procedures
are always used in giving the test, and norms have been
established
so that scores can be interpreted).
9.2 What are typical IQ tests like?
9.2.1 The first practical intelligence test was assembled by
Alfred Binet. A modern version of Binet’s test is the Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Scales—Fifth Edition (SB5).
9.2.2 A second major intelligence test is the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). Wechsler’s
children’s
version is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth
Edi-
tion (WISC-IV).
9.2.3 The SB5, WAIS-IV, and WISC-IV measure both ver-

bal and performance intelligence.
Gateway QUESTIONS REVISITED
Knowledge
Builder Intelligence Testing in Perspective
RECITE
1. The WAIS-IV, Stanford-Binet 5, and Dove Test are all
culture-fair intel-
ligence scales. T or F?
2. The claim that heredity accounts for racial differences in
average IQ
ignores environmental differences and the cultural bias inherent
in
standard IQ tests. T or F?
3. IQ scores predict school performance. T or F?
4. IQ is not intelligence; it is one index of intelligence. T or F?
REFLECT
Think Critically
5. Assume that a test of memory for words is translated from
English to
Spanish. Would the Spanish version of the test be equal in
difficulty

to the English version?
Self-Reflect
Do you think it would be possible to create an intelligence test
that is uni-
versally culture-fair? What would its questions look like? Can
you think of
any type of question that wouldn’t favor the mental skills
emphasized by
some culture, somewhere in the world?
Funding for schools in some states varies greatly in rich and
poor
neighborhoods. Imagine that a politician opposes spending more
money
on disadvantaged students because she believes it would “just
be a
waste.” What arguments can you offer against her assertion?
In your own opinion, what are the advantages of using
standardized
tests to select applicants for college, graduate school, and
professional
schools? What are the disadvantages?
Answers: 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. Probably not, because the
Spanish words

might be longer or shorter than the same words in English. The
Spanish
words might also sound more or less alike than words on the
original
test. Translating an intelligence test into another language can
subtly
change the meaning and difficulty of test items.
9.2.4 In addition to individual tests, intelligence tests have
also been produced for use with groups. A group test of
historical
interest is the Army Alpha. The SAT, the ACT, and the CQT are
group scholastic aptitude tests. Although narrower in scope than
IQ tests, they bear some similarities to them.
9.2.5 Intelligence is expressed in terms of an intelligence
quotient (IQ). IQ is defined as mental age (MA) divided by
chronological age (CA) and then multiplied by 100. An
“average”
IQ of 100 occurs when mental age equals chronological age.
9.2.6 Modern IQ tests no longer calculate IQs directly.
Instead, the final score reported by the test is a deviation IQ.

9.2.7 IQ scores become fairly stable at about age 6, and they
become increasingly reliable thereafter.
9.3 How do IQ scores relate to sex, age, and occupation?
9.3.1 The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal
curve.
9.3.2 There are no overall differences between males and
females in tested intelligence. However, very small sex
differences
may result from the intellectual skills our culture encourages
males
and females to develop.
9.3.3 On average, IQ scores continue to gradually increase
until middle age. Later intellectual declines are moderate for
most
people until their 70s. Aging also involves a shift from fluid
intel-
ligence to crystallized intelligence.
9.3.4 IQ is related to school grades and job status. The sec-
ond association may be somewhat artificial because educational
credentials are required for entry into many occupations.
9.4 What does IQ tell us about genius?
9.4.1 People with IQs in the gifted or “genius” range of
above 140 tend to be superior in many respects.
9.4.2 By criteria other than IQ, a large proportion of chil-
dren might be considered gifted or talented in one way or
another.
Intellectually gifted children often have difficulties in average

classrooms and benefit from special accelerated programs.
9.5 What causes intellectual disability?
9.5.1 People with the savant syndrome combine intellectual
disability with exceptional ability in a very limited skill.
9.5.2 The term intellectually disabled is applied to those
whose IQ falls below 70 or who lack various adaptive
behaviors.
9.5.3 Current classifications of intellectual disability are:
mild (50–55 to 70), moderate (35–40 to 50–55), severe (20–25
to 35–40), and profound (below 20–25). Chances for
educational
success are related to the degree of intellectual disability.
9.5.4 Many cases of subnormal intelligence are thought to
be the result of familial intellectual disability, a generally low
level
of educational and intellectual stimulation in the home, coupled
with poverty and poor nutrition.
9.5.5 About 50 percent of the cases of intellectual disabil-
ity are organic, caused by birth injuries, fetal damage,
metabolic
disorders, or genetic abnormalities. The remaining cases are of
undetermined cause.
9.5.6 Six distinct forms of organic intellectual disability are
Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU),
microcephaly, hydrocephaly, and cretinism.
9.6 How do heredity and environment affect intelligence?

9.6.1 Studies of eugenics in animals and familial relation-
ships in humans demonstrate that intelligence is partially deter-
mined by heredity. However, environment is also important, as
revealed by changes in tested intelligence induced by schooling
and stimulating environments.
9.6.2 There is evidence that some elements of intelligence
can be taught. Intelligence, therefore, reflects the combined
effects
of both heredity and environment in the development of
intellec-
tual abilities.
9.7 Are there alternate views of intelligence?
9.7.1 Some psychologists are investigating the neural basis
for intelligence, especially the speed of processing various
kinds of
information and the size of brain areas related to intelligence.
9.7.2 Cognitive psychologists believe that successful intelli-
gence depends on thinking and problem solving skills.
Metacogni-
tive skills, in particular, contribute greatly to intelligent
behavior.
9.7.3 Artificial intelligence refers to any artificial system that
can perform tasks that require intelligence when done by
people.
Two principal areas of artificial intelligence research on
particular
human skills are computer simulations and expert systems.
9.7.4 Many psychologists have begun to forge new, broader
definitions of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences is a good example of this trend.

9.8 Is there a downside to intelligence testing?
9.8.1 Traditional IQ tests often suffer from a degree of cul-
tural bias.
9.8.2 African Americans are unfairly stigmatized because of
historically poor performance on standardized IQ tests.
9.8.3 It is wise to remember that IQ is merely an index of
intelligence and that intelligence is narrowly defined by most
tests.
9.8.4 The use of standard IQ tests for educational place-
ment of students (especially into special education classes) has
been prohibited by law in some states. Whether this is desirable
and beneficial to students is currently being debated.
C h a p te r 9328
Fragile X Find out more about autism and fragile X syndrome
from
the National Fragile X Foundation.
Mind vs. Machine Read an amusing article about the Loebner
Prize,
one of the holy grails of artificial intelligence.

RuBot II, The Cubinator - A Rubik’s Cube Solving Robot Watch
a
robot solve a Rubik’s cube.
Multiple Intelligences in Education Learn more about Gardner’s
theory of multiple intelligences and how it is being applied in
education.
Be Careful of How You Define Intelligence An article about
cross-
cultural differences in intelligence.
The Bell Curve Flattened An article that summarizes objections
to
The Bell Curve.
The Genographic Project Trace your own ancestry.
The Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence From the APA, what
is
known about intelligence and intelligence tests.
Web Resources
Internet addresses frequently change. To find an up-to-date list
of
URLs for the sites listed here, visit your Psychology
CourseMate.

IQ Tests Provides links to a number of IQ tests.
American Mensa Mensa is an international society that has one
qualification only for membership: an IQ score in the top
2 percent of
the population on a standardized intelligence test.
Gifted Children Learn more about giftedness from the National
Association for Gifted Children.
Helping Your Highly Gifted Child Advice for parents of gifted
children.
Intellectual Disabilities Learn more about intellectual disability
from the American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental
Disabilities (AAIDD).
Down Syndrome Find out more about Down syndrome from the
National Down Syndrome Society.
MEDIA RESOURCES

Interactive Learning
Log in to CengageBrain to access the resources your instructor
requires. For this book, you can access:
More than just an interactive study guide, WebTutor is an
anytime,
anywhere customized learning solution with an eBook, keeping
you
connected to your textbook, instructor, and classmates.
If your professor has assigned Aplia homework:
1. Sign in to your account.
2. Complete the corresponding homework exercises
as required by your professor.
3. When finished, click “Grade It Now” to see which areas you
have
mastered and which need more work, and for detailed
explanations
of every answer.
Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access your account and
purchase

materials.
CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive
learning,
study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed
textbook.
A textbook-specific website, Psychology CourseMate includes
an
integrated interactive eBook and other interactive learning tools
including quizzes, flashcards, videos, and more.
CengageNOW is an easy-to-use online resource that helps you
study in less time to get the grade you want—NOW. Take a pre-
test
for this chapter and receive a personalized study plan based on
your results that will identify the topics you need to review and
direct you to online resources to help you master those topics.
Then take a post-test to help you determine the concepts you
have mastered and what you will need to work on. If your
textbook
does not include an access code card, go to CengageBrain.com
to
gain access.

Gateway THEMEMeasuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests.docx

More Related Content

Similar to Gateway THEMEMeasuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests.docx (20)

More from budbarber38650 (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Gateway THEMEMeasuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests.docx