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Chapter 2 Being Ethical and Socially Responsible 41
41 Chapter 2 Being Ethical and Socially Responsible
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
2.1 A WORD FROM THE AUTHORS
The material on ethics and social responsibility is presented early in the text to underscore the im-
portance of business’s role in our society. In this context, we define business ethics and discuss the
major factors believed to influence the level of ethical behavior in an organization. We also examine
several types of ethical issues.
As in Chapter 1, we turn to American history to trace the evolution of socially responsible business
practices. Next, we define and contrast two contemporary views of social responsibility: the eco-
nomic model and the socioeconomic model. In the process, we present arguments both for and
against increased social responsibility in business. We consider social changes in three specific
areas: consumerism, employment practices, and the environment. We identify public and private
agencies that regulate or monitor business practices in these areas, including the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission and the Environmental Protection Agency. Finally, we outline the steps in
the development and implementation of an effective corporate program for social responsibility.
2.2 TRANSITION GUIDE
New in Chapter 2: Being Ethical and Socially Responsible
A new Inside Business feature describes how Panera cares about its communities by “suggested
funding levels” rather than specific prices for its meals.
New URL information about the student Web site is provided in the first part of the chapter.
Information has been added about John and Timothy Rigas of Adelphia Communications Corp.
and how Adelphia’s investors lost more than $60 billion.
A new Personal Apps describes how business ethics apply to customers, managers, and employ-
ees.
In the “Fairness and Honesty” section, information about how more than 1,500 clients of Ander-
son’s Ark and Associates lost about $31 million has been added.
The Ethical Challenges and Successful Solutions feature has been deleted.
The whistle-blowing section has been updated, and the Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 is
now included in the discussion.
In the “Social Responsibility” section, the General Mills Foundation’s philanthropic activities are
revised and updated.
A discussion of IBM’s Corporate Service Corps., a “corporate version” of the Peace Corps, is
now included.
A new example of GE’s $20 million grant to Milwaukee Public Schools to improve academic
achievement is now included.
Charles Schwab Foundation’s philanthropic efforts are updated.
A new example of how ExxonMobil celebrated 2011 International Women’s Day by granting $6
million to support economic opportunities for women around the world has been added.

A new example of how AT&T responded to the high school drop-out crisis with a $100 million
philanthropic program is given.
The Sustaining the Planet feature about major companies and nonprofit groups has been deleted.
A new Personal Apps explains that we should keep consumer rights in mind when we shop
around for goods and services or have a problem with a purchase.
A new Ethical Success or Failure? feature reveals how everything we do online is being tracked
by business.
Figure 2.3, “Comparative Income Levels,” has been updated to reflect the latest census data
available.
Figure 2.4, “Relative Earnings of Male and Female Workers,” has been updated to reflect the
latest census data available.
A new Sustaining the Planet feature describes how Xerox approaches its corporate social respon-
sibility and citizenship by designing waste-free products.
The Spotlight feature, “Recession and Responsibility,” has been deleted.
British Petroleum’s 2012 settlement to pay out $7.8 billion has been added to the discussion of
the Deepwater Horizon disaster.
A new Entrepreneurial Success feature describes how growing numbers of young entrepreneurs
are starting businesses with the goal of using their skills for a socially responsible purpose.
The Entrepreneurial Success feature about recycling entrepreneurs has been deleted.
A new Return to Inside Business featuring Panera Cares is provided at the end of the chapter.
A new Case 2.2 describes Unilever’s plan for green and clean growth.
The Building Skills for Career Success section contains a new Social Media Exercise.
The Exploring the Internet feature in Building Skills for Career Success has been deleted.

2.3 QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE
Instructor Resource Location
Transition Guide IM, pp. 41–42
Learning Objectives Textbook, p. 35; IM, p. 44
Brief Chapter Outline IM, pp. 44–45
Comprehensive Lecture Outline IM, pp. 45–57
Ethical Success or Failure? Is Personal Data Really Pri-
vate?
Textbook, p. 53
At Issue: How should employers deal with proselytiz-
ing?
IM, p. 55
Sustaining the Planet Social Responsibility at Xerox Textbook, p. 59
Entrepreneurial Success Social Entrepreneurs of Tomor-
row
Textbook, p. 61
Inside Business Panera Cares About Its Communities Textbook, p. 36
Return to Inside Business Textbook, p. 63
Questions and Suggested Answers, IM, p. 58
Marginal Key Terms List Textbook, p. 64
Review Questions Textbook, p. 64
Questions and Suggested Answers, IM, pp. 58–61
Discussion Questions Textbook, p. 65
Video Case 2.1 (Scholfield Honda—Going Green with
Honda) and Questions
Textbook, p. 65
Questions and Suggested Answers, IM, p. 62
Case 2.2 (Unilever’s Plan for Green and Clean Growth)
and Questions
Textbook, p. 66
Building Skills for Career Success Textbook, pp. 66–67
Suggested Answers, IM, pp. 63–65
IM Quiz I & Quiz II IM, pp. 66–68
Answers, IM, p. 69
Classroom Exercises IM, pp. 69–70

2.4 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Understand what is meant by business ethics.
2. Identify the types of ethical concerns that arise in the business world.
3. Discuss the factors that affect the level of ethical behavior in organizations.
4. Explain how ethical decision making can be encouraged.
5. Describe how our current views on the social responsibility of business have evolved.
6. Explain the two views on the social responsibility of business and understand the arguments for
and against increased social responsibility.
7. Discuss the factors that led to the consumer movement and list some of its results.
8. Analyze how present employment practices are being used to counteract past abuses.
9. Describe the major types of pollution, their causes, and their cures.
10. Identify the steps a business must take to implement a program of social responsibility.
2.5 BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Business Ethics Defined
II. Ethical Issues
A. Fairness and Honesty
B. Organizational Relationships
C. Conflict of Interest
D. Communications
III. Factors Affecting Ethical Behavior
A. Individual Factors Affecting Ethics
B. Social Factors Affecting Ethics
C. “Opportunity” as a Factor Affecting Ethics
IV. Encouraging Ethical Behavior
A. Government’s Role in Encouraging Ethics
B. Trade Associations’ Role in Encouraging Ethics
C. Individual Companies’ Role in Encouraging Ethics
V. Social Responsibility
VI. The Evolution of Social Responsibility in Business
A. Historical Evolution of Business Social Responsibility

VII. Two Views of Social Responsibility
A. The Economic Model
B. The Socioeconomic Model
C. The Pros and Cons of Social Responsibility
1. Arguments for Increased Social Responsibility
2. Arguments Against Increased Social Responsibility
VIII. Consumerism
A. The Six Basic Rights of Consumers
1. The Right to Safety
2. The Right to Be Informed
3. The Right to Choose
4. The Right to Be Heard
5. Additional Consumer Rights
B. Major Consumerism Forces
IX. Employment Practices
A. Affirmative Action Programs
B. Training Programs for the Hard-Core Unemployed
X. Concern for the Environment
A. Effects of Environmental Legislation
1. Water Pollution
2. Air Pollution
3. Land Pollution
4. Noise Pollution
B. Who Should Pay for a Clean Environment?
XI. Implementing a Program of Social Responsibility
A. Developing a Program of Social Responsibility
1. Commitment of Top Executives
2. Planning
3. Appointment of a Director
4. The Social Audit
B. Funding the Program
2.6 COMPREHENSIVE LECTURE OUTLINE
Most managers today are finding ways of balancing a growing agenda of socially responsible activi-
ties with the drive to generate profits.
I. BUSINESS ETHICS DEFINED. Ethics is the study of right and wrong and of the morality
of choices individuals make. Business ethics is the application of moral standards to business
situations.

Teaching Tip: Ask students how they decide what is right and what is wrong. Is there an internal
mechanism or process they use or a code? Follow up by asking where they learned their personal
code.
II. ETHICAL ISSUES. Businesspeople face ethical issues every day, and some of these issues
can be difficult to assess. These issues arise out of a business’s relationship with investors,
customers, employees, creditors, and competitors.
A. Fairness and Honesty. Fairness and honesty in business are important ethical concerns.
Businesspeople must obey all laws and regulations as well as refrain from knowingly
deceiving, misrepresenting, or intimidating others.
B. Organizational Relationships. It may be tempting to place personal welfare above the
welfare of others or of the organization. Relationships with customers and co-workers
often create ethical problems such as taking credit for others’ ideas or work, not meeting
one’s commitments, and pressuring others to behave unethically.
C. Conflict of Interest. Conflict of interest results when a businessperson takes advantage
of a situation for his or her own personal interest rather than for the employer’s interest.
D. Communications. Business communications, especially advertising, can present ethical
questions. Advertisers must take precautions to guard against deception.
III. FACTORS AFFECTING ETHICAL BEHAVIOR. The factors that affect the level of eth-
ical behavior in organizations are individual, social, and opportunity. (See Figure 2.1.)
A. Individual Factors Affecting Ethics
1. Individual Knowledge of an Issue. A decision maker with a greater amount of
knowledge regarding a situation may take steps to avoid ethical problems, whereas
a less-informed person may take action unknowingly that leads to an ethical quag-
mire.
2. Personal Values. An individual’s moral values and central, value-related attitudes
also clearly influence his or her business behavior.
3. Personal Goals. The types of personal goals an individual aspires to and the manner
in which these goals are pursued have a significant impact on that individual’s be-
havior in an organization.
B. Social Factors Affecting Ethics
1. Cultural Norms. A person’s behavior in the workplace, to some degree, is deter-
mined by cultural norms, and these social factors vary from one culture to another.
2. Co-workers. The actions and decisions of co-workers constitute another social fac-
tor believed to shape a person’s sense of business ethics.

3. Significant Others. The moral values and attitudes of “significant others”—
spouses, friends, and relatives—can also affect an employee’s perception of what is
ethical and unethical behavior in the workplace.
4. Use of the Internet. Even the Internet presents new challenges for firms whose em-
ployees enjoy easy access to sites through convenient high-speed connections at
work. An employee’s behavior online can be viewed as offensive to co-workers
and possibly lead to lawsuits against the firm if employees engage in unethical be-
havior on controversial Web sites not related to their job.
Teaching Tip: A classroom can be considered a workplace for the time students are there. Ask stu-
dents to take a minute and write down three examples of ethical behavior in the classroom and three
examples of unethical behavior. Beyond the obvious cheating issues, students may mention things
such as one student constantly monopolizing the instructor’s time, etc.
C. “Opportunity” as a Factor Affecting Ethics
1. Presence of Opportunity. Opportunity refers to the amount of freedom an organiza-
tion gives an employee to behave unethically if he or she makes that choice.
2. Ethical Codes. The existence of an ethical code and the importance management
places on this code are other determinants of opportunity.
3. Enforcement. The degree of enforcement of company policies, procedures, and eth-
ical codes is a major force affecting opportunity.
IV. ENCOURAGING ETHICAL BEHAVIOR. Most authorities agree that there is room for im-
provement in business ethics. A more problematic issue is whether business can be made more
ethical in the real world.
A. Government’s Role in Encouraging Ethics. The government can establish acceptable lev-
els of behavior by passing more stringent regulations. For example, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act
of 2002 gives those who report corporate misconduct sweeping new legal protection.
B. Trade Associations’ Role in Encouraging Ethics. Trade associations can, and often do,
provide ethical guidelines for their members to follow.
C. Individual Companies’ Role in Encouraging Ethics
1. Codes of ethics that companies provide to their employees are perhaps the most ef-
fective way to encourage ethical behavior. A code of ethics is a written guide to ac-
ceptable and ethical behavior as defined by an organization that outlines uniform
policies, standards, and punishments for violations.
2. However, codes cannot possibly cover every situation.
a) Companies must also create an environment in which employees recognize
the importance of following the written code.

b) Managers must provide direction by fostering communication, actively en-
couraging ethical decision making, and training employees to make ethical
decisions.
c) Assigning an ethics officer who coordinates ethical conduct gives employees
someone to go to if they aren’t sure of the right thing to do.
d) An ethics officer meets with employees and top management to provide ethi-
cal advice, establishes and maintains an anonymous confidential service to an-
swer questions about ethical issues, and takes action on ethics code violations.
3. See Figure 2.2 for Texas Instruments’ code of ethics.
4. Unethical practices often become ingrained in an organization.
5. Employees with high personal ethics may take a controversial step called whistle-
blowing—informing the press or government officials about unethical practices
within one’s organization.
a) Whistle-blowing can have serious repercussions for an employee.
b) The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 protects whistle-blowers who report corpo-
rate misconduct. Any executive who retaliates against a whistle-blower can be
held criminally liable and imprisoned for up to 10 years.
c) The Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 protects federal employees who
report an agency’s misconduct.
6. When firms set up anonymous ethical hotlines to handle ethically questionable sit-
uations, employees may be more likely to engage in whistle-blowing.
7. When firms create an environment that educates employees and nurtures ethical
behavior, whistle-blowing is greatly reduced because fewer ethical problems arise.
8. See Table 2.1 for general guidelines for making ethical decisions.
V. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
A. Social responsibility is the recognition that business activities have an impact on society
and the consideration of that impact in business decision making.
1. Social responsibility can cost companies a considerable amount of money, but it is
also good business.
B. Examples of Socially Responsible Organizations
1. Through Young Eagles, underwritten by S. C. Johnson, Phillips Petroleum, Lock-
heed Martin, Jaguar, and other corporations, 22,000 volunteer pilots take a half
million youngsters on free flights to teach flying basics.
2. The General Mills Foundation, created in 1954, is one of the largest U.S. company-
sponsored foundations and has awarded over $535 million to communities since its
creation. Millions of dollars have been donated to Feeding America.
3. Dell’s outreach programs include projects that bring technology to underserved
communities around the world. Globally, the Michael and Susan Dell Foundation

has contributed more than $700 million to improve student performance and in-
crease access to education.
4. Improving public schools around the world continues to be IBM’s top social priori-
ty. Its efforts are focused on preparing the next generation of leaders and workers.
IBM launched the World Community Grid in 2004. It combines excess processing
power from thousands of computers in a virtual supercomputer that enables re-
searchers to gather and analyze unprecedented quantities of data aimed at advanc-
ing research on genomics, diseases, and natural disasters. IBM’s Corporate Service
Corps. is a group of high performing employees that provide technology-related as-
sistance to foreign governments and communities including economic develop-
ment, health care, and entrepreneurship.
5. General Electric Company (GE) has a long history of supporting the communities
where its employees work and live through its unique combination of resources,
equipment, and employee and retiree volunteers. The company devotes its efforts
in philanthropy to making communities around the world stronger. For example,
the GE Foundation awarded $20 million to Milwaukee Public Schools as part of
GE’s Developing Futures™ in Education program to help students compete in a
global economy.
6. With the help of dedicated Schwab volunteers, the Charles Schwab Foundation
provides programs and funding to help adults and children learn the basics of fi-
nancial literacy. Since 1993, the Schwab Foundation has distributed an average of
$4 million a year to 2,300 nonprofit organizations.
7. Improving basic literacy skills in the United States is among the Verizon Founda-
tion’s major priorities because of its enormous impact on education, health, and
economic development. Recently, Verizon employees and retirees donated more
than 608,000 hours of service and, with the Verizon Foundation, contributed over
$25 million in combined matching gift funds, making Verizon Volunteers one of
the largest corporate volunteer incentive programs in the United States.
8. ExxonMobil’s commitment to education spans all levels of achievement. The Na-
tional Math and Science Initiative and the Mickelson ExxonMobil Teachers Acad-
emy are programs emphasizing long-term educational improvement. The company
supports new generations pursuing studies and careers in math and science. Recent-
ly, ExxonMobil employees and retirees contributed a total of $238 million to
communities worldwide. In addition, the company celebrated 2011 International
Women’s Day by granting $6 million to support economic opportunities for wom-
en around the world.
9. AT&T has built a tradition of supporting education, health and human services, the
environment, public policy, and the arts in the communities it serves. Since 1984,
AT&T has invested more than $600 million in support of education. To respond to

the high school drop-out crisis, AT&T launched Aspire, a $100 million job shad-
owing program that has reached more than 23,000 students in over 200 cities.
10. At Merck & Co., Inc., the Patient Assistance Program makes the company’s medi-
cines available to low-income Americans and their families at no cost. For over 50
years, Merck has provided its medicines completely free of charge to people in
need through this program. Since 1957, the Merck Company Foundation has con-
tributed more than $560 million to develop programs that help improve the health
and well-being of people around the world.
These are just a few illustrations from a long list of companies big and small that at-
tempt to behave in socially responsible ways.
VI. THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN BUSINESS
A. Historical Evolution of Business Social Responsibility. During the first quarter of the
twentieth century, businesses were free to operate pretty much as they chose.
1. Working conditions were often deplorable by today’s standards.
a) The average work week exceeded 60 hours in most industries.
b) There was no minimum-wage law.
c) There were no employee benefits.
d) Work areas were crowded and unsafe, and industrial accidents were the rule
rather than the exception.
2. During this period, consumers were generally subject to the doctrine of caveat
emptor, a Latin phrase meaning “let the buyer beware.”
a) Victims of unscrupulous business practices could take legal action, but going
to court was very expensive and consumers rarely won their cases.
b) There were no consumer groups or government agencies to hold sellers re-
sponsible for their activities.
3. Prior to the 1930s, government became involved in day-to-day business activities
only when there was an obvious abuse of the free-market system and competition
was endangered. (See Table 2.2 for a list of early government regulations affecting
business.)
B. The collapse of the stock market on October 29, 1929, triggered the Great Depression
and years of economic problems for the United States.
1. Public pressure mounted for government to “do something” about the economy and
about worsening social conditions.
2. As a result, laws were passed to correct what many viewed as monopolistic abuses
of big business, and various social services were provided for individuals.
VII. TWO VIEWS OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. Government regulation and public
awareness are external forces that have increased the social responsibility of business. But

business decisions are made within the firm—and there, social responsibility begins with the
attitude of management. There are two models of social responsibility.
A. The Economic Model. The economic model of social responsibility holds that society
will benefit most when business is left alone to produce and market profitable products
that society needs.
B. The Socioeconomic Model. The socioeconomic model of social responsibility holds
that business should emphasize not only profits but also the impact of its decisions on
society.
C. The Pros and Cons of Social Responsibility. The merits of the economic and socio-
economic models have been debated for years. Each side seems to have four arguments.
1. Arguments for Increased Social Responsibility. Proponents of the socioeconom-
ic model offer the following arguments:
a) Business cannot ignore social issues because business is a part of our society.
b) Business has the technical, financial, and managerial resources needed to tackle
today’s complex social issues.
c) By helping to resolve social issues, business can create a more stable envi-
ronment for long-term profitability.
d) Socially responsible decision making by business firms can prevent increased
government intervention, which would force businesses to do what they fail to
do voluntarily.
2. Arguments Against Increased Social Responsibility. Opponents of the socioeco-
nomic model offer these arguments:
a) Business managers are responsible primarily to stockholders, so management
must be concerned with providing a return on owners’ investments.
b) Corporate time, money, and talent should be used to maximize profits, not to
solve society’s problems.
c) Social problems affect society in general, so individual businesses should not
be expected to solve these problems.
d) Social issues are the responsibility of government officials who are elected for
that purpose and who are accountable to the voters for their decisions.
3. Table 2.3 compares the economic and socioeconomic viewpoints in terms of busi-
ness emphasis.
4. Today, few firms are either purely economic or purely socioeconomic in outlook;
most have chosen some middle ground between the two.
a) However, our society generally seems to want—and even to expect—some
degree of social responsibility from business.
b) Thus, within this middle ground between the two extremes, businesses are
leaning toward the socioeconomic view.

VIII. CONSUMERISM. Consumerism consists of all those activities that are undertaken to pro-
tect the rights of consumers. The consumer movement issues fall into three categories: envi-
ronmental protection, product performance and safety, and information disclosure.
A. The Six Basic Rights of Consumers. During the 1960s, President John F. Kennedy de-
clared that the consumer was entitled to a new “bill of rights.”
1. The Right to Safety. The right to safety means that products purchased by con-
sumers must be safe for their intended use, include thorough and explicit directions
for proper use, and have been tested by the manufacturer to ensure product quality
and reliability. American business firms must be concerned about product safety
for several reasons.
a) Federal agencies have the power to force businesses that make or sell defec-
tive products to take corrective actions.
b) Consumers and the government have been winning an increasing number of
product-liability lawsuits against sellers of defective products.
c) The consumer is demanding safe products.
2. The Right to Be Informed. The right to be informed means that consumers must
have access to complete information about a product before they buy it. In addi-
tion, manufacturers must inform consumers about the potential dangers of using
their products.
3. The Right to Choose. The right to choose means that consumers have a choice of
products, offered by different manufacturers and sellers, to satisfy a particular
need.
a) The government has encouraged competition through antitrust legislation.
b) Competition and the resulting freedom of choice provide an additional benefit
for consumers by reducing prices.
4. The Right to Be Heard. The right to be heard means that someone will listen and
take appropriate action when customers complain.
a) Today, businesses are listening more attentively, and many larger firms have
consumer relations departments that can easily be contacted via toll-free
phone numbers.
b) Most large cities and some states have consumer affairs offices to act on citi-
zens’ complaints.
5. Additional Consumer Rights. In 1975, President Ford added the right to consum-
er education which entitles people to be fully informed about their rights as con-
sumers. In 1994, President Clinton added the sixth right—the right to service,
which entitles consumers to convenience, courtesy, and responsiveness from manu-
facturers and suppliers.

Teaching Tip: Go to the Federal Trade Commission’s site and view the rights provided to consum-
ers (http://www.ftc.gov/consumer). Students may want to know about these rights.
B. Major Consumerism Forces. Major advances in consumerism have come through fed-
eral legislation. Major federal laws that have been passed since 1960 to protect consum-
er rights are listed and described in Table 2.4.
The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 was
passed by the House of Representatives to protect consumers and investors.
IX. EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES. Everyone who works for a living should have the oppor-
tunity to land a job for which he or she is qualified and to be rewarded on the basis of ability
and performance. Although this is an important issue for society, over the years this oppor-
tunity has been denied to members of various minority groups.
1. A minority is a racial, religious, political, national, or other group regarded as dif-
ferent from the larger group of which it is a part and that is often singled out for un-
favorable treatment.
2. The federal government responded to the outcry of minority groups during the
1960s and 1970s by passing a number of laws forbidding discrimination in the
workplace.
a) Now, almost 50 years after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, abuses
still exist.
b) There is a disparity among income levels for whites, blacks, and Hispanics.
(See Figure 2.3.)
c) Lower incomes and higher unemployment rates also affect Native Americans,
handicapped persons, and women.
3. Responsible managers have instituted several programs to counteract the results of
discrimination.
A. Affirmative Action Programs. An affirmative action program is a plan designed to in-
crease the number of minority employees at all levels within an organization.
1. Employers with federal contracts of more than $50,000 per year must have written
affirmative action plans. The objective of such programs is to ensure that minori-
ties are represented within the organization in approximately the same proportion
as in the surrounding community.
2. Affirmative action programs have been plagued by two problems.
a) The first problem involves quotas. In the beginning, many firms pledged to
recruit and hire a certain number of minority members by a specific date. To
achieve this goal, they were forced to consider only minority applicants for
job openings.

b) The second problem is that not all businesspeople are in favor of affirmative
action programs, although most such programs have been reasonably success-
ful.
3. Congress created (and later strengthened) the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC), a government agency with the power to investigate com-
plaints of employment discrimination and sue firms that practice it.
4. The threat of legal action has persuaded some corporations to amend their hiring
and promotional practices, but the discrepancy between men’s and women’s sala-
ries still exists. (See Figure 2.4.)
B. Training Programs for the Hard-Core Unemployed. Some firms have assumed the
task of helping the hard-core unemployed: workers with little education or vocational
training and a long history of unemployment.
1. Such workers require training; this training can be expensive and time consuming.
2. To share the costs, business and government have joined together in a number of
cooperative programs. The National Alliance of Business (NAB) is a joint business-
government program to train the hard-core unemployed. The National Alliance’s
5,000 members include companies of all sizes and industries as well as educators
and community leaders.
X. CONCERN FOR THE ENVIRONMENT. Pollution is the contamination of water, air, or
land through the actions of people in an industrialized society.
1. For several decades, environmentalists have been warning us about the dangers of
industrial pollution.
2. Unfortunately, business and government leaders either ignored the problem or
weren’t concerned about it until pollution became a threat to life and health in
America.
3. Today, Americans expect business and government leaders to take swift action to
clean up our environment—and to keep it clean.
A. Effects of Environmental Legislation. As in other areas of concern to our society, leg-
islation and regulations play a crucial role in pollution control. The Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) is the federal agency charged with enforcing laws designed to
protect the environment. (See Table 2.5.)
Some business owners and managers take the position that environmental standards
are too strict. Consequently, it has often been necessary for the EPA to take legal action
to force firms to install antipollution equipment and clean up waste storage areas. Expe-
rience has shown that the combination of environmental legislation, voluntary compli-
ance, and EPA action can succeed in cleaning up the environment and keeping it clean.

At Issue
The United States has been at the forefront in negotiating opportunities and expanding rights for mi-
norities. Recently, much attention has been given to the rights of religious minorities. Employers
must permit employees to engage in religious expression, “unless the religious expression would
impose an undue hardship on the employer.” They are also required to provide a workplace in which
religious harassment of employees is not allowed. Undue hardship can be claimed if the accommo-
dation interferes with legitimate business interests. According to the EEOC:
“An employer can show undue hardship if accommodating an employee’s religious practices re-
quires more than ordinary administrative costs, diminishes efficiency in other jobs, infringes on oth-
er employees’ job rights or benefits, impairs workplace safety, causes coworkers to carry the ac-
commodated employee’s share of potentially hazardous or burdensome work, or if the proposed ac-
commodation conflicts with another law or regulation.”
Workplace proselytizing presents a special challenge to employers: failure to respond to employees’
complaints about proselytizing could lead to charges of religious harassment, but requiring a reli-
gious employee to cease proselytizing may result in liability for failure to reasonably accommodate
the employee’s beliefs.
How should employers deal with proselytizing?
For Proselytizing Against Proselytizing
1. Existing laws require “reasonable ac-
commodation.” The proselytizing em-
ployees could be separated from em-
ployees who feel harassed by the prac-
tice.
2. Employees have certain rights to ex-
press their religious views in the work-
place, such as the wearing of yarmulk-
es or the display of a cross in a private
office.
3. If proselytizing is kept to a mini-
mum and has no impact on co-
workers, it could be considered “rea-
sonable accommodation.”
1. Existing law allows for undue hardship
for the employer in terms of increased
administrative costs, infringement of
other employee rights, and diminished
efficiency.
2. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act does
not permit employees’ religious ex-
pression that could reasonably be per-
ceived by patrons of the business as an
expression of the employer’s views.
3. Title VII permits restriction of
religious expression that disrupts oper-
ations or is hostile or demeaning to
customers or co-workers.

1. Water Pollution. The Clean Water Act has been credited with greatly improving
the condition of waters in the United States. However, the task of water cleanup
has proved to be extremely complicated and costly due to pollution runoff and tox-
ic contamination. Improved water quality is not only necessary, but it is also
achievable. Today, acid rain, which results from sulfur emitted by smokestacks in
industrialized areas, is destroying many lakes and reservoirs.
2. Air Pollution. Aviation emissions are a potentially significant and growing per-
centage of greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Usually, two or
three factors combine to form air pollution in any given location.
a) The first factor is large amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons emit-
ted by many motor vehicles concentrated in a relatively small area.
b) The second factor is the smoke and other pollutants emitted by manufacturing
facilities.
c) The third factor is the combination of weather and geography.
d) Air pollution control efforts are encouraging. The EPA estimates that the
Clean Air Act eventually will result in the removal of 56 billion pounds of
pollution from the air each year, thus measurably reducing lung disease, can-
cer, and other serious health problems.
3. Land Pollution. Today, land pollution is a serious problem.
a) The fundamental issues are basically twofold.
(1) The first issue is how to restore damaged or contaminated land at a rea-
sonable cost.
(2) The second issue is how to protect unpolluted land from future damage.
b) The land pollution problem has been worsening over the past few years be-
cause modern technology has continued to produce more and more chemical
and radioactive wastes.
c) To help pay for the enormous costs of cleaning up land polluted with chemi-
cals, Congress created a $1.6 billion Superfund in 1980.
4. Noise Pollution. The Noise Control Act of 1972 established noise emission stand-
ards for aircraft and airports, railroads, and interstate motor carriers. Noise levels
can be reduced by two methods.
a) The source of noise pollution can be isolated as much as possible, and engi-
neers can modify machinery and equipment to reduce noise levels.
b) If it is impossible to reduce industrial noise to acceptable levels, workers
should be required to wear earplugs to guard against permanent hearing dam-
age.
B. Who Should Pay for a Clean Environment? Government and business are spending
billions of dollars annually to reduce pollution.

1. Current estimates of the annual costs of improving the environment are $45 billion
to control air pollution, $33 billion to control water pollution, and $12 billion to
treat hazardous wastes.
2. Much of the money required to purify the environment is supposed to come from
already depressed industries.
3. The big question is: “Who will pay for the environmental cleanup?”
a) Business leaders believe tax money should be used to clean up the environ-
ment.
b) Environmentalists believe that the cost of proper treatment and disposal of in-
dustrial wastes is an expense of doing business and therefore the responsibility
of the manufacturer.
c) In either case, consumers will probably pay a large part of the cost either in
the form of taxes or through higher prices.
Teaching Tip: Bring in three to five products from home. Write down the approximate prices. Tell
students how much each cost, and then ask how much more they would be willing to pay in order for
these products to be “environmentally friendly.” Products might include an apple or other fruit that
was grown with pesticides, a package of non-biodegradable garbage bags, and so forth.
XI. IMPLEMENTING A PROGRAM OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. A firm’s decision
to be socially responsible is a step in the right direction—but only a first step. The firm must
then develop and implement a tangible program to reach this goal.
A. Developing a Program of Social Responsibility. The following steps are required to
implement a social responsibility program.
1. Commitment of Top Executives. Without the support of top executives, any pro-
gram will soon falter and become ineffective.
2. Planning. A committee of managers should be appointed to plan the program.
3. Appointment of a Director. A top-level executive should be chosen to direct the
organization’s activities in implementing the plan.
4. The Social Audit. The director of the program should prepare a social audit for the
firm at specified intervals. A social audit is a comprehensive report of what an or-
ganization has done, and is doing, with regard to social issues that affect it.
B. Funding the Program. Like any other program, a program to improve social responsi-
bility must be funded. Funding can come from three sources.
1. Management can pass the cost on to consumers in the form of higher prices.
2. The corporation may be forced to absorb the cost of the program if, for example,
the competitive situation does not permit a price increase.
3. The federal government may pay for all or part of the cost through special tax re-
ductions or other incentives.

2.7 TEXTBOOK ANSWER KEYS
2.7a Return to Inside Business
Panera Cares
1. How does Panera Cares fit into the socioeconomic model of social responsibility?
Panera Cares is a good example of the socioeconomic model at work because, as the text ex-
plains, each of these cafés must be self-supporting and generate a small profit to be invested in
other community programs, such as job training. Panera is going beyond its basic economic re-
sponsibility to owners and other stakeholders. It is also inviting the public to “do the right
thing,” as the CEO says, by contributing more than the cost of each meal so that people with lit-
tle or no money can enjoy a good meal.
2. What ethical issues are raised by the idea of expecting some people to pay more for a
Panera meal so that others can pay less?
Students are likely to identify fairness as one ethical issue involved in the Panera Cares “sug-
gested funding” levels. Is it fair to leave the decision about how much to donate up to individu-
als? Some people who can afford to pay may take advantage of this situation by donating very
little or nothing. This unfairly shifts the burden to others who choose to donate the suggested
amount or much more. Is it even fair for Panera to expect customers to share the cost when the
company could make a philanthropic contribution to cover free meals for people in need? Stu-
dents may mention other ethical issues, as well.
2.7b Review Questions
1. Why might an individual with high ethical standards act less ethically in business than in
his or her personal life?
With more and more examples of businesspeople behaving unethically, the cause of unethical
behavior is one that psychologists and economists are examining. Pressure from low or
declining profits can cause a person with normally high ethical standards to behave less
ethically in business. But financial incentives are not the only reason. People make unethical
decisions to support colleagues or friends with whom they are doing business.
2. How would an organizational code of ethics help to ensure ethical business behavior?
An organizational code of ethics would help a firm establish a guide to acceptable and ethical
behavior for employees to follow. It shows the company’s commitment to ethical behavior and
sets a standard for all employees in the firm. Often, a company’s code of ethics communicates
the method for reporting unethical or illegal actions.
3. How and why did the American business environment change after the Great Depression?
The Great Depression and its national consequences showed both the American people and the
government that a more centralized control over certain kinds of businesses and business

activities would be required in the future to prevent our economy from falling victim to the
forces that caused the Depression.
4. What are the major differences between the economic model of social responsibility and
the socioeconomic model?
The economic model of social responsibility holds that society will benefit most when business
is left alone to produce and market profitable goods. The socioeconomic model places emphasis
not only on profits but also on the impact of business decisions on society. (See Table 2.3.)
5. What are the arguments for and against increasing the social responsibility of business?
The arguments for increasing the social responsibility of business are the following:
a. Business cannot ignore social issues because it is a part of our society.
b. Business has the technical, financial, and managerial resources that are needed to tackle
today’s complex social issues.
c. By helping resolve social issues, business can create a more stable environment for long-
term profitability.
d. Socially responsible decision making by business firms can prevent increased government
intervention.
The arguments against increasing social responsibility are the following:
a. Business managers are primarily responsible to stockholders, so management must be
concerned with providing a return on owners’ investments.
b. Corporate time, money, and talent should be used to maximize profits, not to solve society’s
problems.
c. Because social problems affect society in general, business should not be expected to solve
these problems.
d. Social issues are the responsibility of officials who are elected for that purpose and who are
accountable to the voters for their decisions.
6. Describe and give an example of each of the six basic rights of consumers.
The right to safety. The products consumers purchase must be safe for their intended use,
include thorough and explicit directions for proper use, and have been tested by the
manufacturer to ensure product quality and reliability. Consumer safety would be an especially
important consideration in the manufacture and sale of a product such as a hedge trimmer.
The right to be informed. Consumers should be given complete information about a product,
such as ingredients in food or how to take care of a specific garment. Producers should also
give information about the potential dangers of using their products, such as a reaction to drugs.
The right to choose. Because of competition, consumers can choose the particular product they
want among several similar products, such as automobiles or men’s shirts.
The right to be heard. Citizens can complain through the Better Business Bureau or can often
call a company directly on a toll-free number.

The right to consumer education. People are entitled to be fully informed about their rights as
consumers. An example would be the disclosure notices provided by banks or credit card
companies.
The right to service. Consumers have the right to convenience, courtesy, and responsiveness
from manufacturers and sellers of consumer products, which is one of the reasons that
companies put 800 numbers on their products for customers to contact them.
7. There are more women than men in the United States. Why, then, are women considered
a minority with regard to employment?
Women are a minority, not because they are fewer in number, but because there are fewer of
them employed than men and fewer in positions of true responsibility. Women also fit the
definition of a minority because they have been singled out as a group for unfavorable
treatment.
8. What is the goal of affirmative action programs? How is this goal achieved?
The goal of affirmative action programs is to increase the number of minority employees at all
levels within an organization. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was
created by Congress to investigate complaints of discrimination and to sue firms that practice
discrimination in employment.
9. What is the primary function of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission?
The primary function of the EEOC is to investigate complaints of discrimination in
employment.
10. How do businesses contribute to each of the four forms of pollution? How can they avoid
polluting the environment?
Businesses contribute to water pollution by dumping wastes into the water; to air pollution by
admitting hazardous chemicals into the air from motor vehicles and smokestacks; to land
pollution by burying harmful wastes and chemicals; and to noise pollution by allowing
excessive noise caused by traffic, aircraft, and machinery. Water pollution can be reduced by
building larger and more efficient sewage treatment plants and removing sulfur emissions, a
cause of acid rain. Pollution control devices on vehicles and smokestacks help reduce air
pollution. The EPA has been working to clean up the land. Suits against companies that dump
could help fund the cleanup operation. Noise levels can be reduced by isolating the source of
noise away from the population and by modifying machinery and equipment to reduce noise
levels.
11. Our environment can be cleaned up and kept clean. Why haven’t we simply done so?
The environment hasn’t been cleaned up and kept clean because of the costs involved and the
problems associated with deciding who will pay for the cleanup.
12. Describe the steps involved in developing a social responsibility program within a large
corporation.
The steps are as follows:

a. Commitment of top executives. Top executives should develop a policy statement that
outlines key areas of concern.

b. Planning. Managers should form a plan that deals with each of the issues described in the
policy statement.
c. Appointment of a director. A top-level executive should be appointed to direct the
organization’s activities in implementing the policy.
d. The social audit. The social audit is a comprehensive report of what an organization has
done, and is doing, with regard to social issues that affect it.
2.7c Discussion Questions
1. When a company acts in an ethically questionable manner, what types of problems are
caused for the organization and its customers?
When an organization engages in ethically questionable behavior, it hurts the integrity of the
organization and damages the company’s image held by customers and potential customers.
Customers lose trust in this type of organization and sometimes seek other sellers. An
organization sometimes has to spend considerable resources to rebuild relationships with
customers when the firm’s integrity is questioned.
2. How can an employee take an ethical stand regarding a business decision when his or her
superior already has taken a different position?
By whistle-blowing, the employee can inform the press or government officials of his or her
firm’s unethical practices. (You may want to discuss the repercussions of whistle-blowing with
students.)
3. Overall, would it be more profitable for a business to follow the economic model or the
socioeconomic model of social responsibility?
In the short run, the economic model would be more profitable because the focus is on profits,
not on social responsibility. The socioeconomic model would be more profitable in the long
run. It is a proactive stance for companies and one that many firms are embracing. Consumers
have come to expect this of companies with which they do business. Money spent on acts of
social responsibility would be considered business expenses.
4. Why should business take on the task of training the hard-core unemployed?
This task is another aspect of social responsibility. When these people receive training, they
become more employable. As a result, they can earn a wage and then return it to business
through their spending for consumer goods. Overall, such training programs improve the
economy, which in turn helps the firms that sponsor the programs.
5. To what extent should the blame for vehicular air pollution be shared by manufacturers,
consumers, and government?
Manufacturers should help in producing and/or using pollution control devices for cars and
trucks. Consumers should buy and use products that limit air pollution. The government should
set guidelines for the production and use of such products.

6. Why is there so much government regulation involving social responsibility issues?
Should there be less?
There is so much government regulation because unethical businesses continue to ignore their
social responsibility. There should not be less government regulation until businesses are ready
to police themselves.
2.7d Comments on Video Case 2.1
Suggestions for using this video case are provided in the Pride/Hughes/Kapoor Video Guide.
Scholfield Honda—Going Green with Honda
1. How would you rate Scholfield Honda’s sense of social responsibility? Does the dealership
meet all the criteria for a socially responsible company?
Scholfield Honda’s sense of social responsibility is open to discussion. On the one hand, it can
be argued that by adding the Civic GX to its line and its gift to Greensburg, Kansas, the
dealership was being socially responsible. On the other hand, it could be argued that the
dealership’s actions were minimal and its motive was simply to promote the dealership by
associating itself with a popular environmental issue. Whatever its motives, Scholfield’s actions
appear to meet the criteria to be considered a socially responsible company.
2. What is Scholfield Honda’s primary ethical responsibility in situations where a proposed
green initiative is cost-prohibitive or even detrimental to the company’s bottom line?
Scholfield Honda’s primary ethical responsibility is to provide a fair return to its investors. If a
green initiative is cost-prohibitive or detrimental to the bottom line, it should be avoided or
alternative green plans should be pursued that are not detrimental to the company.
3. Should the government regulate companies’ claims that their products are green? Should
official classifications for environmental friendliness be defined?
In some product categories such as automobiles, the government already regulates green
standards and claims that particular products are green. However, in most cases, consumers are
the best judge of which products meet their green standards. If products don’t meet consumer
standards, they simply won’t purchase them. Official classifications for environmental
friendliness already exist in areas such as auto emissions, airplane noise, and asbestos usage, to
name a few. Again, for most product categories, it would appear that consumers are better at
defining environmental friendliness than the government is.
2.7e Comments on Case 2.2
Unilever’s Plan for Green and Clean Growth
1. Every year, Unilever posts on its web site and distributes to the media a report detailing
its progress toward the 2020 sustainability goals. Why would the public be interested in
such a report?

One reason that customers, suppliers, employees, and others would be interested in Unilever’s
sustainability reports is that they want to know what kind of company they’re doing business

with. Many customers are concerned about the environment. By demonstrating its ongoing
commitment to sustainability, Unilever shows that it is doing its part to save the planet and
gives customers another reason to remain loyal. Employees who hold similar views would be
interested in finding out what their employer is doing. Competitors may also be taking a close
look to see how they might differentiate themselves by taking action in other areas of social re-
sponsibility.
2. Is Unilever applying the economic or the socioeconomic model of social responsibility?
How do you know?
Based on the CEO’s comments about “advocating a business model that gives to the
environment and society,” Unilever appears to be closer to the socioeconomic model of social
responsibility. The company is focused on profitability through sustainability, as the case indi-
cates. Programs that save energy and water not only help the environment, but they also save
Unilever money and therefore help its profitability. The Cool Farm Tool is available without
charge to suppliers and other companies. This is another way Unilever is helping society as a
whole to live greener.
3. Do you agree with Unilever’s approach of promoting its Lifebuoy soap brand in programs
to teach consumers about hand-washing? Explain your answer.
Students who agree with Unilever promoting Lifebuoy in hand-washing lessons may say that
the socioeconomic model emphasizes profits as well as social responsibility. By linking the
Lifebuoy brand to programs that keep people healthy and safe, Unilever is making a business
decision that benefits shareholders and enables the company to do the right thing for society at
large. Lifebuoy soap isn’t required for hand-washing—any brand will do, and people are free to
choose what they wish. Students who disagree may say that Unilever shouldn’t put its brand in-
to the program because any soap can be used to clean hands, not just Lifebuoy. If Unilever
wants to educate people about hand-washing as part of its social responsibility, it can do that
without turning the program into a commercial for its brand.
2.7f Building Skills for Career Success
1. Social Media Exercise
In 2010, Pepsi decided to develop a new social media–based project, called Pepsi Refresh
Project, aimed at Millennials and allowing consumers to post ideas for improving their
communities. This replaced the $20 million they spent on Super Bowl advertising. The
project received more than 57 million votes. However, the general consensus was this was
not a successful program for Pepsi. Using the Internet for research, answer the following
questions:
1. Why do you think the Pepsi Refresh Project was not as successful as the company
hoped?
Although the project was a success on the social media side, that success did not translate
into sales. Pepsi lost market share, possibly because the money designated for advertising
was put into this social media campaign.

2. Do you think this is a good example of corporate social responsibility (CSR)? Why or
why not?
The idea of distributing $20 million in $5,000 to $250,000 increments for projects that are
determined to be “worthy” is a good example of social responsibility; however, the way this
project was structured turned out to be filled with technical issues and privacy problems.
Pepsi’s plan is to engage its customers by having them vote for their favorite project.
Money was given to the projects that received the most votes. It is a different model than
previously used and didn’t engage stakeholders at the level of other CSR models.
3. How does this CSR example for Pepsi compare with that of its main rival Coca-Cola
(see http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/citizenship/index.html)?
Coca-Cola’s responsibility to the environment, community, and employeesis is clearly
stated on its Web site. Its commitment to sustainability is also stated in several places on the
Web site. On the other hand, Pepsi’s level of responsibility is not as clearly seen nor stated.
2. Journaling for Success
Assume that you are an accountant at ABC Corporation, where you question the compa-
ny’s accounting practices. What legal and managerial changes would you suggest to pre-
vent the use of accounting tricks to manipulate corporate earnings?
Student answers may include the following:
a. I would recommend immediate implementation of an ethics code spelling out which ac-
counting practices are acceptable and which are not.
b. I would suggest a policy that requires all accounting methods, whether internal or conduct-
ed by external auditors, to be vetted against Sarbanes-Oxley rules.
c. I would recommend that the company hire someone at the corporate vice presidential level
with direct responsibility for Sarbanes-Oxley enforcement. He or she should report directly
to the board of directors.
d. Anyone found to be in direct violation of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act should immediately be
terminated.
e. The company should institute a method by which employees can report ethical lapses
without fear of reprisal. An anonymous hotline is one possible example.
1. Assume that your manager refuses to incorporate any of your suggestions. Would you
blow the whistle? Why or why not?
Student responses to this question will vary. Some may say that they will get another job first,
and then anonymously report their previous employer. Others will feel that the risks associated
with whistle-blowing are too great, and some will take the idealistic route of avoiding an Enron
situation.

2. Suppose that you blow the whistle and get fired. Which law might protect your rights,
and how would you proceed to protect yourself?
The law that protects whistle-blowers is the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Any executive who
retaliates against a whistle-blower can be held criminally liable and imprisoned for up to 10
years.
Some students will indicate that the first move they would make would be to hire a lawyer
experienced in dealing with whistle-blowing situations. They may suggest that going to the
media would help. In actuality, however, it might be better for their future employment
prospects if they settle out of court. Some companies might be leery of someone who invites
media attention.
3. Developing Critical-Thinking Skills
The answers will vary from students of different ethnic backgrounds, social status, workplace
experiences, and ages. Some students will feel very strongly about what they believe to be right
and wrong and how they would conduct themselves in the workplace. Other students will
endure the stress associated with working on projects they feel are morally wrong just to keep
their job.
Two important points in this exercise are (1) to get students to discuss why they believe certain
things are either right or wrong and (2) for all students to understand other people’s positions
regardless of whether or not they agree. As the world becomes the workplace, more Americans
will be faced with examining their positions on what they believe to be right and wrong and/or
finding employment with a company that fits within their ethical and moral beliefs.
Business ethics begins at the top of an organization. It creates the corporate culture. Strong
leadership is needed to raise the level of ethics and morality. Leadership must set an example
and encourage everyone in the organization to exercise integrity.
4. Building Team Skills
Assign several students the responsibility of finding a code of ethics from a business firm.
Before class, prepare copies for everyone in the class. In class, have each group work with a
different code of ethics in completing the exercise. Ask a member of each group to report the
results before the class.
5. Researching Different Careers
Who is to say what is right and what is wrong? This question is debated every day in the
newspapers and courtrooms across the country. Things that influence our values include
religious teachings, parental guidance, television, cultural traditions and values, peers’ values
and behaviors, major events in the world, and social acceptance of behavior over time.
Each student’s code of ethics will be a little different. It should include (1) the student’s
responsibilities to life, work, friends, family, etc. (How will the student treat others?) and (2)
the student’s expectations from life, work, friends, family, etc. (How does the student expect to
be treated by others?).

2.8 QUIZZES I AND II
True-False Questions
Select the correct answer.
Quiz I
1. T F Social responsibility is the recognition that business activities have an impact on society
and the consideration of that impact in business decisions.
2. T F The economic model of social responsibility places emphasis not only on profits but al-
so on the impact of business decisions on society.
3. T F Consumerism consists of all those activities that are undertaken to protect the rights of
consumers in their dealings with business.
4. T F Six basic rights of consumers are the right to safety, the right to be informed, the right to
choose, the right to be heard, the right to consumer education, and the right to service.
5. T F Whistle-blowing is an attempt by business to stop employees from exposing their uneth-
ical business behavior.
Multiple-Choice Questions
Circle the letter before the most accurate answer.
6. One factor that influences ethical decision making is the factor.
a. business
b. consumer
c. marketing
d. opportunity
e. internal
7. A plan designed to increase the number of minority employees at all levels within an organiza-
tion is called
a. the hard-core unemployed.
b. an affirmative action program.
c. the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
d. the socioeconomic initiative.
e. the right to work.
8. Initiating a social responsibility program takes
a. the commitment of top executives.
b. the commitment of middle managers.
c. the commitment of employees.
d. no commitment.
e. the commitment of competitors.

9. Funding for a program of social responsibility can come from
a. the employees in the corporation.
b. volunteer efforts of the American public.
c. corporations that absorb the costs as a business expense.
d. governmental sources.
e. environmental groups.
10. A guide to acceptable and ethical behavior is known as
a. a code of ethics.
b. business ethics.
c. a social audit.
d. consumerism.
e. an ethical behavior guide.
True-False Questions
Select the correct answer.
Quiz II
1. T F A policy of considering only nonminority applicants for job openings is called reverse
discrimination.
2. T F Today, few firms are either purely economic or purely socioeconomic in their outlook.
3. T F Working conditions in the early twentieth century were not much different from those
that exist today, except for the more advanced technology involved.
4. T F Government intervention into business increased after the Great Depression of the
1930s.
5. T F An argument for increased social responsibility is the fact that, because business man-
agers are primarily responsible to business owners, they must be concerned with provid-
ing a return on the owners’ investments.
Multiple-Choice Questions
Circle the letter before the most accurate answer.
6. A group of people who have been singled out for unfavorable treatment on the basis of race,
religion, politics, or national origin is called
a. an affirmative action group.
b. the hard-core unemployed.
c. a minority.
d. the economically disadvantaged.
e. a majority.

7. Pollution in our country is made up of
a. air pollution.
b. land pollution.
c. noise pollution.
d. water pollution.
e. all of the above.
8. A government agency with the power to investigate complaints of discrimination and to sue
firms that practice discrimination is the
a. National Alliance of Business.
b. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
c. NAACP.
d. Federal Trade Commission.
e. Interstate Commerce Commission.
9. Acid rain causes
a. air
b. noise
c. water
d. land
e. practically no
pollution.
10. An employee’s decision to inform the press or government officials of his or her firm’s unethi-
cal practices is referred to as
a. whistle-blowing.
b. the corporate code of ethics.
c. business ethics.
d. the grapevine.
e. tattling.

2.9 ANSWER KEY FOR QUIZZES I AND II
Quiz I
True-False Multiple-Choice
1. T 6. d
2. F 7. b
3. T 8. a
4. T 9. c
5. F 10. a
Quiz II
True-False Multiple-Choice
1. F 6. c
2. T 7. e
3. F 8. b
4. T 9. c
5. F 10. a
2.10 CLASSROOM EXERCISES
2.10a Homework Activities
Article Report.
Have students bring in an article that shows an example of a company or executive that has oper-
ated in a particularly ethical or socially responsible way or a particularly unethical way. You may
further ask them to locate the company’s code of ethics (if it has one).
Corporate Code of Conduct.
Ask students to use the Internet to research several actual corporate codes of conduct and make a
list of similarities and differences. This can be followed up with an in-class group activity where
students compare their research and determine what common themes and ideas are likely to be
reflected in most corporate codes of ethics.
Social Responsibility to Which Groups?
Have students choose a corporation with whose products they are familiar. Nike and Coca-Cola
might be examples. The homework assignment is to write a one-page paper prioritizing constitu-
encies to whom they have social responsibility. A typical progression might include stockhold-
ers, employees, the city of Atlanta (for Coca-Cola), etc.

2.10b Classroom Activities
“To Take or Not to Take the Gift” Exercise.
Have students consider the scenario in the “To Take or Not to Take the Gift” handout. The objec-
tive is to help students identify ethical issues and understand the importance of codes of ethics.
This is best done as an individual exercise, although it would be useful to follow with a group dis-
cussion afterward. Instructor notes follow the exercise.
“To Surf or Not to Surf” Exercise.
This exercise can be used in a number of places in this chapter. It relates best to Learning Objec-
tives 3 and 4, however.
Instruct students to form groups of three or four. They will need approximately 20 minutes to
develop an Internet usage policy for Pupster Dog Fashions, a fictional company. Upon comple-
tion, each group should share their usage policy with the class.
If desire and time permit, you may instruct them to go to the Web and benchmark similar poli-
cies for other companies. One example you will find on the Web includes advice from Microsoft
about planning Web access policy (http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc995204.aspx).
This exercise may also be used as a homework project if desired. A sample policy for Pupster is
provided.
Puffery Exercise.
Have students form groups of three to five. Using the Puffery quiz as a handout, ask them to
evaluate the advertising statements on the quiz as to whether (a) they are puffery or a real claim
and (b) whether or not they are deceptive. This exercise helps reinforce the consumer right of be-
ing informed. The handout gives the student the information they need to make their judgments.
Puffery is sometimes a matter of opinion rather than firm law, so this exercise should stimulate
significant discussion. Once they have the handouts, the exercise should take approximately 10
to 15 minutes. Sample answers are provided.
Sustainability Exercise.
This exercise can be done totally as an in-class activity or assigned as homework. The students
are asked to think about sustainability and how it fits into their individual lives. The information
on the provided link can be given to students ahead of time. As they review the list, they may be
surprised at how many of these practices they already follow. If desired, the list could also form
the basis for journal activity throughout the semester. If done entirely in class, the activity should
take approximately 20 minutes prior to discussion.
2.10c Exercise Handouts Follow on Next Pages

“TO TAKE OR NOT TO TAKE THE GIFT”
You are the distribution manager for a major consumer products firm. Your
company is about to release a very large shipment of products. As manager,
you must choose among several transportation companies that are competing
for your business. Sales representatives from railroad and trucking companies
often make calls to your office. Your decision will mean the loss or gain of mil-
lions of dollars of revenue for these companies.
1. Which of the following gifts would you be willing to accept from sales repre-
sentatives of the transportation companies?
• Pen and pencil set (with the company’s logo)
• Five-year supply of scratch pads (with logo)
• Dinner for four at an exclusive restaurant
• Season tickets to a professional football game
• Fruits and nuts delivered to you each Christmas
• Three-day, all-expense-paid golfing vacation
• $500 in cash
• Bag of groceries delivered to your home each week
• Lavish trip to the Cayman Islands
2. What role would top management, superiors, and peers play in your deci-
sion on accepting these gifts?
3. If you had the chance to take some of the gifts on the list without anyone
knowing, would you?
4. Would a code of ethics or an ethical corporate culture help you in making
your decision?

“To Take or Not to Take the Gift” Instructor Notes
Question 1. You might ask students which of the listed gifts “crosses the line” with regard to their
perception of what is ethical. Students might change their minds about acceptable gifts if asked,
“What if everyone did it?” A distribution manager who accepts a gift of any magnitude may make a
decision that is not necessarily in the best interest of the company (e.g., selecting a higher-cost truck-
ing company because it provides box seats to ball games).
Question 2. You might ask students if they know of instances in their own jobs where organization-
al relationships have had a negative or positive effect on ethical decision making. For instance, how
does seeing a boss file inaccurate expense reports (to cover unauthorized expenditures) affect others
in the firm? How might people react when peers take supplies or merchandise home?
Question 3. The role of opportunity may determine whether a person will behave ethically. You
might also want to ask, “What if I gave an exam and left the classroom for the hour—would you be
more likely to cheat?” Opportunity may be a better predictor of unethical activities than personal
values.
Question 4. An effective code of ethics should let employees know both what is expected of them
and the punishment for violating the rules. For instance, a firm may have a policy against accepting
any gifts valued over $25. The penalty for accepting anything over that amount may be dismissal.
However, simply having a policy or code will be ineffective if top management and superiors do not
support and enforce it.

“TO SURF OR NOT TO SURF”
A recent survey by America Online and Salary.com found that the average
worker admits to wasting 2.09 hours per eight-hour workday and that 44.7
percent of those surveyed reported Internet surfing as their No. 1 distraction
at work.
Most reasonable persons would agree that some use of the Internet for person-
al reasons is acceptable as long as it does not interfere with overall work per-
formance. Clearly, it is up to the employer to determine what type of computer
and Internet use is acceptable and to educate its employees as to those guide-
lines and restrictions.
“Pupster Dog Fashions” is both a retail and an online operation, employing four
in-store sales persons, eight customer-service and order-processing employees,
a retail manager, an online manager, and two people in packing and shipping.
Pupster’s hours are 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday through Saturday for the retail
store, and 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. for the online operation. All employees work a
standard eight-hour day with an hour for lunch and two 15-minute breaks.
In your groups, develop a policy and set of guidelines for computer/Internet
usage for the Pupster Dog Fashions company. You have 20 minutes. Be as spe-
cific as possible in developing your guidelines.
Your policy should contain the following elements:
• Statement of Policy (guiding principles)
• Specific Guidelines
• Monitoring Policy
• Penalties for Violations

“To Surf or Not to Surf” Instructor Notes
These guidelines can be covered verbally or handed out to the students before they begin.
Statement of Policy: This should be a general set of guiding principles and attitudes that lead to
specific guidelines. On one extreme, some may feel that all paid time and equipment should be used
for work-related matters only. On the other, some may feel that as long as the work gets done, the
employees of Pupster should be allowed to use the Internet whenever they choose.
Specific Guidelines: The guidelines should specifically outline the policy. For example, they
might include:
Whether or not employees are allowed to browse the Web for personal use
When they can do so
Whether employees are allowed to play games on the computer and when
What Web activity must be avoided such as:
downloading offensive content
threatening behavior or e-mails
illegal activities
Monitoring Policy: The monitoring policy should clearly spell out how much privacy employees
can expect and how Web use will be monitored.
Penalties for Violations: This section should clearly delineate what action will be taken if the
guidelines are violated. For example, playing solitaire at the wrong time might elicit a warning,
while sending a threatening e-mail might be cause for dismissal.

Sample: Pupster Computer and Internet Usage Policy
Statement of Policy:
Pupster provides and maintains computer and electronic communications systems and Internet ac-
cess. As a condition of providing these systems, the company places certain restrictions on
their usage.
Specific Guidelines:
The use of computer systems and Internet access is restricted to the conduct of company business
during working hours.
Working hours are defined as all time for which the employee is being paid. They do not include
time prior to the start or end of the business day.
Retail Store: 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday through Saturday
Online Operations: 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. Monday through Saturday
Employees are allowed to use the computer for personal use during lunch and other official breaks
with the exceptions noted below.
Pupster computers and Internet access are not to be used for the following:
Commercial use—Any form of commercial use of the Internet is prohibited.
Copyright violations—Any use of the Internet that violates copyright laws is prohibited.
Solicitation—The purchase or sale of personal items through advertising on the Internet
is prohibited.
Harassment—The use of the Internet to harass employees, vendors, customers, and others
is prohibited.
Confidential information—The release of confidential information regarding Pupster busi-
ness is prohibited.
The accessing, viewing, downloading, or any other method for retrieving offensive enter-
tainment on pornographic sites is prohibited.
Monitoring Policy:
All systems, equipment, and data remain at all times the property of the company. Accordingly, all
messages and files created, sent, received, or stored within such systems remain the property of the
company. The company reserves the right to retrieve and review any message or file composed, sent,
received, or stored.
Penalties for Violations:
Violations of this policy will result in discipline up to and including termination.

PUFFERY EXERCISE
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates claims made by advertisers. For
example, if a pizza company claims it always delivers hot pizza in 30 minutes, it
must be prepared to substantiate that claim with documentation.
On the other hand, there is “puffery,” exaggerated claims that reasonable peo-
ple do not believe to be real product qualities and which by their very nature
are incapable of being proven true or false. Puffery, according to the FTC,
therefore cannot be deceptive. Everyone knows that Wonder Bread is not a
wonder, and that Folgers in your cup is probably not the best thing about wak-
ing up!
In your groups, decide if the following advertising statements are real claims or
puffery, using the reasonable person rule. Also, indicate whether or not you be-
lieve deception could occur. Be prepared to defend your point of view.
Charmin Toilet Tissue claims to be “the original soft and comfy clean.”
Puffery? Yes No
Deceptive? Yes No
Apple’s iPod Web site claims that “the world’s best music player keeps
getting better.”
Puffery? Yes No
Deceptive? Yes No
Quaker Life Vanilla Yogurt Crunch says “The great taste of yogurt just made
Life a little sweeter.”
Puffery? Yes No
Deceptive? Yes No
JCPenney’s ad for its Web site jcp.com says “It’s all inside.”
Puffery? Yes No
Deceptive? Yes No
Hyundai says that “If greatness is a destination, we’re on the road to it.”
Puffery? Yes No
Deceptive? Yes No

Puffery Exercise Answers
By its very nature, puffery is ambiguous and arguable. With product parity in the marketplace, ad-
vertisers try to create an illusion of superiority.
Charmin Toilet Tissue claims to be “the original soft and comfy clean.”
Puffery? Yes No Deceptive? Yes No
Strictly speaking, Charmin probably was not the original toilet tissue used by folks. So to that extent
it is deceptive. This falls under the “so what” claim category. OK, it may be the original—but, so
what? How does that help the consumer?
Apple’s iPod Web site claims that “the world’s best music player keeps getting better.”
Better and best are the bread and butter of the puffery-generating ad writers. Best, in particular, cer-
tainly cannot be proven. And is it getting better? Who knows? In that sense, it is certainly deceptive.
Quaker Life Vanilla Yogurt Crunch says “The great taste of yogurt just made Life a
little sweeter.”
What’s great taste? To whom? Who cares?
JCPenney’s ad for its Web site jcp.com says “It’s all inside.”
What is “it”? One thing we know for sure is that whatever it is, it isn’t all inside. And inside where?
Hyundai says that “If greatness is a destination, we’re on the road to it.”
This one is arguable. It clearly implies that the product is being improved. But . . . what is greatness?
How do we know if we get there? As long as improvements are made to the car, strictly speaking, it
is not deceptive.

Sustainability Exercise
Sustainability is defined as: Living and working in ways that do not jeopardize
our current and future social, environmental, and economic resources.
Your instructor has provided you with a list of 100 Ways You Can Improve the
Environment (http://livepaths.brinkster.net/livepaths/library/100ways.pdf).
Your instructor will divide you into groups. Instructions for this activity are:
1. Read the list of 100 sustainable activities. Mark those in which you cur-
rently engage (5 minutes).
2. Compare your list of activities to your classmates’ lists. See if there are
any common activities (5 minutes).
3. Now, as a group, choose five additional activities on the list of 100 you
believe you all could implement. Discuss why and how those activities
would fit into your lives. Be as specific as possible as to why some ac-
tivities might be easier to implement than others (10–15 minutes).
4. Choose a spokesperson to share both your list of current activities and
the five new activities you will implement.

Sustainability Exercise Instructor Notes
This activity can be easily adapted to your specific needs. For example, you could give students the
link to the 100 Ways You Can Improve the Environment list or print it out and assign the individual
part of the activity (Step 1) as homework.
You could also use the list as a contest, with total points awarded based on current student activity.
You could assign it as a longer-term project of self-evaluation, with students keeping a journal of
sustainable activities.

Other documents randomly have
different content

[135] Cf. P. Charpentier, loc. cit., passim;—Leclerc, loc. cit., pp. 544 et
suiv.;—Delon, loc. cit., pp. 114 et suiv.;—Renel, la Fabrication actuelle du
papier, in la Nature, 18 janvier et 15 février 1890, pp. 99-103 et 167-170;—
V. Mortet, le Papier, et le Papier au moyen âge, in Revue des bibliothèques,
1891, pp. 195-207, et 1892, pp. 349-350;—etc.
[136] Bouillet, Dictionn. universel des sciences… Nouvelle édit., refondue
sous la direction de MM. J. Tannery et É. Faguet, art. Papier.
[137] Cf. Renel, loc. cit., in la Nature, 18 janvier 1890, p. 102. Voir aussi
P. Charpentier, loc. cit., p. 112.
[138] On fait souvent de papier brouillard le synonyme absolu de papier
buvard (cf. Littré, Hatzfeld, Larousse, Dictionn.). On désigne cependant plus
particulièrement sous le nom de papier brouillard un papier non collé mais
calandré, d'ordinaire plus mince et plus léger que le papier buvard habituel,
et d'ordinaire aussi de couleur brune, jaunâtre ou grise, qui s'emploie en
pharmacie et thérapeutique (pansements), et sert en outre tout
spécialement à confectionner les papillotes. Une sorte de papier buvard et de
papier à filtrer a reçu, en raison de sa couleur, le nom de papier gris.
[139] P. Charpentier, loc. cit., p. 173.
[140] Glacé après l'opération dont il va être question, après le couchage.
[141] Voir sur le papier couché le Mémorial de la librairie française, 26
juillet 1900, p. 420.
[142] No du 3 juin 1899, p. 696.
[143] Pas toujours: voyez les elzeviers. (A. C.)
[144] Cf. Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 10 décembre 1898, col. 808-
809.
[145] La Nature, 13 décembre 1890, p. 30.
[146] «Les reflets verts étant facilement supportés par les yeux, on
conseille aux hommes d'étude de les préférer à tout autre (tentures, rideaux,
abat-jour verts), par suite emploi du papier vert pour écrire, comme a
l'habitude de le faire l'un de nos écrivains les plus féconds, M. Claretie, de
l'Académie française. Ce papier a cependant un inconvénient, c'est de faire
paraître l'écriture rougeâtre et peu distincte quand on a à se relire. Les
papiers jaunes font admirablement ressortir l'écriture et ont des reflets plus
doux que ceux du papier blanc. Plusieurs mathématiciens, notamment

l'amiral Jonquière, font usage de papier jaune, lorsqu'ils ont à effectuer des
calculs longs et compliqués. Les autres couleurs: bleu, rouge, violet, ne
donnent pas de bons résultats.» (La Nature, 13 décembre 1890. p. 30.)
[147] Ces chiffres ne sont pas toujours rigoureusement fixes, et
présentent parfois, dans la réalité, de légères différences en plus ou en
moins, comme on peut s'en convaincre en consultant: P. Charpentier, loc. cit.,
pp. 259-260;—Desormes, Notions de typogr., p. 499;—Leclerc, loc. cit., p.
286;—Munier, Nouveau guide illustré de l'imprimerie…, p. 10;—Maire, loc.
cit., p. 375, où se trouve un «Tableau des dimensions et des poids des
papiers de France établis avant le système décimal en pouces et en lignes»;
—etc. M. Manquest, de la maison Darblay, a bien voulu me fournir aussi
d'utiles renseignements sur les dimensions et les modes d'emploi des
papiers. J'ai eu recours également, pour tout ce qui touche le papier, le
format et l'impression, à la compétence de M. Lebreton, chef du service des
impressions de la librairie Flammarion.—Pour exprimer les dimensions des
papiers, il est d'usage de mentionner le plus petit nombre le premier; ex.:
Raisin = 0,50 × 0,65 (et non 0,65 × 0,50).
[148] On a conservé l'habitude d'écrire Whatman avec une majuscule.
[149] Un autre papier, employé spécialement pour le dessin, est le papier
Canson: c'est un beau papier fort et lisse, qui se fabrique à Annonay.
[150] Et aussi à sa légèreté. (A. C.)
[151] Le Livre du bibliophile, pp. 32-33. (Paris, Lemerre, 1874.)
[152] Sur la fabrication du papier du Japon, voir Ch. Laboulaye, Dictionn.
des arts et manufactures, art. Papier;—le Magasin pittor., avril 1877, pp. 114
et 122;—la Nature, 5 octobre 1889, p. 291;—P. Charpentier, loc. cit., p. 249;
—Maire, loc. cit., p. 373.
[153] Sur le parchemin ordinaire et proprement dit, voir infra, chap. V, p.
131.
[154] Larousse, Grand Dictionn., art. Papier, t. XII, p. 150, col. 3.—
Ajoutons qu'on se sert actuellement en Angleterre d'un papier également
très mince, analogue au papier pelure, mais suffisamment opaque pour
supporter l'impression. Il est connu sous le nom de papier indien, et sort de
la papeterie de l'Université d'Oxford (à Wolvercote, près d'Oxford). Par son
peu d'épaisseur, son extrême ténuité, ce papier convient particulièrement
aux livres dont on a besoin de réduire le plus possible la masse et le poids
(volumes contenant un très grand nombre de pages et qu'on ne peut

scinder; dictionnaires de poche, guides de voyage, aide-mémoire, vade-
mecum, etc.). Le papier indien d'Oxford, qu'on cherche en ce moment à
propager en France, est malheureusement d'un prix assez élevé.
[155] Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 551.
[156] P. Charpentier, loc. cit., p. 307.
[157] Id., ibid.
[158] Id., loc. cit., p. 308.
[159] Numéro du 12 juillet 1900, p. 398. Voir aussi numéro du 29
novembre 1900, p. 633.
[160] In la Nature, 29 décembre 1894, p. 74.
[161] C'est à peu près ce qu'a dit l'éminent administrateur de notre
Bibliothèque nationale, M. Léopold Delisle, dans son discours d'ouverture du
Congrès international des Bibliothécaires, tenu à Paris en 1900: «C'est par
milliers qu'il faut compter les volumes modernes que la mauvaise qualité du
papier a voués fatalement à une mise hors d'usage dans un avenir plus ou
moins rapproché.» (Courrier des bibliothèques, 28 février 1901, p. 52.)
[162] Revue biblio-iconographique, in Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur.,
15 février 1900, col. 275-278. On a proposé aussi, dans une intention
analogue, de demander aux ministères et établissements publics de ne
comprendre sur leurs listes d'achat que les ouvrages tirés sur bon papier et
convenablement édités.
[163] Cosmos, Revue des sciences et de leurs applications, 15 septembre
1900, p. 320; et Revue biblio-iconographique, avril 1901, pp. 206-207.—Le
Mémorial de la librairie française, 29 août 1901, p. 492, indique le procédé
suivant pour distinguer du papier confectionné à la machine le papier
fabriqué à la main: «Découper des rondelles de six à huit centimètres dans
le papier à essayer et faire ensuite flotter ces rondelles sur l'eau d'une
cuvette: le papier à la machine s'enroulera de deux côtés dans la direction
du centre de la rondelle, tandis que les rondelles du papier à la main se
relèveront en forme de bords d'assiette.»
[164] Littré, Dictionn., art. Format.
[165] Dictionn., art. Tome.

[166] Cf. L. Delisle, Instructions élémentaires et techniques pour la mise
et le maintien en ordre des livres d'une bibliothèque, p. 14.
[167] L. Delisle, loc. cit., p. 14, n. 1.
[168] Loc. cit., p. 297.
[169] Voir sur ce mot infra, pp. 107-109
[170] Cf. Catalogue de la librairie Hachette, Littérature générale, février
1901, p. 41: «Histoire de la littérature française…, 5e édition… (Vingt-
cinquième mille)…, par M. G. Lanson…»
[171] Bien que nous ne nous occupions pas des livres rares et des
curiosités de bibliophiles, quelques renseignements sommaires sur les
incunables ne paraîtront sans doute pas ici superflus.
On appelle incunables (du latin incunabulum, berceau), ou encore, mais
plus rarement, paléotypes (παλαιός, ancien, et τύπος, modèle, type), les
livres imprimés depuis l'origine de l'imprimerie (1450 environ) jusqu'en l'an
1500 inclusivement.
Les incunables ont pour caractères distinctifs:
1o L'épaisseur, l'inégalité et la teinte jaunâtre du papier.
2o L'irrégularité et la grossièreté des caractères typographiques, très
frappantes notamment dans les types romains sortis des presses italiennes;
mais ces défauts ne subsistèrent pas longtemps et les caractères acquirent
bientôt un degré de perfection qui n'a pas été surpassé.
3o L'absence de signes de ponctuation.
4o L'absence de signatures, de réclames (voir infra, pp. 70 et 78-79, la
signification de ces mots), de pagination, et, dans les plus anciens
incunables, de registre, c'est-à-dire de la table indicatrice des cahiers
composant l'ouvrage: ces cahiers étaient indiqués par les premiers mots de
leur première page.
5o L'absence de titre séparé ou frontispice (Frontispice: «Titre orné de
figures gravées ou imprimées»). [Littré.] (Voir infra, pp. 115-116.): le titre,
ou plutôt le sujet du livre, se trouvait énoncé au début du texte, dans ce
qu'on nomme la suscription ou l'incipit; c'est par ce dernier mot, ou par son
équivalent: Cy commence… que commençait le plus souvent le texte.
6o L'absence du nom de l'imprimeur, du lieu et de la date de l'impression:
ces indications ne tardèrent pas à figurer à la dernière page des volumes
dans un paragraphe final appelé souscription ou explicit (qui signifie finit, se
termine, est déroulé; sous-entendu le mot volume, et par allusion aux
anciens manuscrits, qui avaient la forme de rouleaux: c'est par ce mot

explicit ou Cy finist… que ce dernier paragraphe commençait d'ordinaire),
opposé à suscription et à incipit; la souscription porte aussi les noms
d'adresse et de colophon (κολοφών, achèvement). M. Bouchot (le Livre, pp.
33, 36, 56, 103) et après lui M. Rouveyre (Connaissances nécessaires à un
biblioph., 5e édit., t. II, p. 204) emploient aussi dans ce sens le mot
signature, qui, en bibliographie, désigne spécialement les lettres ou chiffres
placés en pied de la première page de chaque feuille, et peut, par
conséquent, prêter ainsi à confusion.
7o La quantité d'abréviations: un z pour la conjonction et; une sorte de 3
ou de 9 pour la particule latine cum ou la particule française con, et pour la
finale de certains mots: neqʒ, neque; quibʒ, quibus; no9, nous; vo9, vous;
etc.; le q avec la partie inférieure traversée par un trait en forme de croix
pour signifier quam ou quod; la fréquente suppression de certaines lettres:
bōs pour bons, presēt ou même pr̅ s̅ t pour présent, leq̄ l pour lequel, Dn̄ s pour
Dominus, etc. Ces modes d'abréviation provenaient des manuscrits, où ils
étaient en nombre bien plus considérable encore. Une partie des syllabes,
parfois toutes les lettres d'un mot, sauf la première, étaient supprimées.
Ainsi, dans un manuscrit connu sous le nom de Virgile d'Asper, qu'on date du
XIe siècle et actuellement à la Bibliothèque nationale, le texte est écrit de
telle sorte qu'il faut, pour le lire, le connaître par cœur. Le premier vers des
Bucoliques y est représenté sous cette forme:
Tityre, t. p. r. s. t. f.
pour:
Tityre, tu patulæ recubans sub tegmine fagi.
Ces abréviations, où une ou deux lettres initiales servent à exprimer un
mot entier, portent le nom de sigles (de siglæ, contracté de singulæ: singulæ
litteræ. Les sigles étaient très fréquemment usités non seulement dans les
manuscrits, mais dans les inscriptions lapidaires, sur les médailles, etc.
Quant aux notes tironiennes, ce sont aussi de simples lettres, initiales ou
médianes, employées pour figurer des mots entiers et abréger l'écriture. Ce
nom vient de Tullius Tiro, affranchi de Cicéron, qui perfectionna ce système
de sténographie. (Cf. Lalanne, Curiosités bibliogr., pp. 46 et suiv.).
8o La rareté des alinéas et des chapitres.
9o L'absence de lettres capitales au commencement des chapitres ou
divisions: dans les premiers temps, les imprimeurs laissaient en blanc la
place de ces grandes lettres, qui étaient mises à la main par des calligraphes
et rubricateurs (rubricare, rubrum facere [Ducange], peindre en rouge; de
rubrica, rubrique, sanguine, craie rouge, etc.).

10o Des traits obliques au lieu de points sur les i.—Etc.
Les anciens imprimeurs avaient tous des marques typographiques,
allégoriques le plus souvent, dont ils ornaient les titres et frontispices de
leurs livres. Beaucoup d'éditeurs d'aujourd'hui ont des marques analogues,
monogrammes ou vignettes, qu'ils placent au-dessus de leur firme (de l'angl.
firm [du bas-latin firma, convention], maison de commerce, raison sociale.
Daupeley-Gouverneur, in le Compositeur et le Correcteur typographes, p. 180,
écrit à tort «le firme»; ce mot est du féminin: cf. Littré, Dictionn.,
Supplément), c'est-à-dire du nom et de l'adresse de leur maison.
Il n'est pas inutile non plus de connaître les principales de ces marques
des anciens imprimeurs:
Les Alde Manuce avaient pour marque une Ancre, autour de laquelle était
enroulé un dauphin;
Les Elzevier, un Arbre ou une Minerve;
Rigault avait pour emblème un Arrosoir;
Wechel, un Caducée;
Nicolas Chesneau, un Chêne;
Nivel et Cramoisy, une Cigogne;
Les Plantin, un Compas;
Lean Lecoq, un Coq;
Etienne Dolet, une Doloire (sorte de hachette);
Antoine Vérard, un Écusson fleurdelisé supporté par deux anges;
Simon de Colines, des Lapins;
Simon Vostre, deux Léopards à tête de lévrier;
Jehan Ghèle, des Lévriers;
Thielman Kerver, deux Licornes;
Galiot du Pré, une Galée ou Galère;
Les Gryphe, un Griffon;
Philippe Le Noir, trois Nègres;
Robert Estienne, un Olivier;
Guiot Marchant, une Portée de plain-chant et deux Mains entrelacées;
Geoffroy Tory, un Pot cassé;
Vascosan, une Presse typographique;
Gilles Corrozet, une Rose dans un Cœur;
Philippe Pigouchet, deux Sauvages (homme et femme);
Ulrich Gering, un Soleil;

Jehan Temporal, le Temps armé de sa faux;
Etc., etc.
(Cf. Silvestre, Marques typographiques…;—P. Delalain, Inventaire des
marques d'imprimeurs et de libraires;—Brunet, Manuel du libr.,
principalement t. V, col. 1569 et suiv.;—A.-F. Didot, Encyclop. moderne, art.
Typographie, t. XXVI, col. 736 et suiv.;—E.-D. Grand, Grande Encyclop., art.
Bibliographie, t. VI, pp. 598 et suiv.;—etc. Voir surtout le grand ouvrage de
Mlle Pellechet, «chef-d'œuvre de la nouvelle école bibliographique», a dit M.
L. Delisle (Catalogue général des livr. imprim. de la Biblioth. nation.,
Introduction, t. I, p. LXXVI), Catalogue général des incunables des
bibliothèques de France, dont le tome I a paru chez A. Picard en 1897.
[172] On appelle feuillet «chaque partie d'une feuille de papier formant
deux pages», recto et verso (Littré). La feuille, par conséquent et comme on
va le voir, donne toujours un nombre de pages double du chiffre indicatif du
format.
[173] Voir sur ces termes supra, p. 44.
[174] «Lorsque in-4, in-8, in-12, etc., sont abrégés, on ne les fait pas
suivre d'un o supérieur.» (Règles typographiques… Hachette, p. 51.) «L'usage
moderne, que nous adoptons, préfère supprimer l'o dans in-4 et in-8.»
(Daupeley-Gouverneur, loc. cit., p. 101.) Voir aussi Leclerc, Typographie, p.
162.
[175] L'in-24 est un format «assez incertain et qu'on peut confondre avec
l'in-32. Pour le déterminer sûrement, il faut voir si la signature se trouve à la
page 49 ou à la page 65.» (J. Cousin, loc. cit., p. 97.) Si elle se trouve à la
page 49 (48 + 1), le format est in-24; à la page 65 (64 + 1), il est in-32.
[176] Cela est si vrai que, depuis quelque temps, de fortes maisons
d'édition, la maison Hachette, entre autres, ont imaginé d'employer, pour les
ouvrages qu'elles font tirer à très grand nombre, des papiers d'un format
particulier et de vastes dimensions, dit format drap de lit, dont chaque feuille
peut contenir, par exemple, 96 pages in-8 cavalier. Grâce à une imposition
spéciale (c'est-à-dire au rangement dans la forme ou châssis des pages
composées et prêtes à être tirées, rangement effectué dans un ordre
particulier, de façon qu'après l'impression et le pliage ces pages se suivent
selon leurs numéros d'ordre), on n'a ensuite qu'à sectionner ces grandes
feuilles drap de lit et à procéder au pliage: on obtient pour chacune d'elles
six feuilles in-8 (96 pages = 16[ = 8 × 2] × 6), portant toutes leur
respective signature et paraissant avoir toujours été séparées,
indépendantes les unes des autres.

[177] C'est ce que demande M. Édouard Rouveyre (voir infra, p. 85), et
ce qui se fait sur les fiches dressées selon les règles de la classification
décimale (voir chap. VIII, De la classification, p. 313).
[178] Barêmes ou Devis de travaux de reliure, Annexe: Tableau des
formats en usage dans la librairie française.—Ce tableau, où sont tracées les
dimensions de la plupart des formats, offre un bon moyen de déterminer
immédiatement le format d'un livre; il suffit d'appliquer les bords de ce livre
sur les lignes délimitatrices du format qui s'y rapporte: le nom et les
dimensions sont inscrits sous l'une de ces lignes. Je dois prévenir néanmoins
que les chiffres donnés par M. Bosquet ne sont pas toujours théoriquement
exacts.
[179] Les chiffres de ce tableau sont obtenus de la manière suivante, qui
est des plus simples. Il suffit de diviser les dimensions de la feuille de papier
(dimensions qui sont inscrites respectivement en tête de chaque colonne)
par le nombre des plis de cette feuille dans le format que l'on veut
déterminer. Ainsi la feuille colombier ayant pour dimensions 0,63 × 0,90, et
la feuille in-folio étant pliée en 2 une seule fois, pour connaître la dimension
du format in-folio colombier, on divisera par 2 le nombre 0,90, et l'on aura:
0,63 × 0,45, ou, puisque, comme nous l'avons dit p. 52, il est de règle de
placer le plus petit nombre le premier: 0,45 × 0,63. La feuille in-4 étant pliée
en 2 d'un côté et en 2 de l'autre (4 = 2 × 2), le format in-4 colombier sera
de (0,63 ÷ 2 et 0,90 ÷ 2) 0,315 × 0,45. La feuille in-8 étant pliée en 4 d'un
côté et en 2 de l'autre (8 = 4 × 2), le format in-8 colombier sera de (0,90 ÷
4 et 0,63 ÷ 2) 0,225 × 0,315. La feuille in-12 étant pliée en 4 d'un côté et
en 3 de l'autre (12 = 4 × 3), le format in-12 colombier sera de (0,63 ÷ 4 et
0,90 ÷ 3) 0,158 × 0,30. Si, par hypothèse, cette feuille in-12 était pliée en 6
d'un côté et en 2 de l'autre, on calculerait de même ces nouvelles
dimensions. La feuille in-18 étant pliée en 6 d'un côté et en 3 de l'autre (18
= 6 × 3), on aura pour le format in-18 jésus (0,70 ÷ 6 et 0,55 ÷ 3) 0,117 ×
0,183; etc. Pour tout ce qui touche les différents modes de pliage des feuilles
et le nombre de ces modes, ou, ce qui revient au même, les différentes
dispositions des pages dans les châssis selon les formats, c'est-à-dire
l'imposition, voir Th. Lefevre, Guide pratique du Compositeur, t. I, pp. 299-
418, où se trouvent de nombreux tableaux graphiques d'impositions. Voir
aussi Daruty de Grandpré, Vade-mecum du biblioth… Instruction raisonnée sur
le format des livres, pp. 27-64.—Nous rappelons ce que nous avons dit p. 53
(Tableau des papiers) que le format actuel de la couronne servant aux
labeurs (impressions de livres) est un peu plus grand (0,37 × 0,47) que celui
de la couronne destinée aux cahiers et registres (0,36 × 0,46).
[180] Cf. Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 327.

[181] Au début de l'imprimerie, l'imposition était des plus simples, ou
plutôt elle n'existait pas et ne pouvait exister, puisque, par suite des petites
dimensions des presses, on ne pouvait tirer à la fois que deux pages in-folio.
Les imprimeurs suivaient donc l'exemple des copistes; ils pliaient en deux un
certain nombre de feuilles, 1, 2, 3, par exemple; la feuille 1 était formée des
deux premières pages et des deux dernières (1, 2, 11 et 12); la feuille 2,
composée des pages 3, 4, 9 et 10, entrait dans la feuille 1; et la feuille 3,
comprenant les pages 5, 6, 7 et 8, entrait dans la feuille 2. Ce premier cahier
portait pour signature, au bas, à droite, la lettre A; les cahiers suivants
recevaient respectivement pour signatures les lettres B, C, D… En outre, afin
d'éviter les confusions et de faciliter le placement des feuilles, les pages
étaient, de deux en deux, marquées d'un numéro d'ordre en chiffres
romains, placé à côté de la signature. Ainsi la 1re page du premier cahier
portait Aj; la 3e page Aij; la 5e Aiij; la 7e Aiv. On avait de même pour le
deuxième cahier: Bj, Bij, Biij, Biv, etc. Au lieu de chiffres romains, on a
employé aussi les chiffres arabes: A, A2, A3, A4, etc. (Cf. Leclerc, loc. cit., p.
285; et Daruty de Grandpré, loc. cit., p. 25, n. 1.)
[182] Certains cartons ou encarts, plus longs que larges, «formant une
bande relativement étroite», portent le nom de feuilletons. (Daruty de
Grandpré, loc. cit., p. 20.) On donne encore le nom de cartons à des feuillets
supplémentaires d'impression qu'on est quelquefois obligé de faire, pour
remplacer des pages d'un livre qui contiennent soit des erreurs qu'on veut
réparer, soit des passages qu'on désire supprimer. Ces feuillets
supplémentaires une fois tirés sont cousus ou collés à la place des pages
enlevées. Un carton se compose toujours de quatre pages qui se tiennent.
Mais on peut n'avoir besoin d'apporter des modifications que dans une seule
page, de ne changer qu'une ligne ou qu'un mot: cette page réimprimée (et
qui forme un feuillet naturellement, puisqu'elle comprend un recto et un
verso), destinée à remplacer la page primitive, s'appelle onglet (Leclerc, loc.
cit., p. 110), du nom de la mince bande de papier cousue dans le volume et
sur laquelle on la colle (cf. infra, chap. V, De la reliure, p. 151). Enfin on
donne aussi le nom de cartons aux cartes de détail placées dans les angles
d'une grande carte géographique.
[183] Pour plus de développements, voir Th. Lefevre, loc. cit., t. I, p. 433,
et chap. IX, Plan des impositions, pp. 299-418;—Desormes, loc. cit., pp. 45 et
suiv.;—Leclerc, loc, cit., pp. 215 et suiv., et 329 et suiv.;—et Daruty de
Grandpré, loc. cit., pp. 27-64. Rien que pour le format in-18, Lefevre indique
treize modes différents d'imposition; Leclerc en donne sept: 1o en 1 cahier
sans coupure; 2o en 1 cahier avec coupure en longueur; 3o en 1 cahier avec
coupure en largeur; 4o en 2 cahiers, chacun sans coupure; 5o en 2 cahiers

avec coupure et carton dedans; 6o en 3 cahiers, chacun sans coupure; 7o en
3 cahiers avec coupure et carton dedans.
[184] On remarquera que les lettres J et U, qui anciennement se
confondaient avec l'I et le V, ne figurent pas parmi les signatures.
[185] Page 197.
[186] Instruction générale relat. au service des biblioth. universitaires ap.
Maire, loc. cit., p. 433.
[187] Rouveyre, Connaissances nécessaires à un biblioph., 5e édit., t. II,
p. 52.
[188] Voir infra, chap. VIII, p. 313.
[189] «Au début de l'imprimerie, les formats employés étaient
généralement l'in-folio et l'in-quarto, et certains auteurs ont supposé
qu'aucun livre, avant 1480, n'avait été imprimé sous un format plus petit.»
(Trad. de l'Encyclop. Britannica, t. III, p. 652, col. 1.) Néanmoins, Peignot,
dans son Dictionnaire raisonné de bibliologie, art. Format, mentionne des
éditions des plus petits formats antérieures à 1480; mais on peut considérer
ces «petits livres» comme des exceptions.
[190] Cf. Lalanne, Curiosités bibliogr., p. 293.
[191] Id., Ibid.
[192] Bouchot, le Livre, p. 110.
[193] Cf. Bouchot, ibid.;—Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 289. En 1513, le pape Léon
X accorda à Alde Manuce un privilège analogue d'une durée de quinze ans,
«… sous les peines d'excommunication et d'amende de cinq cents ducats
d'or envers les contrefacteurs». (Crapelet, Études prat. et litt. sur la
typographie, t. I, pp. 65-66.)
[194] Loc. cit., p. 170.
[195] Lalanne, loc. cit., p. 293.
[196] Tome II, p. 130.
[197] Loc. cit., t. II, p. 421.

[198] Constantin est moins exclusif. «Celui, écrit-il, qui veut se former
une bibliothèque de quelques centaines de volumes seulement, fera bien de
les prendre tous du même format. Une pareille collection d'une reliure de
bon goût, et renfermée dans un corps de bibliothèque élégant, fait un très
joli objet d'ameublement, et est d'un usage commode. Il n'est pas difficile de
trouver dans la librairie un bon choix d'ouvrages de 300 à 800 volumes
imprimés d'une manière uniforme, in-8, in-12 ou in-18.» (Bibliothéconomie,
p. 48.)
[199] Loc. cit., p. 294.
[200] Cf. Werdet, De la librairie française, p. 177.
[201] Voir sur ces termes infra, p. 107.
[202] Nous rappelons ce que nous avons dit p. 76, que nous entendons
toujours par in-18 l'in-18 jésus (0,117 × 0,183), et par in-8 l'in-8 cavalier
(0,155 × 0,23).
[203] Cf. Bollioud-Mermet, De la bibliomanie, pp. 48-49 (Paris, Jouaust, s.
d.). Cette référence est indiquée par Mouravit, mais il est à noter que le
texte de l'opuscule de Bollioud-Mermet, en cet endroit ou ailleurs, ne se
rapproche que bien vaguement de la remarque de Mouravit sur le choix et la
convenance des formats.
[204] Mouravit, loc. cit., p. 197.
[205] Cf. supra, pp. 87 et suiv., les appréciations que nous avons citées à
propos de l'in-8, et les motifs qui nous font préférer l'in-18.
[206] Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 288.—Nous avons déjà noté plus haut (p. 76)
que certains in-12, in-16 et in-18 ont les mêmes dimensions, et peuvent être
considérés comme «synonymes». Inutile de faire observer que, dans les
deux citations précédentes de Mouravit et de M. Leclerc, les formats
mentionnés manquent de précision, qu'il eût été bon de dire de quel in-4, de
quel in-8, in-12, in-16, etc., il s'agit, puisqu'un in-4 peut être plus petit qu'un
in-8 (in-4 écu < in-8 colombier), un in-8 plus petit qu'un in-12, etc. (voir
supra, p. 76 et le tableau de la page 77). Mais, encore une fois, l'usage est
fréquent de désigner les formats par le nombre seul des plis de la feuille,
sans faire connaître les dimensions de cette feuille, la sorte de papier
employée: jésus, raisin, colombier, etc., et de ne donner ainsi de ces formats
qu'une idée approximative.

[207] L'invention du point typographique est due à Pierre-Simon Fournier,
alias Fournier le Jeune (vers 1737); mais la mesure initiale dont s'était servi
cet imprimeur et graveur était conventionnelle, partant sujette à discussions
et à erreurs (cf. Leclerc, Typographie, pp. 40 et 42). Le «point Fournier» fut
modifié en 1753 par F.-Ambroise Didot, qui prit pour base la mesure légale
d'alors, le pied de roi, dont il divisa la ligne en six parties égales, en six
points. Un caractère d'imprimerie ayant exactement pour longueur ces six
points se nomme le six; s'il a un point de plus, c'est-à-dire sept points, le
sept; huit points, le huit; etc. (Cf. A.-F. Didot, Encyclop. moderne, art.
Typographie, t. XXVI, col. 846.)—C'est Fournier le Jeune qui a dit que «la
théorie d'un art si utile (l'imprimerie) ne devrait être ignorée d'aucun de ceux
à qui l'usage des livres est familier», et qu'«il serait à souhaiter que tout
homme de lettres fût en état de juger sainement de la mécanique de ses
productions.» (Manuel typographique, t. I. p. IX.)
[208] Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 48.
[209] Id., ibid., p. 46.
[210] Cf. Théotiste Lefevre, Guide pratique du compositeur d'imprimerie, t.
I, p. 425;—Daupeley-Gouverneur, le Compositeur et le Correcteur
typographes, p. 5;—E. Desormes, Notions de typographie, p. 500;—Leclerc,
loc. cit., pp. 41-42. Les listes de concordance des anciens noms avec les
nombres de points données par ces ouvrages offrent de fréquentes
divergences.
[211] Le texte du présent livre est imprimé en caractère romain Didot
corps dix petit œil; les notes sont en romain Didot corps huit, les sommaires
des chapitres en romain Didot corps sept, et la préface en romain Didot
corps onze.
[212] L'Imprimerie nationale a, elle, un indice spécial: ses l, dites l
barrées, portent un imperceptible trait, une barre minuscule, au milieu de
leur longueur ( ).
[213] Cf. Bouchot, le Livre, p. 174.
[214] Voir supra, p. 86.
[215] En romain Didot. Remarquez que ce romain est plus petit d'œil que
l'elzevier du corps correspondant.
[216] Du nom de l'habile graveur et imprimeur français Nicolas Jenson,
qui alla s'établir à Venise vers 1469. (Cf. Lalanne, Curiosités bibliogr., p. 84.)

[217] Sur les lettres grises, cf. Daupeley-Gouverneur, loc. cit., p. 68.
[218] Leclerc, loc. cit., pp. 64.
[219] Id., ibid.
[220] «… les formes arrondies de l'onciale (d'où est issue la lettre
tournure).» (Lecoy de la Marche, les Manuscrits et la Miniature, p. 153.)
Notons encore qu'on nomme lettres filigranées des initiales particulières de
même aux anciens manuscrits, majuscules ornées de fioritures très déliées,
d'une sorte de filigrane, «fil ténu, capricieusement enroulé et engendrant des
espèces de graines ou de petites boules». (Id., loc. cit., pp. 154-156); lettres
dragontines, appelées aussi saxonnes, d'autres initiales d'anciens manuscrits
«terminées par des têtes et des queues de serpents, bordées de points,
garnies, dans leurs massifs, de perles, d'entrelacs et de monstres
enchevêtrés». (Id., loc. cit., p. 263.) Rappelons enfin que les caractères
gothiques des premiers livres portent le nom de lettres de forme et de lettres
de somme, celles-ci moins anguleuses, moins hérissées de pointes que
celles-là. C'est de lettres de somme que se servirent Gutenberg, Fust et
Schoeffer, les inventeurs de l'imprimerie. (Cf. Lalanne, loc. cit., p. 103.)
[221] La casse française renferme 54 cassetins dans le bas de casse, et
98 dans le haut de casse. Des casses moins grandes, partant moins
encombrantes, et d'un seul morceau, notamment la casse dite parisienne,
sont actuellement en usage: on en a retranché les petites capitales,
relativement peu employées, et qui sont placées à part.
[222] Sur la casse, voir Delon, Histoire d'un livre, pp. 135 et suiv.;—Maire,
Manuel prat. du biblioth., pp. 304 et suiv.;—Leclerc, loc. cit., pp. 70 et suiv.;
etc. Je suis également redevable de nombreux renseignements
typographiques à l'obligeance de M. Jattefaux, prote de l'imprimerie Lahure.
[223] Voir cette liste complète dans Th. Lefevre, loc. cit., t. I, p. 430.
[224] Maire, loc. cit., p. 353.
[225] Crapelet, Études prat. et litt. sur la typographie, p. 145.
[226] Cf. Leclerc, loc. cit., pp. 531-532.
[227] L'Imprimerie, la Librairie et la Papeterie à l'Exposit. univers. de
1851, p. 62.
[228] Ibid.

[229] Louisy, le Livre, p. 221. «Typographia, Deorum manus et munus,
imo ipsa, cum mortuos in vitam revocet, omnino diva est.» (C. Klock, ap.
Crapelet, loc. cit., avant-propos, p. ij.) En tête de son Manuel typogr. (t. I, p.
iv), Fournier Lejeune a inscrit—et modifié comme il suit—les vers bien connus
de la Pharsale de Brébeuf:
C'est de Dieu que nous vient cet art ingénieux
De peindre la parole et de parler aux yeux.
Plus loin (t. I, p. vij) il dit que l'imprimerie est «regardée à juste titre comme
un présent du ciel». Crapelet, loc. cit., p. 2, écrit de même: «L'art
typographique… cette admirable invention, qui était regardée comme
l'œuvre de la Divinité même…». Et Victor Hugo, Notre-Dame de Paris, liv. V,
chap. 2: «L'invention de l'imprimerie est le plus grand événement de
l'histoire. C'est la révolution mère. C'est le mode d'expression de l'humanité
qui se renouvelle totalement… Sous la forme imprimerie, la pensée est plus
impérissable que jamais;» etc.
[230] On se sert aussi, ou plutôt on s'est servi de plâtre, pour prendre
ces empreintes. Ce qui a fait préférer au clichage au plâtre le clichage dit au
papier ou au flan, c'est la rapidité d'exécution et l'économie de ce dernier
procédé; mais le plâtre avait l'avantage de donner des empreintes plus
complètes et meilleures. (Cf. Leclerc, loc. cit., pp. 533-534.)
[231] Théoriquement, le mot clichage est synonyme de l'ancien mot
stéréotypie: ils signifient tous les deux l'action de «créer, d'après une
composition unique formée par l'assemblage des caractères mobiles, une ou
plusieurs autres planches solides et identiques». (Leclerc, loc. cit., p. 533.)
Mais clichage est l'expression moderne, actuellement en usage, et désignant
l'opération dont nous venons de parler, qui débute par la prise des
empreintes au moyen de plâtre ou de flans. La stéréotypie (στερεός, solide;
τύπος, type), s'applique plus particulièrement au procédé imaginé en partie
par Firmin Didot vers la fin du XVIIIe siècle, et qui consistait en ceci: «Après
avoir composé une page en caractères plus bas que ne le sont les caractères
ordinaires, et fondus avec un alliage particulier, plus dur que les autres, on la
renfermait dans un mandrin; puis, à l'aide d'un balancier, on l'enfonçait dans
une plaque de plomb de même dimension, fondue et dressée avec soin.
Cette opération donnait pour premier produit une matrice où la lettre est en
creux; cette matrice, placée dans un mandrin et abattue au moyen d'un
mouton sur de la matière en fusion, procurait un cliché saillant… sur lequel
on pouvait tirer à dix, quinze ou vingt mille exemplaires sans qu'il y parût.»
(Louis de Villotte, De la stéréotypie, in Miscellanées bibliogr., t. I, pp. 9-10.)
Cf. aussi l'article Stéréotypie par Stark, in Encyclop. moderne, Complément,

t. XII, col. 438-442. Les Didot utilisèrent leur invention en publiant une
nombreuse collection de petits volumes à bon marché,—la collection
«stéréotype»—contenant tous les chefs-d'œuvre des littératures classiques,
qui obtint une très grande vogue, et peut se comparer à la collection de la
petite «Bibliothèque nationale», commencée par l'imprimeur Dubuisson en
1863, et qui se continue encore. Seulement, le papier des «stéréotypes» de
Didot, qui, au bout d'un siècle, est encore intact, est de beaucoup supérieur
à celui des petits volumes de Dubuisson, déjà tout piqués et jaunis.
Mentionnons encore, parmi les modes de reproduction typographique, le
procédé dit anastatique (ἀνάστασις, résurrection), applicable non seulement
aux livres, mais aux gravures, planches, etc. Il consiste à transporter sur une
plaque de métal le texte ou la gravure à reproduire; on encre ensuite cette
plaque, et l'on procède au tirage. Ce transport, qui s'effectuait jadis par des
moyens chimiques, imaginés en 1844 par M. Baldermus, de Berlin (cf.
Larousse, Grand Dicionn., et Grande Encyclop., art. Anastatique), s'opère
actuellement à l'aide de la photographie. Relativement coûteux et peu
expéditif, ce procédé ne convient que pour les tirages à petit nombre: on
l'emploie, par exemple, pour remplacer les pages manquantes dans un
ouvrage ancien, dans un livre de valeur, dont on possède un exemplaire
complet.
[232] L'épithète est de Jules Richard, l'Art de former une bibliothèque, p.
6: «On n'a jamais fait de plus vilaine librairie».
[233] Relativement à l'influence du public sur la qualité des livres, voir
Crapelet, loc. cit., pp. 225-226: «Il n'est pas douteux que ceux qui ont les
moyens d'acheter des livres, et qui ne considèrent que le bon marché dans
leurs acquisitions, ne peuvent pas employer plus mal leur argent. Les
libraires (éditeurs), entraînés par le goût du public, le servent à son gré, en
épuisant toutes les combinaisons pour lui donner de la marchandise à bas
prix, mais qui ne conserve pas la moindre valeur: car on n'a jamais bon
marché d'un livre incorrect, altéré, tronqué, et imprimé sur du mauvais
papier… Henri Estienne dit: «L'avarice, fléau plus redoutable à l'art
typographique qu'à aucun autre: Avaritia, malum in arte typographica magis
quam in alia ulla formidandum».
[234] Anciennement même «chaque ouvrage avait un correcteur
particulier. Les livres de religion étaient lus par des théologiens; les livres de
droit par des jurisconsultes; l'astronomie, la médecine, par ceux qui
possédaient ces sciences;» etc. (Crapelet, loc. cit., p. 155.) D'après le
règlement donné à l'imprimerie de Paris par François Ier, en 1539, et cité par
le même bibliographe (p. 181), «si les maistres imprimeurs des livres en latin
ne sont sçavans et suffisans pour corriger les livres qu'ils imprimeront, seront

tenus avoir correcteurs suffisans, sur peine d'amende arbitraire; et seront
tenus lesdicts correcteurs bien et soigneusement de corriger les livres,
rendre leurs corrections aux heures accoutumées d'ancienneté, et en tout
faire leur devoir…». Ces dispositions furent confirmées et maintenues par les
successeurs de François Ier. Néanmoins, le règlement de 1649 reproche à
l'imprimerie de Paris d'avoir beaucoup perdu de son ancien éclat, et impose
aux libraires (éditeurs) l'obligation de prendre un certificat de correction pour
certains livres. (Voir Crapelet, loc. cit., pp. 181-182.) D'après le règlement de
1686, les imprimeurs devaient faire imprimer les livres «en beaux caractères,
sur de bons papiers et bien corrects»; on exigeait même qu'ils ne pussent
ouvrir boutique à moins d'être «congrus en langue latine et de savoir lire le
grec». Quiconque était empêché de vaquer à la correction de ses ouvrages
devait avoir des correcteurs capables; et, ajoute l'ordonnance de 1728, les
feuilles mal corrigées par eux seraient réimprimées à leurs frais.» (Louisy, le
Livre, p. 234.)
[235] Nous n'avons pas à nous occuper, dans cette étude consacrée à la
connaissance, à l'usage et à l'amour du Livre, des rapports des auteurs avec
les éditeurs et les imprimeurs. Nous ne faisons qu'effleurer ici, à propos de la
netteté et de l'intégrité du texte, cette très intéressante et très complexe
question: la correction des épreuves, qui a fait et fera toujours le tourment
des écrivains, qui sera toujours leur «enfer»,—leur «paradis» étant de rêver
à leur œuvre et de l'exécuter en imagination, et leur «purgatoire» de la
coucher par écrit,—pour peu qu'ils aient la haine de l'à peu près, la passion
de l'exactitude, de l'ordre et de la clarté. «Je me soucie moins que vous ne
pourriez croire du succès de mes ouvrages, écrivait lord Byron à son
imprimeur Murray, mais la moindre faute de typographie me tue… Corrigez
donc si vous ne voulez me forcer à me couper la gorge.» (Ap. Crapelet, loc.
cit., p. 304.) Nous dirons seulement aux auteurs qu'une écriture bien lisible
et soignée n'est pas toujours, comme on serait tenté de le croire, une
garantie du bon travail de l'imprimeur: au contraire, paraît-il. Un manuscrit
artistement calligraphié ou seulement d'une parfaite lisibilité exige moins
d'attention de la part du compositeur, qui souvent alors compose «à vue de
nez». Cette opinion est confirmée par l'auteur anonyme d'un petit Manuel du
libraire, qui adresse, après Gilles Ménage, cet «Avis aux auteurs»: «Si vous
voulez qu'il n'y ait point de fautes dans les ouvrages que vous ferez
imprimer, ne donnez jamais de copies bien écrites, car alors on les donne à
des apprentis, qui font mille fautes; au lieu que si elles sont difficiles à lire,
ce sont [les bons ouvriers ou] les maîtres qui y travaillent eux-mêmes».
(Manuel du libraire, du biblioth. et de l'hom. de let., par un libraire. Paris,
Emler, 1828, p. 142. Cf. aussi Crapelet, loc. cit., pp. 289-290.) Henri de
Latouche, l'auteur de Fragoletta, partageait l'avis de Gilles Ménage, et il
affirme également que «plus le manuscrit sera clair et lisible», moins le

compositeur y apportera d'attention. (Cf. Crapelet, ibid.) Ajoutons encore
que, tout en traitant ces assertions de paradoxes, l'érudit imprimeur G.-A.
Crapelet, un des écrivains qui ont le mieux connu tous les détails de la
typographie et qui en ont le mieux parlé, les confirme et les appuie de sa
haute autorité. «… La nécessité où se trouve l'ouvrier d'apporter une
attention soutenue à la lecture des manuscrits de cette espèce (mal écrits et
surchargés de ratures et de renvois) donne à sa composition un certain
degré d'exactitude et de correction, quelquefois surprenant.» (Loc. cit., pp.
264 et 290.) Rappelons enfin, pour ne décourager personne, que la
perfection, typographique ou autre, n'est pas de ce monde, et qu'il n'existe
aucun livre sans faute, typographiquement parfait. «Un livre sans faute est
une chimère…» (Crapelet, loc. cit., p. 222.) Typographica ars nimis est
erroribus obnoxia. (Ange Rocca, ap. Crapelet, loc. cit., p. 221.) Ainsi le Virgile
in-folio, imprimé au Louvre par Pierre Didot en 1798, et qui, comme le
Racine de la même provenance, est réputé un des chefs-d'œuvre de la
typographie, contient un j dont le point manque, s'est détaché à la pression.
(Cf. A-F. Didot, Encyclop. moderne, art. Typographie, t. XXVI, col. 858-859.)
[236] N'avoir pas de correcteurs, ou n'en employer que d'incapables, a
été réputé crime en matière d'imprimerie par le philologue italien,
bibliothécaire du Vatican, Ange Rocca, mort en 1620. (Cf. Crapelet, loc. cit.,
p. 176.)
[237] L'Art de former une biblioth. pp. 81-82.
[238] Crapelet observe que cette anecdote bien connue n'a pas grand
fondement. «On rapporte, écrit-il, que Robert Estienne exposait des
épreuves devant sa maison, voisine du Collège de Beauvais, et des Écoles du
Droit Canon, situées rue Saint-Jean-de-Beauvais, et qu'il donnait une
récompense aux écoliers qui y découvraient des fautes. Si ce moyen a été
employé par Robert Estienne, il n'a pu lui sauver que des incorrections très
légères, car ce savant imprimeur avait lu et relu ses épreuves avant de les
exposer, et les écoliers n'étaient pas de force à découvrir des fautes graves
après la lecture d'un homme aussi habile et aussi exercé dans ce genre de
travail. D'ailleurs le fait en lui-même, qui n'est rapporté que comme un on-dit
par Jans. Almeloveen, dans sa Dissertatio de Vitis Stephanorum, me paraît
fort douteux, et pourrait bien n'être qu'une fiction pour enseigner qu'on ne
saurait prendre trop de précautions pour assurer la correction des livres.»
(Crapelet, loc. cit., pp. 213-214.)
[239] Histoire de France, t. IX, la Renaissance, chap. XI, p. 299 (Paris,
Marpon et Flammarion, 1879). Cf. aussi Larousse, loc. cit., art. Estienne
(Robert).

[240] On appelle titre courant le titre, soit de l'ouvrage, soit des
chapitres, qui se trouve répété et «court», pour ainsi dire, au sommet des
pages. On distingue encore, comme nous allons le voir (page suivante, note
241), trois autres espèces de titres: le faux titre, le titre ou grand titre, et le
titre de départ.
[241] C'est cependant ce que font souvent les imprimeurs anglais: ils
numérotent toutes les pages, excepté celles des trois titres par lesquels tout
livre débute généralement: 1o faux titre (la toute première page du livre: le
titre, ordinairement abrégé, et sans nom d'auteur, est placé au milieu de
cette page); 2o titre proprement dit, ou grand titre (titre complet, avec le
nom de l'auteur, et, au bas de la page, le nom et l'adresse—la firme—de
l'éditeur; le grand titre portait aussi autrefois le nom de frontispice: ce nom
est aujourd'hui réservé aux titres ornés de vignettes ou d'encadrements, ou
encore à la gravure placée en regard du titre—portrait de l'auteur, par
exemple,—et dont le sujet se rapporte de près ou de loin à l'ouvrage); 3o
titre de départ (placé en haut de la page: c'est sur cette page—la première,
à vrai dire,—que commence le texte de l'ouvrage);—excepté ces feuillets de
début, toutes les pages de l'intérieur du volume, les pages de titre d'article
et les belles pages comme les autres, sont foliotées: voir Encyclop.
britannica, t. III, p. 173 (let. B); t. VI, p. 756 (let. D); t. VII, p. 588 (let. E),
etc. Ces belles pages n'ont pas de titre courant, et leur folio se trouve placé
au sommet médial. L'effet de ce foliotage n'est nullement désagréable à
l'œil.
[242] F. Sarcey, Gare à vos yeux!! préface, p. V. (Paris, Ollendorff, 1884).
—«MM. H. Griffing et Shepherd J. Franz étudient depuis un certain temps
l'influence que peuvent avoir, sur la facilité de la lecture, le format, le dessin
des caractères d'imprimerie, l'intensité de la lumière, sa qualité, celle du
papier, l'interlignage (c'est-à-dire l'espacement des lignes d'impression). Ils
arrivent à cette conclusion que l'élément principal de la fatigue visuelle, ce
sont les dimensions des caractères: il ne faudrait jamais employer des
caractères de moins de 1 millimètre 1/2 de hauteur, et encore la fatigue
augmente-t-elle avant même qu'on ait affaire à des lettres d'un format aussi
réduit. Par rapport à ce côté de la question, l'éclairage n'est que tout à fait
secondaire.» (La Nature, 23 juillet 1898, p. 126.)
[243] A propos des formats, p. 90.
[244] In Musée des familles, 1er mars 1896, p. 158.
[245] Ap. Bouchot, le Livre, p. 297.
[246] G. Naudé, loc. cit., chap. V, p. 70. (Paris, Liseux, 1876.)

[247] Loc. cit., chap. VIII, p. 98
[248] Ed. Texier, ap. Mouravit, le Livre, p. 220.
[249] Lesné, loc. cit., p. 113.
[250] Ap. Mouravit, loc. cit., p. 209.
[251] Ibid. C'est à peu près ce que dit aussi Jules Richard, l'Art de former
une biblioth., p. 139: «Un bibliophile ne conserve pas les livres qu'on lit une
fois, mais seulement ceux qu'on relit avec plaisir, et que, par conséquent, on
relie plus ou moins richement.»
[252] Charles Blanc, Grammaire des arts décoratifs, la Reliure, p. 342.—
Cf. infra, chap. IX, p. 322.
[253] «Ce genre de reliure… permet au livre de se tenir ouvert sur une
table ou sur un pupitre, parce qu'on a supprimé la résistance qu'oppose le
dos de la couverture quand il adhère aux cahiers.» (Rouveyre, Connaissances
nécessaires à un biblioph., t. IV, p. 66.)
[254] S. Lenormand et Maigne, Manuel du relieur (Manuels Roret), p. 64.
—«… Ouvrir complètement le volume, et à plat, ce qui ne peut se faire avec
les livres reliés.» (Dr Graesel, Manuel de bibliothéconomie, p. 373.) C'est en
grande partie pour ce motif, afin que le livre puisse mieux s'ouvrir, que nous
conseillons, pour les volumes inférieurs à l'in-8, le cartonnage bradel.
[255] La largeur du format, voilà surtout ce qui, avec la flexibilité de la
garniture du dos, permet au livre de s'ouvrir aisément et de rester de lui-
même ouvert. Exemple: un volume oblong, un album. Prenez, au contraire,
un livre de format étroit, comme les in-12 elzevieriens (in-12 couronne: 0,09
× 0,157) de certaines collections modernes: relié, il est indispensable de
tenir ce petit volume à la main pour qu'il demeure ouvert, et il a toujours
tendance à se refermer de lui-même, comme mû par un ressort. C'est que,
dans le premier cas, le cas de l'album, la feuille étant plus large pèse
davantage sur son extrémité libre, retombe d'elle-même, et oppose ainsi un
contrepoids supérieur à la résistance de la couture et du dos; dans le second
cas, pour l'étroit petit elzevier, c'est cette résistance qui l'emporte.
Remarquons aussi que plus le papier est fort et rigide, plus la résistance du
dos est énergique. Le papier des anciens petits elzeviers était du papier de
fil, souple et peu épais: aussi ces gracieux petits volumes sont-ils autrement

maniables et «complaisants» que les prétendus elzeviers modernes à papiers
rigides.

[256] Charles Blanc, loc. cit., p. 337.
[257] Loc. cit., p. 337.
[258] Cf. Blanchon, l'Art et la Pratique en reliure, p. 18.
[259] Cf. Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 17.
[260] Cf. Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 18; et S. Lenormand et Maigne, loc. cit., p.
73.—Sur les reliures en cuir de Russie, cf. infra, chap. IX, pp. 368 et 369.
[261] Sur la fabrication et l'emploi du parchemin, voir de curieux
renseignements dans Lecoy de la Marche, les Manuscrits et la Miniature, pp.
27-36. Voir aussi Maire, Manuel prat. du biblioth., pp. 377-378; et Blanchon,
loc. cit., p. 18.
[262] Cf. supra, chap. II, p. 55.
[263] Chap. II, p. 56.
[264] Cf. Maire, loc. cit., p. 340.
[265] «A Venise, à Florence… Voilà le vrai berceau de la reliure… Les plus
beaux exemplaires des reliures de ce temps se trouvaient dans la
bibliothèque du célèbre bibliophile italien Maoli (Maïoli), qui a dû vivre de
1510 à 1560…» (Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 117.) «Au commencement du XVIe
siècle, les Italiens trouvent une voie nouvelle sous l'influence des Aldes, qui
avaient probablement joint à leur imprimerie un atelier de reliure. Venise fut
alors pour l'Italie l'école de la reliure, et, pour la première fois, les motifs en
plein or des Aldes servirent de remplissages dans les premières reliures à
entrelacs… L'Italie donne alors le ton à l'Europe. Les reliures à la Salamandre
de François Ier, conservées dans nos bibliothèques publiques, sont presque
toutes dans le goût italien. Les Italiens furent donc nos initiateurs; mais on
ne saurait méconnaître toutefois la grande part qu'ont eue, dans l'histoire de
l'art et de la reliure en particulier, les artistes français de la Renaissance,
notamment Nicolas Ève et son fils Clovis, célèbres libraires-relieurs de Henri
III et de Henri IV.» (Spire Blondel, l'Art intime et le Goût en France, pp. 318-
319.)
[266] Déjà au XVIe siècle, malgré la vogue de Venise, Bonaventure des
Periers faisait dire à Mercure, au début de son Cymbalum Mundi (p. 304.
Paris, Delahays, 1858. Nouv. édit. avec des notes et une notice par P. L.

Jacob, bibliophile [Paul Lacroix]): «Où est-ce que l'on relie le mieux? A
Athènes (id est en France, à Lyon, d'après le bibliophile Jacob, ibid.), en
Germanie, à Venise ou à Rome? Il me semble que c'est à Athènes.» C'est ce
qui a permis au comte de Laborde d'avancer que «la Reliure est un art tout
français». (Le Palais Mazarin, ap. P. L. Jacob, Mélanges bibliogr., p. 1.) «La
reliure d'art française occupe la première place en Europe, et, à l'appui de ce
que nous avançons, nous pourrions citer les prix toujours plus hauts
qu'atteignent, dans les ventes, non seulement les reliures anciennes, mais
aussi les travaux modernes.» (Blanchon, loc. cit., avant-propos, p. V.)
[267] «C'est au célèbre bibliophile Jean Grollier (sic) que semble de droit
appartenir l'honneur d'avoir créé la reliure française.» (P. L. Jacob, Mélanges
bibliogr., p. 2.).
[268] On écrit aussi Derome ou Deromme: l'orthographe donnée par Jal,
Dictionn., pp. 1082-1084, est de Rome, les de Rome.
[269] Outre les ouvrages déjà cités dans ce chapitre, voir sur l'historique
de la reliure: Éd. Fournier, l'Art de la reliure en France aux derniers siècles;—
Octave Uzanne, la Reliure moderne artistique et fantaisiste;—Henri Bouchot,
les Reliures d'art à la Bibliothèque nationale, passim;—Jules Le Petit, l'Art
d'aimer les livres, pp. 161-186;—Ludovic Lalanne, Curiosités bibliogr., pp. 282-
291;—et les ouvrages de MM. Léon Gruel, Émile Bosquet, Marius Michel, etc.
[270] La peau de morue a donné en reliure de très bons résultats.
(Renseignement fourni par la maison de reliure Engel.)
[271] Voir Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 30 nov. 1900, col. 917-918.
[272] Journal la Halle aux cuirs, in Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 10
avril 1886, col. 202.—Mais les avis diffèrent, et le même Intermédiaire, dans
son numéro du 30 décembre 1900, col. 1111, affirme, par la plume de M.
Marcellin Pellet, que «la peau humaine n'est pas belle en reliure; il est très
difficile, sinon impossible, de la dégraisser complètement».
[273] Mouravit, loc. cit., p. 233.—Un autre médecin anglais, le célèbre
John Hunter (1728-1794), fit relier de même en peau humaine un traité sur
les maladies de la peau. (Dictionn. de la Conversation, art. Reliure.)
[274] Revue encyclop., 11 juin 1898, p. 542.
[275] Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 25 mai 1879, col. 295, et 10
juillet 1882, col. 396; et Revue encyclop., loc. cit.

[276] Revue encyclop., loc. cit.
[277] Ibid.
[278] Revue encyclop., loc. cit., p. 542; et Alfred Franklin, les Anciennes
Bibliothèques de Paris, t. I, p. 297.
[280] Ibid.
[282] Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 10 octobre 1883, col. 585-586, et
Revue encyclopéd., loc. cit.
[283] Lalanne, loc. cit., p. 288.
[286] Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 128. On lit dans la Revue universelle (ex-
Revue encyclopédique) du 13 avril 1901, p. 337: «Ce fut à Mme Drouet qu'il
(Victor Hugo) donna les Châtiments reliés en maroquin pourpre, avec, sur le
plat, enchâssée dans le cuir, une abeille du manteau impérial de Napoléon
III, prise par M. Jules Claretie, lors du sac des Tuileries.»
[287] Ibid.
[288] Charles Blanc, loc. cit., p. 348.
[289] P. L. Jacob, Mélanges bibliogr., p. 19.
[290] Loc. cit., pp. 68-69.
[291] A.-F. Didot, l'Imprimerie, la Librairie et la Papeterie à l'Exposit.
univers. de 1851, Rapport du XVIIe jury, pp. 72-73.
[292] Pages 346 et 359.
[293] Une des meilleures couleurs usitées en reliure est la couleur dite
Lavallière (ou La Vallière:—allusion à la robe de Carmélite de Mlle de la
Vallière [cf. Littré, Dictionn., supplém.];—mais, dans cette acception, on écrit
le plus souvent ce nom en un seul mot). C'est une couleur de gamme assez
étendue, allant du brun clair au brun foncé.

[294] Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 123. «On donne ce nom (de reliures
jansénistes) aux reliures qui n'ont aucun ornement extérieur, pas même un
simple filet, et pas d'autre dorure que le titre du livre sur le dos,» dit M. A.
Claudin, Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 10 juin 1875, col. 348.
[295] Bouchot, le Livre, pp. 284 et 286.
[296] Éd. Fournier, l'Art de la reliure en France, in Intermédiaire des
cherch. et cur., 25 mars 1879, col. 190.
[297] «Rien de plus commun que l'S barré dans les lettres, manuscrits et
reliures, de 1560 environ à 1640. Il est possible qu'on en ait fait parfois un
rébus (fermesse [S fermé], c'est-à-dire fermeté), ou un monogramme; mais
c'est la plupart du temps… une fioriture, un paraphe, et, sur les reliures ou
les panneaux, un ornement.» (Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 25 avril
1881, col. 281; et 25 mai 1888, col. 297 et suiv.)
[298] Mouravit, loc. cit., pp. 241-242.
[299] Ou plutôt il devrait y avoir, car cette règle ne s'observe plus
toujours, et ces deux modes de reliure, cartonnage et emboîtage, finissent
par se confondre.
[300] Maire, loc. cit., pp. 296-297. D'autres font remonter l'existence et
l'invention du relieur Bradel jusqu'à la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle.
«Bradel avait, fin XVIIIe siècle, son atelier rue d'Écosse (Paris, Ve
arrondissement), en une maison appartenant au collège Sainte-Barbe… Cet
atelier fut ensuite occupé par Chichereau, aussi relieur, qui s'y trouvait
encore en 1792.» (Intermédiaire des cherch. et cur., 22 juin 1901, col.
1073.)
[301] Graesel, loc. cit., p. 373.
[302] Lesné, la Reliure, notes, p. 131.
[303] Émile Debraux, Chansons complètes, t. III, p. 61, les Relieurs. (Paris,
s. n. d'édit., imprim. P. Baudoin, 1836, 3 vol. petit in-32.)
[304] Octave Uzanne, la Reliure moderne, artistique et fantaisiste,
chapitre: Des cartonnages à la Bradel, p. 252.
[305] «Un livre qui n'a pas été suffisamment battu s'ouvre facilement,
bâille et devient ainsi un réceptacle à poussière et à vermine.» (Graesel, loc.
cit., p. 374.)

[306] Voir supra, p. 129.
[307] Ne pas confondre le mot «charnière» ainsi employé avec la
charnière—synonyme de mors—du plat des livres, dont il a été question ci-
dessus, p. 128.
[308] «La grecque…, méthode pernicieuse, qui gâte presque autant de
livres qu'on en relie.» (Lesné, loc. cit., p. 113.) Cf. aussi Lenormand et Maigne,
loc. cit., p. 130; Blanchon, loc. cit., p. 39; Larousse, Grand Dictionn., art.
Reliure; etc.
[309] Sur la couture à point arrière et à point devant, cf. Magasin
pittoresque, septembre 1874, p. 284.
[310] Page 129.
[311] Loc. cit., p. 130. Voir aussi Lesné, loc. cit., note 6 du chant I, p.
115, où les mêmes remarques se trouvent formulées à peu près dans les
mêmes termes.
[312] Non pas «malgré», mais conformément à ces recommandations.
Cette tricherie est admise et pratiquée ostensiblement dans tous les ateliers
de reliure. (A. C.)
[313] Je regrette de ne pouvoir citer, parmi ces inventeurs, aucun nom
français; mais, comme on l'a remarqué avant moi, nos mécaniciens-
constructeurs semblent «se désintéresser de la fabrication des machines à
l'usage des relieurs, et ne paraissent pas se rendre compte des besoins et
des nombreux vides à combler… S'ils faisaient pour la reliure» ce qu'on a fait
et ce qu'on fait journellement pour l'imprimerie, «nul doute que notre
outillage tiendrait actuellement la première place, et que nos praticiens ne
seraient pas forcés de demander à l'étranger ce qui leur est parfois
indispensable.» (Bosquet, la Reliure, p. 26, note 1.)
[314] Renseignements fournis par la maison de reliure Engel.
[315] Maire, loc. cit., p. 99, n. 1.
[316] Loc. cit., notes, pp. 116 et 135.
[317] Lenormand et Maigne, loc. cit., p. 371. Cf. aussi Blanchon, loc. cit., p.
43.
[318] Loc. cit., p. 125.

[319] Page 68.
[320] Graesel (loc. cit., p. 363), estime que, «pour un train d'une
importance moyenne, quinze jours, au maximum, sont largement
suffisants». Cela dépend de ce qu'il faut entendre par «importance
moyenne». En France, la plupart des relieurs trouveraient certainement ce
délai insuffisant pour un train composé seulement de vingt ou trente
volumes. Bien que s'appliquant en partie à des reliures de luxe, les
considérations de M. Jules Le Petit (l'Art d'aimer les livres, p. 182) me
semblent plus justes: «En général, il faut que vous ayez la patience
d'attendre au moins six mois à un an pour des reliures pleines en maroquin,
bien faites, et au moins deux mois pour des demi-reliures. En voici la raison:
les bons relieurs n'ont pas autant d'ouvriers que les relieurs de commerce…
Ensuite ils commencent leurs reliures par séries d'un même genre,» etc.
[321] Je rappelle qu'il n'est question ici que d'une bibliothèque
particulière et fermée, ne servant qu'à une seule personne. Pour une
bibliothèque publique, il est préférable, voire indispensable, que chaque
tome soit relié séparément, afin d'éviter d'en immobiliser deux en même
temps dans la même main.
[322] J. Le Petit, loc. cit., p. 185.
[323] Lesné, loc. cit., chant IV, p. 59.
[324] Lesné, loc. cit., notes du chant IV, p. 170.
[325] Id., ibid., mêmes notes, p. 172.
[326] C'est également le conseil donné par l'Instruction générale relat. au
service des biblioth. universitaires: «N'admettre la rognure que pour les
ouvrages usuels; interdire de rogner pour les autres, en les faisant
seulement rogner et jasper en tête, pour les préserver de la poussière.» (Ap.
Maire, loc. cit., p. 445.)
[327] Ap. Rouveyre, Connaissances nécessaires à un biblioph., 3e édit., t.
I, p. 88.
[328] Le bibliophile Jacob (Paul Lacroix), ap. Rouveyre, loc. cit., p. 87.
[329] Page 37.
[330] Préservés en queue et sur les marges extérieures, mais non en
tête: la tête, comme nous l'avons dit il y a un instant, doit toujours être
rognée, pour empêcher autant que possible l'intrusion de la poussière.

[331] Lorsque ces excédents de marge ont été laissés par mégarde dans
le cours d'un livre, par suite du pli accidentel d'un feuillet, ils portent le nom
de larrons. Les relieurs sont tenus d'éviter les larrons, qui sont des défauts,
tandis que les témoins, toujours laissés à dessein, sont un des détails des
reliures artistiques.—On appelle aussi larron en typographie tout «morceau
de papier qui, se trouvant sur la feuille à imprimer, reçoit l'impression» (la
prend en quelque sorte comme un voleur, un larron) «et laisse un blanc»
(Littré); et encore tout «pli qui se trouve dans une feuille de papier mise
sous la presse, et qui cause une défectuosité dans l'impression». (Id.)
[332] Sur les couvertures imprimées des livres brochés, voir
l'Intermédiaire des chercheurs et curieux, 1879 et 1886, passim. Au XVIe et
au XVIIe siècle, les livres se vendaient presque toujours reliés; les rares livres
non reliés s'appelaient livres en blanc. (Cf. L. Delisle, Catalogue général des
livr. impr. de la Biblioth. nation. Introduct., t. I, p. IV, n. 4.)
[333] «Une attention à laquelle les bibliophiles sont sensibles, c'est que le
prénom de l'écrivain ne soit pas séparé de son nom, lorsque la gloire ou la
notoriété ont rendu le nom et le prénom inséparables. Un relieur qui mettrait
sur le titre de la Légende des siècles: V. Hugo (au lieu de Victor Hugo), serait
un barbare.» (Charles Blanc, Grammaire des arts décoratifs, p. 360.)
[334] La peau servant à faire des pièces a très peu d'épaisseur; c'est de
la basane sciée: on sait que certaines peaux, et la basane est du nombre, se
divisent, se scient aisément dans le sens de leur longueur.
[335] «La règle est que les pièces ne doivent jamais être plus claires que
le dos. Toutefois, quelques amateurs, et je suis de ceux-là, aiment une pièce
verte ou rouge ou bleue sur un dos noir.» (Jules Richard, loc. cit., p. 60.) Le
même bibliographe recommande (loc. cit., p. 62) de «ne pas oublier de faire
toujours placer la date de l'édition en bas du dos de la reliure, sous le
dernier nerf. Cela a tout à fait bon air,» ajoute-t-il. Il dit encore (ibid.) qu'il
convient de joindre aux volumes qu'on fait relier tout ce qui peut en
augmenter le prix, par exemple, «un portrait de l'auteur, soit en gravure, soit
en photographie; s'il se peut, un autographe; des suites de gravures faites
pour d'autres éditions, soit avant la lettre, soit en divers états…» Mais ce
sont là des conseils quelque peu en dehors de notre programme, et qui
s'adressent plus aux fastueux et fantaisistes collectionneurs qu'aux dévoués
mais modestes amis des livres et de l'étude.
[336] Cf. chap. III, p. 76.
[337] Supplément au no 3 du journal la Reliure, «organe et propriété du
syndicat patronal des relieurs, brocheurs, cartonneurs, doreurs sur cuir,

doreurs sur tranches et marbreurs,» 7, rue Coëtlogon, Paris. Je donne ces
chiffres, parce qu'ils émanent d'un journal qui fait autorité dans la question,
d'un document quasi officiel; mais je ne dois pas dissimuler que ces prix sont
de beaucoup majorés, et que les reliures auxquelles ils se rapportent, faites
convenablement et chez de bons relieurs, coûtent environ 20 pour 100
moins cher. Il faut donc diminuer ces chiffres de cette somme, pour avoir le
prix réel et acceptable.
[338] Voir Sénèque, De la tranquillité de l'âme, IX, 9. (Pour abréger, je me
dispense, ici et plus bas, de citer le texte latin.) «Avoir des livres sans les lire,
c'est avoir des fruits en peinture,» disait Diogène. (Ap. Fertiault, les
Légendes du livre, p. 156.)
[339] Voir Sénèque, Lettres à Lucilius, lettre II. Cf. l'Ecclésiaste, XII, 12:
«Ne recherchez rien davantage, mon fils. Il n'y a point de fin à multiplier les
livres.»
[340] Pline le Jeune, Epist., VII, 9.
[341] Non legendos libros, sed lectitandos. (Epist., II, 17.)
[342] Ap. Mouravit, le Livre, p. 137.
[343] Ap. Fertiault, loc. cit., p. 20.
[344] Pages IX et 7.
[345] Voltaire, Articles de journaux, I, Conseils à un journaliste… (Œuv.
compl., t. IV, p. 615. Paris, édit. du Siècle, 1867-1870.)
[346] Manuel du biblioph., t. I, p. 11.
[347] Loc. cit., p. 312.
[348] Ap. Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis, t. IV, p. 403. Cf. le mot de
Royer-Collard à Alfred de Vigny: «Je ne lis plus, monsieur, je relis». (Sainte-
Beuve, Caus. du lundi, t. XI, p. 524.)
[349] En 1886, dans le journal l'Estafette: voir Larousse, Grand Dictionn.,
2e supplément, art. Larousse.
[350] Ap. Derome, le Luxe des livres, p. 59.
[351] A. de Boislisle, Mémoires de Saint-Simon, Avertissement, t. I, p.
LXXI (Collect. des Grands Écrivains de la France).

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