GEOGRAPHICAL DIMENSIONS OF ‘DEVELOPMENT – ENVIRONMENT INTERRELATION’

Organized by—
Department of Geography
Kalyani Mahavidyalaya, Nadia
Collaborator:
Department of Environmental Science
University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal
GEOGRAPHICAL DIMENSIONS OF ‘DEVELOPMENT – ENVIRONMENT
INTERRELATION’
National Seminar
on
Environment and Development in India and Adjacent Countries
20 – 21 September, 2013

Perspectives on Development
— as a state (or condition)
: a static concept
— as a process (or course of change)
: a dynamic concept
M. P. Todaro (1977): Economic Development
viewed ‘development’ as not only an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-
dimensional process that involves complete reorganization and reorientation of the
entire economic and social system.
Simply, it is the process of improving the quality of all human lives with the
following equally important concerns —
1. Raising peoples’ standard of living, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels
of food and nutrition, access to medical services and education
facilities through relevant growth processes.
2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem
through the social, political and economic systems and institutions.
3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging their range of choice,
e.g. varieties of goods and services.

A. L. Mabogunje (1983): The Development Process – a spatial perspective
viewed ‘development’:
(1) — as economic growth that emphasizes commodity output in measuring growth
(GNP).
(2) — as modernization that emphasizes processes of social change needed to
produce economic advancement (e.g., wealth-oriented behavior and values in
individuals, profit-seeking motive rather than subsistence and self-sufficiency, a shift
from ‘commodity’ to ‘human’ approach with investment in education and skill training).
(3) — as distributive justice that views development as improving our basic needs.
Interest in social justice has raised three issues —
a) nature of goods and services provided by Govt.,
b) access of these to different social classes, and
c) how burden of development can be shared among these classes.
Target Group = {small farmers, landless, under-employed and unemployed people}

K. Marx (1848) viewed ‘development’:
— with emphasis on mode of production through labour.
Capitalist (market economy) mode bases on the processes of labour that produces
surplus which is accumulated and appropriated by the employer resulting in class-
conflicts in capitalist societies.
Neocolonialists (Dependency Theory of Development: Singer, 1949; Prebisch, 1949; P.A.Baran, 1957; dos
Santos, 1995): view that ‘development’ has —
1) a regional (geographic location), and also a historical component,
2) underdevelopment is due to historical evolution of ‘an unequal international
capitalist system’ of ‘rich country-poor country’ relations producing “center
(developed countries) – periphery (developing countries)” contrast.
Note:
1) This kind of relationship acts as constraints to become self-reliant and progressive.
2) Certain elites of the developing world (e.g., landlords, entrepreneurs, merchants)
 enjoy high income, social status and political power,
 perpetuate inequality and conformity, and
 are often rewarded by -
 the international power groups (like MN Firms, Assistance Agencies, e.g.,
World Bank, and other agents) they serve.

Underdevelopment
1. characterized by:
low /capita income, low literacy and educational attainment,
lack of basic services, e.g., water and power.
2. caused by:
certain physical environments, and particular cultural traditions and
value systems (environmental and cultural determinism).
WhyhasJapansucceeded?
1) strong cooperation between government and business,
2) adaptation to physical situations and acquiring a maritime prowess,
3) early development (Meiji restoration) of transport and banking systems,
4) high literacy, and 5) niche development (technology driven).
G. Myrdal(1957): EconomicTheoryandUnderdevelopedRegions
development ⇋ cumulativecausation
Complex web of interlocking vicious circles each of which constitutes a chain of
cause-and-effect relations where one unfavorable circumstance leads to another,
thereby producing a downward spiral.
High Birth Rate → Large Families → Low PCI → Poverty → Low Output/ Worker → Low
Productivity → Poor Health → Inadequate Housing → Poor Sanitation
Remedy → Downward Spiral not reversible without Massive Aid from OUTSIDE

OverthelastCentury,
theso-calledDevelopmenthasbeenassociated
with:
Exponential Pattern
of Growth —
(1) Human Population
(2) Resource Consumption

Solution (!!):
We need a very clear Understanding
of OUR ENVIRONMENT with a
Scientific Geographical Mind
Practice Sustainability
L = f (Solar Capital, Natural Capital)
Our life and economy depend on
1) Solar Capital (Source = Sun)
Solar Energy and
2) Natural Capital (Provider = Earth)
Natural Resources (Material and Energy)
Natural Services (Functions of Nature, e.g., purification of air and
water through Nutrient Cycling)
Thus, ‘sustainable living’ means living off earth’s natural income without depleting
or degrading its natural capital.

Nutrient Cycling
Natural Capital = Natural Resources
+ Natural Services

Global Scenario –
developed vs. developing nations
Natural Capital Degradation

Measuring Environmental Impacts
(1) Ecological Footprint (Biological Capacity to replenish Resources and absorb/
adsorb Waste/Pollution)
(2) /Capita Ecological Footprint (Use of Renewable Resource/Capita)
Total Ecological Footprint (m ha) and Share of
Global Ecological Capacity (%)
Ecological Footprint (ha/person)
Projected Footprint
Ecological Footprint
Earth’s
Ecologic
al
Capacity

The IPAT Identity defines the Environment ⇋ Development Relationship
I = f (P, A, T)
where, I = environmental impacts, P = population, A = affluence, and T = technology
(expressed by the intensity of environmental impacts, i.e., the environmental impacts
or resource consumption/ unit GDP).
Therefore, the premise and foundation of ‘green development/ environmentally
sustainable development ‘ means improving our eco-efficiency (Ehrlich et al, 1970;
Commoner et al, 1971).

Empirical Relations related to 6 Developed Nations
Source: CDIAC,2008; Maddison, 2008

Empirical Relations related to 6 Developed
Nations
Source: CDIAC,2008; Maddison, 2008

Curves of Environmental
Impacts
1) Inverted U-shaped
2) Evolutionary Trend
3) 3 Peaks at
a) 3 particular times
b) 3 particular levels of
economic
development
 Peak of EI /unit of GDP
 Peak of EI /capita
 Peak of Total EI Curve
The 3 Peaks divide the Evolution into 4 Stages —
1) Stage 1(S1): Pre-peak or Materialization stage
2) Stage 2(S2): Stage between the 1st and 2nd
Peaks
3) Stage 3(S3): Stage between 2nd and 3rd Peaks
4) Stage 4(S4): Stage of steady decline of Total EI
Drivers at Different Stages:
• Stage S1: Growth in Resource Consumption and
Technology (proliferation and application)
• Stage S2: Economic Growth
• Stage S3 and S4: Technological Progress in
Resource Conservation/ Pollution
Reduction
Fluctuations (including ‘rebound effect’) may occur due to the impact of factors like economic
fluctuation, structural adjustment, policy or system change, upper limit for technology or economy
(Vehmas et al., 2007) and uncertainties etc.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIMENSIONS OF ‘DEVELOPMENT – ENVIRONMENT INTERRELATION’

Source: 73 Countries UNEP,2011; CSDR,2012
Note
1) The smaller the REPI value, the higher the resource
productivity or eco-efficiency
2) REPI = 1: eco-efficiency equals to that of the world
average
3) REPI >1: eco-efficiency lower than that of the
world average
4) REPI <1: eco-efficiency greater than that of the
world average

Q. How are our Ecological Footprints affecting our Earth?
With steadily growing our Ecological Footprints, we are continuously depleting
and degrading our Earth’s Natural Capital.
Natural Resources
Perpetual – renewed continuously (solar energy)
Renewable – hours to decades (water, air, forest, grasslands)
Sustainable Yield : Optimum use while maintaining supply
Environmental Degradation: Use exceeds Natural Replacement Rate
Non-renewable – fixed quantities (fossil fuels, minerals)
Recycling
Substitution
Reuse
Q. How can Environmentally Sustainable Societies grow Economically?
Societies can become more environmentally sustainable through economic
development dedicated to improving the quality of life for everyone without
degrading the earth’s life-support systems.

Preventing Pollution is ‘more effective and less costly’ than ‘cleaning up pollution’
Pollution Prevention Input Control : Front-of-the-pipe
Pollution Cleanup Output Control : End-of-the-pipe
Disadvantages of Output Control
1) Temporary and Costly
Growth in consumption may offset technology
2) Moves pollutant from one place to another
Burial
Incineration
3) Dispersed pollutants costly to clean up
Population Growth Unsustainable
Resource Use
Poverty Excluding
Environmental Cost
from Market Price
Trying to Manage
Nature without
adequate
understanding

Alarming Poverty The 4 Basic Elements of Sustainability?
Nature has sustained itself for billions of
years by using –
1) solar energy,
2) biodiversity,
3) population regulation, and
4) nutrient cycling.
Lessons from Nature:
we can also apply these to our lifestyles
and economies.
Sustainable
Living
- Green
Approach

Levels of Organization Two Views of Economics
Resource Depletion - Degradation
Exponential Growth

Waste Disposal leading to River Water Pollution
Thick Haze and Smoke along the Upper/Middle Ganga
Plain caused by –
1) aerosols from biomass burning in the NW India,
2) air pollution from large cities in Nn India, and
3) dust from deserts in Pakistan and Middle East.
Roadside Waste Disposal
INDIAN SCENARIO

Floods cause:
Soil Erosion,
Wetland Destruction,
Migration of Wastes
Public Dumping of Rubbish
along a Road
A Chulah pollutes air
resulting in health
hazards
The Taj Mahal
beside the Polluted Yamuna R.
Noise Pollution

India:Challengesof the21stCentury
Air Pollution, Poor Waste Management, Growing Water Scarcity,
Falling GWT, Water Pollution, Biodiversity Loss,
Public Health Hazards, Livelihood Security for the Poor,
Natural Resource Depletion Land / Soil Degradation.
Reasons are:
(1) rampant burning of fuel wood and biomass as the primary source of energy,
(2) lack of organized waste removal services,
(3) lack of sewage treatment operations,
(4) lack of flood control and monsoon water drainage system,
(5) diversion of consumer wastes, industrial effluents, etc directly into rivers,
(6) cremation practices near major rivers,
(7) Govt. protection of highly polluting old public transport, and
(8) continued operation of Govt.-owned, high-emission plants built before 1980.
Some says that ─
India's Growing Population adds Stress/Pressure to Environmental Issues and
its Resources.
Others believe that ─
Economic Development is the key to improving India's Environmental
Management and preventing Pollution.

A Growing Population exerts pressure on Agricultural Land —
(1) causing Environmental Degradation, and
(2) forcing Cultivation of Land (of poorer and poorer quality).
Eventually, this –
1) reduces yield and food availability,
2) causes famines, diseases, and death, and
3) acts as a major cause of air, water, and solid-waste
pollution.
However, these can be mitigated through Economic Growth and Modern Technology
—
(1) increase in human knowledge,
(2) rapid increase in productivity,
(3) innovation and application of knowledge,
(4) improvements in farming methods (industrial agriculture),
(5) mechanisation and automation (to increase efficiency),
(6) use of chemical fertilizer / pesticides / and HYV seeds (wheat and others:
Green Revolution).
Population Density has little correlation to environmental quality and quality of life.
In 2011, India = 368 /km2 Singapore = 7148 /km2
Hong Kong =6349 /km2 England = 395 /km2
Lombardy =417/ km2 Japan =337/km2

Water Pollution
In India, major sources are: untreated sewerage and industrial effluents from cities
and industries. Major rivers are heavily polluted despite long-standing efforts by the
government and communities.
Air Pollution
Domestic Fuel
1. 100+m HH use chullahs every day, 2–3 times/day, thereby producing smoke and
numerous indoor air pollutants at concentrations 5 times higher than coal.
2. Traditional fuel (fuelwood, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy
use in rural (90%) and also in urban India (24%).
3. Together, these release 165+m tons of combustion products into air every year,
causing health hazards.
Vehicle Emission
worsened by (a) fuel adulteration and (b) poor combustion efficiencies from traffic
congestion, poor road condition, low density of fuel, and very low high-speed road
network /’000 persons.
Cremation is another major factor for air pollution in India.
In 2009, India emitted –
1) 1.4 tons of gas/person (USA = 17.0, World = 5.3),
2) 1.65 Gt of CO2 /year (China = 6.9, USA = 5.2),
3) 5% of CO2 emission (China = 24%).
Although, the Prevention and Control of Pollution Act was passed in 1981, in 2012
out of 132 countries India ranked as one of the poorest based on ‘environmental
performance index’.

Poor Waste Management
1. Indian cities alone generate more than 100+m tons of solid waste a year.
2. Street corners are piled with trash.
3. Public places and sidewalks are despoiled with filth and litter.
4. Garbage is directly dumped into rivers / canals.
5. Solid waste landfills are overflowing, being sources of GHG emissions and
breeding sites for disease vectors, like flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, rats, and
other pests.
6. India's waste problem points to a stunning failure of governance
In 2000, Supreme Court directed all Indian Cities to implement a comprehensive
‘waste-management programme’.
However, till now:
about 40% of municipal waste remains uncollected, and
even medical waste is routinely dumped with regular municipal garbage.
In 2011, Cities, e.g., New Delhi embarked on waste-to-energy projects (Germany,
Switzerland and Japan).
However, these are being opposed by waste collection workers and local unions who
fear changing technology may deprive them of their livelihood and way of life.

Ashoka’s View on Environment and Biodiversity
Animals were declared to be protected —
parrots, mainas, aruna, geese, wild ducks,
nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants,
terrapins, boneless fish, vedareyaka,
gangapuputaka, sankiya fish, tortoises,
porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild
asses, wild pigeons, domesticpigeons and all 4-
footedcreatures that are neither useful nor
edible.
Also protected were —
nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with
young or giving milk to their young, and so are
young ones less than six months old.
Cocks are not to be caponised, husks/ forests not to
be burnt.
One animal is not to be fed to another. Our king killed
very few animals."
— Ashoka's Seven Pillar Edicts
Even, in MAHABHARATA, Bhisma suggested the Pandavas (while in forest exile) ―
→ not to remain in one place throughout the year
→ while living on hunting and food gathering they should change places with
seasons
→ prakriti or dharitri mata will get enough time to restore herself own
system.

Environmental Legislation in India
The British Regime
1) The Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Kolaba) Act of 1853,
2) The Oriental Gas Company Act of 1857,
3) The IPC (1860):
a) imposed a fine on anyone who voluntarily fouls the water of any public
spring or reservoir,
b) penalised negligent acts.
4) the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905,
5) the Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act of 1912.
Thus, the British-enacted legislations pioneered the growth of environmental
regulations in India.
Post-independence Period
1) India adopted a constitution containing numerous British-enacted laws
2) India amended its constitution in 1976:
Article 48(A) of Part IV: The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
Article 51 A(g) imposed additional environmental mandates on the Indian state.
3) Enacted:
a) the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974,
b) the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980, and
c) the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 (after Stockholm
Conference).

In 1985, Indian Govt. created the MoEF for regulating and ensuring environmental
protection.
The Bhopal Gas Tragedy triggered the enactment of Environment Protection Act
(1986).
Since late 1980s, the Supreme Court of India has been pro-actively engaged in India's
environmental issues by
a) laying down new principles to protect the environment,
b) re-interpreting environmental laws,
c) creating new institutions and structures, and
d) conferring additional powers on the existing ones through a series of
directions and judgments.
Despite legislation, the environmental quality mostly worsened between 1947-1990:
a) most of Indian economy was nationalised and owned by India,
b) regulations were mostly ignored by state run enterprises.
c) rural poor had no choice, but to sustain life in whatever way possible.
d) air emissions increased, water pollution worsened, and forest cover
decreased.
1) This prompted Civil Society Groups to file PIL with the Courts for suitable remedies.
2) Since 1990s, reforms were introduced, and since then major air pollutant
concentrations shows decline in every 5 year period.
3) Enactment of a set of Noise Pollution (Regulation & Control) Rules (2000).
4) Between 1992 - 2010, satellite data confirms India's forest coverage has increased
for the first time by over 4 million ha (+7%).

The Supreme Court has delivered a new ‘normative regime of rights’.
It insisted that the State cannot act arbitrarily but must act
reasonably and in public interest.
But, it produced some adverse consequences:
PILs are repeatedly filed to block infrastructure projects, e.g., water
works, expressways, land acquisition for projects, and power generation
projects.
The litigation routinely delays such projects while rampant pollution
continues.
Even after a stay is vacated, new issues become grounds for court notices
and new public interest litigations.
Thus, judicial activism has made —
1) state-directed economic development ineffective and
2) a failure to reduce environmental pollution.

Thus, the need of the moment –
is
Sustainable Development/ Green Development
to
satisfy the basic human needs and improve their quality of life.
by
 helping the poorest who are left with no option but to exploit their local
habitat/ environment for survival
 executing the idea of self-reliant development with natural capital
 applying the cost effective development that won’t degrade environment
 considering the issues of health control, appropriate technologies, food
self-reliance, clean water and shelter for all, and
 introducing people-centered activities

Thank You All
Prof. Ashis Sarkar
PG Department of Geography Editor-in-Chief:
Chandernagore College Indian Journal of Spatial Science
Strand Road, P.O. – Chandernagore editorijss2012@gmail.com
Dist. – Hooghly, www.indiansss.org
West Bengal.
profdrashis@gmail.com
+91 98365 52173

GEOGRAPHICAL DIMENSIONS OF ‘DEVELOPMENT – ENVIRONMENT INTERRELATION’

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