![spread of knowledge for the exercise of his judgment; and it is to
subject him to undeserved ignominy to debar him from the free use
of his intellect, as if he were a minor or an imbecile, incompetent to
think for himself. Putting even the difficulty of decision at its worst, it
can never be greater for the soldier than it is for the voter; and if the
former is incompetent to form an opinion, whence does the peasant
or mechanic derive his ability? Moreover, the existence of a just and
good cause has always been the condition insisted on as alone
capable of sanctioning military service by writers of every shade of
thought—by St. Augustine as representing the early Catholic Church,
by Bullinger or Becon as representatives of the early Reformed
Church, and by Grotius as representative of the modern school of
publicists. Grotius contends that no citizen or subject ought to take
part in an unjust war, even if he be commanded to do so. He openly
maintains that disobedience to orders is in such a case a lesser evil
than the guilt of homicide that would be incurred by fighting. He
inclines to the opinion that, where the cause of war seems doubtful,
a man would do better to refrain from service, and to leave the king
to employ those whose readiness to fight might be less hampered by
questions of right and wrong, and of whom there would always be a
plentiful supply. Without these reservations he regards the soldier’s
task as so much the more detestable than the executioner’s, as
manslaughter without a cause is more heinous than manslaughter
with one,[316] and thinks no kind of life more wicked than that of
men who, without regard for the cause of war, fight for hire, and to
whom the question of right is equivalent to the question of the
highest wage.[317]
These are strong opinions and expressions, and as their general
acceptance would logically render war impossible, it is no small gain
to have in their favour so great an authority as Grotius. But it is an
even greater gain to be able to quote on the same side an actual
soldier. Sir James Turner at the end of his military treatise called
‘Pallas Armata,’ published in 1683, came to conclusions which,
though adverse to Grotius, contain some remarkable admissions and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-38-320.jpg)
![show the difference that two centuries have made on military
maxims with regard to this subject. ‘It is no sin for a mere soldier,’
he says, ‘to serve for wages, unless his conscience tells him he fights
in an unjust cause.’ Again, ‘That soldier who serves or fights for any
prince or State for wages in a cause he knows to be unjust, sins
damnably.’ He even argues that soldiers whose original service
began for a just cause, and who are constrained by their military
oaths to continue in service for a new and unjust cause of war,
ought to ‘desert their employment and suffer anything that could be
done to them before they draw their swords against their own
conscience and judgments in an unjust quarrel.’[318]
These moral sentiments of a military man of the seventeenth
century are absolutely alien to the military doctrines of the present
day; and his remarks on wages recall yet another important
landmark of ancient thought that has been removed by the progress
of time. Early Greek opinion justly made no distinction between the
mercenary who served a foreign country and the mercenary who
served his own. All hired military service was regarded as
disgraceful, nor would anyone of good birth have dreamt of serving
his own country save at his own expense. The Carians rendered
their names infamous as the first of the Greek race who served for
pay; whilst at Athens Pericles introduced the custom of supporting
the poorer defenders of their country out of the exchequer.[319]
Afterwards, of course, no people ever committed itself more eagerly
to the pursuit of mercenary warfare.
In England also gratuitous military service was originally the
condition of the feudal tenure of land, nor was anyone bound to
serve the king for more than a certain number of days in the year,
forty being generally the longest term. For all service in excess of
the legal limit the king was obliged to pay; and in this way, and by
the scutage tax, by which many tenants bought themselves off from
their strict obligations, the principle of a paid military force was
recognised from the time of the Conquest. But the chief stipendiary
forces appear to have been foreign mercenaries, supported, not out](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-39-320.jpg)
![of the commutation tax, but out of the king’s privy purse, and still
more out of the loot won from their victims in war. These were those
soldiers of fortune, chiefly from Flanders, Brabançons, or Routers,
whose excesses as brigands led to their excommunication by the
Third Lateran Council (1179), and to their destruction by a crusade
three years later.[320]
But the germ of our modern recruiting system must rather be looked
for in those military contracts or indentures, by which from about the
time of Edward III. it became customary to raise our forces: some
powerful subject contracting with the king, in consideration of a
certain sum, to provide soldiers for a certain time and task. Thus in
1382 the war-loving Bishop of Norwich contracted with Richard II. to
provide 2,500 men-at-arms and 2,500 archers for a year’s service in
France, in consideration of the whole fifteenth that had been voted
by Parliament for the war.[321] In the same way several bishops
indented to raise soldiers for Henry V. And thus a foreign war
became a mere matter of business and hire, and armies to fight the
French were raised by speculative contractors, very much as men
are raised nowadays to make railways or take part in other works
needful for the public at large. The engagement was purely
pecuniary and commercial, and was entirely divested of any
connection with conscience or patriotism. On the other hand, the
most obviously just cause of war, that of national defence in case of
invasion, continued to be altogether disconnected with pay, and
remained so much the duty of the militia or capable male population
of the country, that both Edward III. and Richard II. directed writs
even to archbishops and bishops to arm and array all abbots, priors,
and monks, between the ages of sixteen and sixty, for the defence
of the kingdom.[322]
Originally, therefore, the paid army of England, as opposed to the
militia, implied the introduction of a strictly mercenary force
consisting indifferently of natives or foreigners, into our military
system. But clearly there was no moral difference between the two
classes of mercenaries so engaged. The hire, and not the cause,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-40-320.jpg)
![being the main consideration of both, the Englishman and the
Brabançon were equally mercenaries in the ordinary acceptation of
the term. The prejudice against mercenaries either goes too far or
not far enough. If a Swiss or an Italian hiring himself to fight for a
cause about which he was ignorant or indifferent was a mercenary
soldier, so was an Englishman who with equal ignorance and
indifference accepted the wages offered him by a military contractor
of his own nation. Either the conduct of the Swiss was blameless, or
the Englishman’s moral delinquency was the same as his.
The public opinion of former times regarded both, of course, as
equally blameless, or rather as equally meritorious. And it is worth
noticing that the word mercenary was applied alike to the hired
military servant of his own as of another country. Shakespeare, for
instance, applies the term mercenary to the 1,600 Frenchmen of low
degree slain at Agincourt, whom Monstrelet distinguishes from the
10,000 Frenchmen of position who lost their lives on that memorable
day—
In this ten thousand they have lost,
There are but sixteen hundred mercenaries.
And even so late as 1756, the original signification of the word had
so little changed, that in the great debate in the House of Lords on
the Militia Bill of that year Lord Temple and several other orators
spoke of the national standing army as an army of mercenaries,
without making any distinction between the Englishmen and the
Hessians who served in it.[323]
The moral distinction that now prevails between the paid service of
natives and of foreigners is, therefore, of comparatively recent
origin. It was one of the features of the Reformation in Switzerland
that its leaders insisted for the first time on a moral difference
between Swiss soldiers who served their own country for pay, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-41-320.jpg)
![those who with equal bravery and credit sold their strength to the
service of the highest foreign bidder.
Zwingli, and after him his disciple Bullinger, effected a change in the
moral sentiment of Switzerland equivalent to that which a man
would effect nowadays who should persuade men to discountenance
or abandon military service of any kind for pay. One of the great
obstacles to Zwingli’s success was his decided protest against the
right of any Swiss to sell himself to foreign governments for the
commission of bloodshed, regardless of any injury in justification;
and it was mainly on that account that Bullinger succeeded in 1549
in preventing a renewal of the alliance or military contract between
the cantons and Henry II. of France. ‘When a private individual,’ he
said, ‘is free to enrol himself or not, and engages himself to fight
against the friends and allies of his sovereign, I know not whether
he does not hire himself to commit homicide, and whether he does
not act like the gladiators, who, to amuse the Roman people, let
themselves to the first comer to kill one another.’
But it is evident that, except with a reservation limiting a man’s
service to a just national cause, Bullinger’s argument will also apply
to the case of a hired soldier of his own country. The duty of every
man to defend his country in case of invasion is intelligible enough;
and it is very important to notice that originally in no country did the
duty of military obedience mean more. In 1297 the High Constable
and Marshal of England refused to muster the forces to serve
Edward I. in Flanders, on the plea that neither they nor their
ancestors were obliged to serve the king outside his dominions;[324]
and Sir E. Coke’s ruling in Calvin’s case,[325] that Englishmen are
bound to attend the king in his wars as well without as within the
realm, and that their allegiance is not local but indefinite, was not
accepted by writers on the constitution of the country. The existing
militia oath, which strictly limits obedience to the defence of the
realm, covered the whole military duty of our ancestors; and it was
only the innovation of the military contract that prepared the way for
our modern idea of the soldier’s duty as unqualified and unlimited](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-42-320.jpg)
![tombs of the ancient German emperors at Spiers; they plundered
the churches; they reduced well-nigh to ashes Oppenheim, Spiers,
Worms, Mannheim, Heidelberg, and other flourishing cities; they
reduced 400,000 human beings to homelessness and destruction—
and all in the name of military duty and military honour! Yet, of a
truth, those were dastardly deeds if ever dastardly deeds have been
done beneath the sun; and it is the sheerest sophistry to maintain
that the men who so implicitly carried out their orders would not
have done more for their miserable honour, would not have had a
higher conception of duty, had they followed the dictates of their
reason and conscience rather than those of their military superiors,
and refused to sacrifice their humanity to an overstrained theory of
their military obligation, and their memory to everlasting execration.
In the case of these destroyers military duty meant simply military
servility, and it was this reckless servility that led Voltaire in his
‘Candide’ to put into the mouth of his inimitable philosopher, Martin,
that definition of an army which tales like the foregoing suggested
and justified: ‘A million of assassins, in regiments, traversing Europe
from end to end, and committing murder and brigandage by rules of
discipline for the sake of bread, because incompetent to exercise any
more honest calling.’[326]
An English case of this century may be taken as a parallel one to the
French of the seventeenth, and as an additional test of the orthodox
military dogma that with the cause of war a soldier has no concern.
It is the Copenhagen expedition of 1807, than which no act of might
within this century was more strongly reprobated by the public
opinion of Europe, and by all but the Tory opinion of England. A fleet
and army having been sent to the Danish capital, and the Danish
Government having refused to surrender their fleet, which was
demanded as the alternative of bombardment, the English military
officials proceeded to bombard the city, with infinite destruction and
slaughter, which were only stayed at last by the surrender of the
fleet as originally demanded. There was no quarrel with Denmark at
the time, there was no complaint of injury; only the surrender of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-45-320.jpg)
![fleet was demanded. English public opinion was both excited and
divided about the morality of this act, which was only justified on the
plea that the Government was in possession of a secret article of the
Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and the Czar of Russia, by which
the Danish fleet was to be made use of in an attack upon England.
But this secret article was not divulged, according to Alison, till ten
years afterwards,[327] and many disbelieved in its existence
altogether, even supposing that its existence would have been a
good case for war. Many military men therefore shared in the feeling
that condemned the act, yet they scrupled not to contribute their aid
to it. Were they right? Read Sir C. Napier’s opinion of it at the time,
and then say where, in the case of a man so thinking, would have
lain his duty: ‘This Copenhagen expedition—is it an unjust action for
the general good? Who can say that such a precedent is
pardonable? When once the line of justice has been passed, there is
no shame left. England has been unjust.... Was not our high honour
worth the danger we might perhaps have risked in maintaining that
honour inviolate?’[328]
These opinions, whether right or wrong, were shared by many men
in both services. Sir C. Napier himself says: ‘Were there not plenty of
soldiers who thought these things wrong? ... but would it have been
possible to allow the army and navy ... to decide upon the propriety
of such attacks?’[329] The answer is, that if they did, whether
allowed or not, such things would be impossible, or, at all events,
less probable: which is the best reason possible for the contention
that they should. Had they done so in this very instance, our
historians would have been spared the explanation of an episode
that is a dark blot upon our annals.
A more pleasing precedent, therefore, than that of the French
officers in the Palatinate, or of the English at Copenhagen, is the
case of Admiral Keppel, who, whilst numbers of naval officers flocked
to the Admiralty to offer their services or to request employment,
steadily declined to take part in the war of England against her](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-46-320.jpg)
![American colonies, because he deemed her cause a bad one.[330] He
did no violence to his reason or conscience nor tarnished his fame by
acting a part, of which in his individual capacity he disapproved. His
example is here held up as illustrating the only true doctrine, and
the only one that at all accords with the most rudimentary principles
of either religion or morality. The contrary doctrine bids a man to
forswear the use of both his reason and his conscience in
consideration for his pay, and deprives him of that liberty of thought
and moral action compared with which his civil and political liberty
are nothing worth. For what indeed is this contrary time-honoured
doctrine when stripped of all superfluities, and displayed in the outfit
of common sense and common words? What is it but that the duty
of military obedience overrides all duty of a man towards himself;
that, though he may not voluntarily destroy his body, he cannot do
too much violence to his soul; that it is his duty to annihilate his
moral and intellectual being, to commit spiritual suicide, to forego
the use of the noblest faculties which belong to him as a man; that
to do all this is a just cause of pride to him, and that he is in all
respects the nobler and better for assimilating himself to that
brainless and heartless condition which is that also of his charger or
his rifle?
If this doctrine is true and sound, then it may be asked whether
there has ever been or exists upon the earth any tyranny,
ecclesiastical or political, comparable to this military one; whether
any but the baser forms of priestcraft have ever sought to deprive a
man so completely of the enjoyment of his highest human
attributes, or to absolve him so utterly from all moral responsibility
for his actions.
This position can scarcely be disputed, save by denying the reality of
any distinction between just and unjust in international conduct; and
against this denial may be set not only the evidence of every age,
but of every language above the stage of mere barbarism. Disregard
of the difference is one of the best measures of the civilisation of a
people or epoch. We at once, for instance, form a higher estimate of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-47-320.jpg)
![the civilisation of ancient India, when we read in Arrian that her
kings were so apprehensive of committing an unjust aggression that
they would not lead their armies out of India for the conquest of
other nations.[331] One of the best features in the old pagan world
was the importance attached to the justice of the motives for
breaking the peace. The Romans appear never to have begun a war
without a previous consultation with the College of Fecials as to its
justice; and in the same way, and for the same purpose, the early
Christian emperors consulted the opinion of the bishops. If a Roman
general made an unjust attack upon a people his triumph was
refused, or at least resisted; nor are the instances infrequent in
which the senate decreed restitution where a consul, acting on his
own responsibility, had deprived a population of its arms, its lands,
or its liberties.[332] Hence the Romans, with all their apparent
aggressiveness, won the character of a strict regard to justice, which
was no small part of the secret of their power. ‘You boast,’ the
Rhodians said to them, ‘that your wars are successful because they
are just, and plume yourselves not so much on the victory which
concludes them as on the fact that you never begin them without
good cause.’[333] Conquest corrupted the Romans in these respects
as it has done many another people; but even to the end of the
Republic the tradition of justice survived; nor is there anything finer
in the history of that people than the attempt of the party headed by
Ateius the tribune to prevent Crassus leaving Rome when he was
setting out to make war upon the Parthians, who not only had
committed no injury, but were the allies of the Republic; or than the
vote of Cato, that Cæsar, who, in time of peace, had slain or routed
300,000 Germans, should be given up to the people he had injured
in atonement for the wrong he had done to them.
The idea of the importance of a just cause of war may be traced, of
course, in history, after the extinction of the grand pagan philosophy
in which it had its origin. It was insisted on even by Christian writers
who, like St. Augustine, did not regard all military service as wicked.
What, he asked, were kingdoms but robberies on a vast scale, if](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-48-320.jpg)
![their justice were put out of the reckoning.[334] A French writer of
the time of Charles V. concluded that while soldiers who fell in a just
cause were saved, those who died for an unjust cause perished in a
state of mortal sin.[335] Even the Chevalier Bayard, who
accompanied Charles VIII. without any scruple in his conquest of
Naples, was fond of saying that all empires, kingdoms, and
provinces were, if without the principle of justice, no better than
forests full of brigands;[336] and the fine saying is attributed to him,
that the strength of arms should only be employed for the
establishment of right and equity. But on the whole the justice of the
cause of war became of less and less importance as time went on;
nor have our modern Christian societies ever derived benefit in that
respect from the instruction or guidance of their churches at all
equal to that which the society of pagan Rome derived from the
institution of its Fecials, as the guardians of the national conscience.
It was among the humane endeavours of Grotius to try to remedy
this defect in modern States by establishing certain general
principles by which it might be possible to test the pretext of any
given war from the side of its justice. At first sight it appears obvious
that a definite injury is the only justification for a resort to hostilities,
or, in other words, that only a defensive war is just; but then the
question arises how far defence may be anticipatory, and an injury
feared or probable give the same rights as one actually sustained.
The majority of wars, that have not been merely wars of conquest
and robbery, may be traced to that principle in history, so well
expressed by Livy, that men’s anxiety not to be afraid of others
causes them to become objects of dread themselves.[337] For this
reason Grotius refused to admit as a good casus belli the fact that
another nation was making warlike preparations, building garrisons
and fortresses, or that its power might, if unchecked, grow to be
dangerous. He also rejected the pretext of mere utility as a good
ground for war, or such pleas as the need of better territory, the
right of first discovery, or the improvement or punishment of
barbarous nations.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-49-320.jpg)
![[1] Halleck’s International Law, ii. 21. Yet within three weeks of
the beginning of the war with France 60,000 Prussians were hors
de combat.
[2] ‘Artem illam mortiferam et Deo odibilem balistrariorum et
sagittariorum adversus Christianos et Catholicos exerceri de
cætero sub anathemate prohibemus.’
[3] Fauchet’s Origines des Chevaliers, &c. &c., ii. 56; Grose’s
Military Antiquities, i. 142; and Demmin’s Encyclopédie
d’Armurerie, 57, 496.
[4] Fauchet, ii. 57. ‘Lequel engin, pour le mal qu’il faisait (pire que
le venin des serpens), fut nommé serpentine,’ &c.
[5] Grose, ii. 331.
[6] Dyer, Modern Europe, iii. 158.
[7] Scoffern’s Projectile Weapons, &c., 66.
[8] Sur l’Esprit, i. 562.
[9] Reade, Ashantee Campaign, 52.
[10] Livy, xliv. 42.
[11] These Instructions are published in Halleck’s International
Law, ii. 36-51; and at the end of Edwards’s Germans in France.
[12] ‘It would have been desirable,’ said the Russian Government,
‘that the voice of a great nation like England should have been
heard at an inquiry of which the object would appear to have met
with its sympathies.’
[13] Jus Gentium, art. 887, 878.
[14] Florus, ii. 20.
[15] Edwards’s Germans in France, 164.
[16] This remarkable fact is certified by Mr. Russell, in his Diary in
the last Great War, 398, 399.
[17] Cicero, In Verrem, iv. 54.
[18] See even the Annual Register, lvi. 184, for a denunciation of
this proceeding.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-54-320.jpg)
![[19] Sismondi’s Hist. des Français, xxv.
[20] Edwards’s Germans in France, 171.
[21] Lieut-Col. Charras, La Campagne de 1815, i. 211, ii. 88.
[22] Woolsey’s International Law, p. 223.
[23] Cf. lib. xii. 81, and xiii. 25, 26; quoted by Grotius, iii. xi. xiii.
[24] iii. 41.
[25] Cambridge Essays, 1855, ‘Limitations to Severity in War,’ by
C. Buxton.
[26] See Raumer’s Geschichte Europa’s, iii. 509-603, if any doubt
is felt about the fact.
[27] General Order of October 9, 1813. Compare those of May
29, 1809, March 25, 1810, June 10, 1812, and July 9, 1813.
[28] Vattel, iii. ix. 165.
[29] Sir W. Napier (Peninsular War, ii. 322) says of the proceeding
that it was ‘politic indeed, yet scarcely to be admitted within the
pale of civilised warfare.’ It occurred in May 1810.
[30] Bluntschli’s Modernes Völkerrecht, art. 573.
[31] For the character of modern war see the account of the
Franco-German war in the Quarterly Review for April 1871.
[32] Halleck, ii. 22.
[33] Vehse’s Austria, i. 369. Yet, as usual on such occasions, the
excesses were committed in the teeth of Tilly’s efforts to oppose
them.
‘Imperavit Tillius a devictorum cædibus et corporum castimonia
abstinerent, quod imperium a quibusdam furentibus male
servatum annales aliqui fuere conquesti.’—Adlzreiter’s Annales
Boicæ Gentis, Part iii. l. 16, c. 38.
[34] Battles in the Peninsular War, 181, 182.
[35] Ibid. 396.
[36] Foxe’s Actes and Monuments, iii. 52.
[37] Saint-Palaye, Mémoires sur la Chevalerie, iii. 10, 133.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-55-320.jpg)
![[38] Vinsauf’s Itinerary of Richard I., ii. 16.
[39] Matthew of Westminster, 460; Grose, ii. 348.
[40] Monstrelet, ii. 115.
[41] Mémoires sur la Chevalerie, i. 322.
[42] Petitot, v. 102; and Ménard, Vie de B. du Guesclin, 440.
[43] Petitot, v. 134.
[44] Meyrick, Ancient Armour, ii. 5.
[45] i. 123.
[46] Monstrelet, i. 259.
[47] ii. 5.
[48] ii. 11.
[49] ii. 22, compare ii. 56.
[50] Monstrelet, ii. 111.
[51] ii. 113.
[52] See for some, Livy, xxix. 8, xxxi. 26, 30, xxxvii. 21, xliii. 7,
xliv. 29.
[53] Livy, xliv. 29.
[54] Meyrick, i. 41.
[55] Demmin, Encyclopédie d’Armurerie, 490.
[56] Meyrick, ii. 204.
[57] Grose, ii. 114.
[58] Petitot, xvi. 134.
[59] Grose, ii. 343.
[60] iv. 27.
[61] iv. 36.
[62] iii. 109.
[63] Mémoires, vi. 1.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-56-320.jpg)
![[64] Halleck, International Law, ii. 154.
[65] Elements of Morality, sec. 1068.
[66] Des Droits et Devoirs des Nations neutres, ii. 321-323.
[67] History of the Royal Navy, i. 357.
[68] Nicolas, ii. 341.
[69] Nicolas, ii. 405.
[70] Monstrelet, i. 12.
[71] Nicolas, ii. 108.
[72] Ibid. i. 333.
[73] Froissart, ii. 85.
[74] Entick, New Naval History (1757), 823. ‘Some of the Spanish
prizes were immensely rich, a great many of the French were of
considerable value, and so were many of the English; but the
balance was about two millions in favour of the latter.’
[75] From Entick’s New Naval History (1757), 801-817.
[76] Martens, Essai sur les Corsaires (Horne’s translation), 86, 87.
[77] Ibid. 93.
[78] III. xv. 229.
[79] Emerigon, On Insurances (translation), 442.
[80] Martens, 19.
[81] Hautfeuille, Des Droits et Devoirs des Nations neutres, ii.
349.
[82] De Jure Maritimo, i. 72.
[83] Despatches, vi. 145.
[84] Despatches, vi. 79.
[85] The last occasion was on April 13, 1875.
[86] Halleck, International Law, ii. 316.
[87] Bluntschli, Modernes Völkerrecht, art. 665.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-57-320.jpg)
![[88] James, Naval History, i. 255.
[89] James, ii. 71.
[90] Ibid. ii. 77.
[91] Ortolan, Diplomatie de la Mer, ii. 32.
[92] Campbell’s Admirals, viii. 40.
[93] Campbell, vii. 21. James, i. 161. Stinkpots are jars or shells
charged with powder, grenades, &c.
[94] James, i. 283.
[95] Brenton, ii. 471.
[96] Caltrops, or crows’-feet, are bits of iron with four spikes so
arranged that however they fall one spike always remains
upwards. Darius planted the ground with caltrops before Arbela.
[97] Chapter xix. of the Tactica.
[98] Frontinus, Strategematicon, IV. vii. 9, 10. ‘Amphoras pice et
tæda plenas; ... vascula viperis plena.’
[99] Roger de Wendover, Chronica. ‘Calcem vivam, et in pulverem
subtilem redactam, in altum projicientes, vento illam ferente,
Francorum oculos excæcaverunt.’
[100] Brenton, i. 635.
[101] De Jure Maritimo, i. 265.
[102] Rees’s Cyclopædia, ‘Fire-ship.’
[103] Brenton, ii. 493, 494.
[104] Halleck, ii. 317.
[105] Woolsey, International Law, 187.
[106] James, i. 277.
[107] Phillimore, International Law, iii. 50-52.
[108] International Law, ii. 95.
[109] Villiaumé, L’Esprit de la Guerre, 56.
[110] De Commines, viii. 8.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-58-320.jpg)
![[111] Watson’s Philip II., ii. 74.
[112] Ibid. i. 213.
[113] Memoirs, c. 19.
[114] Villiaumé (L’Esprit de la Guerre, 71) gives the following
version: ‘En 1793 et en 1794, le gouvernement anglais ayant violé
le droit des gens contre la République Française, la Convention,
dans un accès de brutale colère, décréta qu’il ne serait plus fait
aucun prisonnier anglais ou hanovrien, c’est-à-dire que les
vaincus seraient mis à mort, encore qu’ils se rendissent. Mais ce
décret fut simplement comminatoire; le Comité de Salut Public,
sachant très-bien que de misérables soldats n’étaient point
coupables, donna l’ordre secret de faire grâce à tous les vaincus.’
[115] Herodotus, vii. 136.
[116] Livy, xlv. 42.
[117] Ibid. xlv. 43.
[118] Ward, Law of Nations, i. 250.
[119] Petitot’s Mémoires, xvi. 177.
[120] Livy, xlii. 8, 9.
[121] Monstrelet, Chronicles, i. 200.
[122] Ibid. i. 224.
[123] Ibid. i. 249.
[124] Ibid. i. 259.
[125] Monstrelet, ii. 156.
[126] Ibid. 120.
[127] Philip de Commines, ii. 1.
[128] Ibid. ii. 2.
[129] Ibid. ii. 14.
[130] Philip de Commines, iii. 9.
[131] Motley’s United Netherlands, iii. 323.
[132] Vattel, iii. 8, 143.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-59-320.jpg)
![[133] Borbstaedt, Franco-German War (translation), 662.
[134] Ward, i. 223.
[135] Quintus Curtius, iv. 6, and Grote, viii. 368.
[136] Quintus Curtius, vii. 11.
[137] Ibid. iv. 15.
[138] Arrian, iii. 18.
[139] Quintus Curtius, vii. 5.
[140] ‘Tous deux furent très braves, très vaillants, fort bizarres et
cruels.’
[141] Lyttleton, Henry II., i. 183.
[142] Hoveden, 697.
[143] 2 Samuel xii. 31.
[144] Memoirs of a Cavalier, i. 47.
[145] Memoirs of a Cavalier, 49.
[146] ‘Life of Bayard’ in Petitot’s Mémoires, xvi. 9.
[147] Major-General Mitchell’s Biographies of Eminent Soldiers,
92.
[148] Livy, xxxi. 40. When Pelium was taken by storm, only the
slaves were taken as spoil; the freemen were even let off without
ransom.
[149] Ibid. xxviii. 3.
[150] Ibid. xxviii. 20, xxvii. 16, xxxi. 27.
[151] De Officiis, i. 12. Yet on this passage is founded the
common assertion that among the Romans ‘the word which
signified stranger was the same with that which in its original
denoted an enemy’ (Ward, ii. 174); implying that in their eyes a
stranger and an enemy were one and the same thing. Cicero says
exactly the reverse.
[152] Recueil de Documents sur les exactions, vols, et cruautés
des armées prussiennes en France. The book is out of print, but
may be seen at the British Museum, under the title, ‘Prussia—](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-60-320.jpg)
![Army of.’ It is to be regretted that, whilst every book, however
dull, relating to that war has been translated into English, this
record has hitherto escaped the publicity it so well deserves.
[153] Ibid. 19.
[154] Ibid. 8.
[155] Ibid. 13.
[156] Chaudordy’s Circular of November 29, 1870, in the Recueil.
[157] Recueil, 12, 15, 67, 119.
[158] Ibid. 56.
[159] Ibid. 54.
[160] Recueil, 33-37, and Lady Bloomfield’s Reminiscences, ii.
235, 8, 9.
[161] The Times, March 7, 1881.
[162] Recueil, 29; compare 91.
[163] Morley’s Cobden, ii. 177.
[164] Professor Sheldon Amos quotes the fact, but refrains from
naming the paper, in his preface to Manning’s Commentaries on
the Law of Nations, xl. Was it not the Journal de France for Nov.
21, 1871?
[165] iii. i. viii. 4.
[166] De Officiis, i. 13.
[167] Modernes Völkerrecht, Art. 565.
[168] Polyænus, Strategematum libri octo, i. 34.
[169] Polyænus, v. 41.
[170] Ortolan’s Diplomatie de la mer, ii. 31, 375-7.
[171] James’s Naval History, ii. 211; Campbell’s Admirals, vii. 132.
[172] James, Naval History, ii. 225.
[173] Nicolas, Royal Navy, ii. 27.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-61-320.jpg)
![[174] Hautefeuille, Droit Maritime, iii. 433. ‘Les vaisseaux de l’Etat
eux-mêmes ne rougissent pas de ces grossiers mensonges qui
prennent le nom de ruses de guerre.’
[175] xiii. 1.
[176] Montaigne, ch. v.
[177] vii. 4. ‘Quia appellatione nostra vix apte exprimi possunt,
Græca pronuntiatione Stratagemata dicuntur.’
[178] Livy, xlii. 47.
[179] Histoire de la France, iii. 401.
[180] The word musket is from muschetto, a kind of hawk,
implying that its attack was equally destructive and unforeseen.
[181] Polyænus, ii. 19.
[182] Polyænus, iii. 2; from Thucydides, iii. 34.
[183] Ibid. vii. 27, 2.
[184] Ibid. iv. 2-4.
[185] Liskenne, Bibliothèque Historique et Militaire, iii. 845.
[186] Memoirs, ch. xix.
[187] ix. 6, 3.
[188] vi. 22.
[189] vi. 15.
[190] iv. 7, 17.
[191] E. Fournier, L’Esprit dans l’Histoire, 145-150.
[192] iii. 10.
[193] Liskenne, v. 233-4.
[194] Soldier’s Pocket-Book, 81.
[195] Polyænus, viii. 16, 8. ‘Lege Romanorum jubente hostium
exploratores interficere.’
[196] Livy, xxx. 29. According to Polyænus, he gave them a
dinner and sent them back with instructions to tell what they had](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-62-320.jpg)
![seen; viii. 16, 8.
[197] Watson’s Philip II. iii. 311.
[198] Liskenne, iii. 840.
[199] Hoffman, Kriegslist, 15.
[200] Petitot’s Mémoires de la France, xv. 317.
[201] Polyænus, ii. 27.
[202] Ibid. v. 1, 4.
[203] Memoirs, ch. xix.
[204] Livy, xxxiv. 17.
[205] As at the Brussels Conference, 1874, when such a proposal
was made by the member for Sweden and Norway.
[206] In Pinkerton, xvi. 817.
[207] Turner’s Nineteen Years in Samoa, 304.
[208] Schoolcraft’s Indian Tribes, iv. 52.
[209] The Basutos, 223.
[210] Potter’s Grecian Antiquities, ii. 69.
[211] Turner’s Samoa, 298.
[212] Ellis’s Polynesian Researches, i. 275.
[213] Hutton’s Voyage to Africa, 1821, 337.
[214] Colenso and Durnford’s Zulu War, 364, 379.
[215] Petitot’s Mémoires, xv. 329.
[216] The evidence is collected in Cetschwayo’s Dutchman, 99-
103.
[217] Henty’s March to Coomassie, 443. Compare Reade’s
Ashantee Campaign, 241-2.
[218] Florus, ii. 19; iii. 4; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 1.
[219] Florus, ii. 20.
[220] Ibid. iii. 7.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-63-320.jpg)
![[221] Florus, iii. 4; Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, ix. 44.
[222] Morley’s Cobden, ii. 355.
[223] Sir A. Helps’ Las Casas, 29.
[224] T. Morton’s New England Canaan, 1637, iii.
[225] Belknap’s New Hampshire, i. 262.
[226] Penhallow’s Indian Wars, 1826, republished 1859, 31-3.
[227] Ibid. 105, 6.
[228] Ibid. 103. For further details of this debased military
practice, see Adair’s History of American Indians, 245; Kercheval’s
History of the Valley of Virginia, 263; Drake’s Biography and
History of the Indians, 210, 373; Sullivan’s History of Maine, 251.
[229] Kercheval’s Virginia, 113.
[230] Eschwege’s Brazil, i. 186; Tschudi’s Reisen durch
Südamerika, i. 262.
[231] Parkman’s Expedition against Ohio Indians, 1764, 117.
[232] Argensola, Les Isles Molucques, i. 60.
[233] Drake’s Biography and History of the Indians, 489, 490.
[234] R. C. Burton’s City of the Saints, 576; Eyre’s Central
Australia, i. 175-9.
[235] Borwick’s Last of the Tasmanians, 58.
[236] Tschudi’s Reisen, ii. 262.
[237] Maccoy’s Baptist Indian Missions, 441; Froebel’s Seven
Years in Central America, 272; Wallace’s Travels on the Amazon,
326.
[238] Bancroft’s United States, ii. 383-5; and compare Clarkson’s
Life of Penn, chaps. 45 and 46.
[239] Brooke’s Ten Years in Sarawak, i. 74.
[240] Captain Hamilton’s East Indies, in Pinkerton, viii. 514.
[241] W. H. Russell’s My Diary in India, 150.
[242] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, viii. 280-6.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-64-320.jpg)
![[243] Caffres and Caffre Missions, 210.
[244] Memorials of Henrietta Robertson, 259, 308, 353.
[245] Ibid. 353.
[246] Colenso and Durnford’s Zulu War, 215.
[247] Holden’s History of Natal, 210, 211.
[248] Moister’s Africa, Past and Present, 310, 311.
[249] Tams’s Visit to Portuguese Possessions, i. 181, ii. 28, 179.
[250] Robertson’s America; Works, vi. 177, 205.
[251] Thomson’s Great Missionaries, 30; Halkett’s Indians of
North America, 247, 249, 256.
[252] Le Blant, Inscriptions Chrétiennes, i. 86.
[253] Bingham, Christian Antiquities, i. 486.
[254] Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, vi. 14. ‘Druides a bello abesse
consuerunt ... militiæ vacationem habent;’ and Origen, In Celsum,
viii. 73, for the Romans.
[255] Vaughan’s Life of Wycliffe, ii. 212-3.
[256] Turner’s England, iv. 458, from Duchesne, Gesta Stephani.
[257] ‘Non filius meus est vel ecclesiæ; ad regis autem
voluntatem redimetur, quia potius Martis quam Christi miles
judicatur.’
[258] Turner’s England, v. 92.
[259] ‘Sanxit ut nullus in posterum sacerdos in hostem pergeret,
nisi duo vel tres episcopi electione cæterorum propter
benedictionem populique reconciliationem, et cum illis electi
sacerdotes qui bene scirent populis pœnitentias dare, missas
celebrare, etc.’ (in Du Cange, ‘Hostis’).
[260] Guicciardini. ‘Prometteva che se i soldati procedevano
virilmente, che non accetterebbe la Mirandola con alcuno patto:
ma lascierebbe in potestà loro il saccheggiarla.’
[261] Monstrelet, i. 9.
[262] Crichton’s Scandinavia, i. 170.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-65-320.jpg)
![[263] Mémoires du Fleurange. Petitot, xvi. 253.
[264] See Palmer, Origines Liturgicæ, ii. 362-65, for the form of
service.
[265] Petitot, xvi. 229.
[266] Ibid. 135.
[267] Petitot, viii. 55. ‘Feciono venire per tutto il campo un prete
parato col corpo di Christo, e in luogo di communicarsi ciascuno
prese uno poco di terra, e la si mise in boca.’
[268] Livy, xxxvi. 2.
[269] Robertson, Charles V., note 21. Ryan, History of Effects of
Religion on Mankind, 124.
[270] M. J, Schmidt, Histoire des Allemands traduite, etc., iv. 232,
3.
[271] ‘Christianis licet ex mandato magistratus arma portare et
justa bella administrare.’
[272] Policy of War a True Defence of Peace, 1543.
[273] Pallas Armata, 369, 1683.
[274] In his treatise Du droit de la guerre.
[275] L’Esprit, i. 562.
[276] Strafgesetzbuch, Jan. 20, 1872, 15, 75, 150.
[277] Fleming’s Volkommene Teutsche Soldat, 96.
[278] Benet’s United States Articles of War, 391.
[279] Grose, ii. 199.
[280] See Turner’s Pallas Armata, 349, for these and similar
military tortures.
[281] Crichton’s Scandinavia, i. 168.
[282] Grose, ii. 6.
[283] Sir S. Scott’s History of the British Army, ii. 436.
[284] ii. 16. ‘Omnes autem signarii vel signiferi quamvis pedites
loricas minores accipiebant, et galeas ad terrorem hostium ursinis](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-66-320.jpg)
![pellibus tectas.’
[285] Scott, ii. 9.
[286] Scott, i. 311.
[287] Said to have been invented about 400 B.C. by Dionysius,
tyrant of Syracuse.
[288] Mitchell’s Biographies of Eminent Soldiers, 208, 287.
[289] Compare article 14 of the German Strafgesetzbuch of
January 20, 1872.
[290] Nineteenth Century, November 1882: ‘The Present State of
the Army.’
[291] De Re Militari, vi. 5.
[292] Bruce’s Military Law (1717), 254.
[293] See Fleming’s Teutsche Soldat, ch. 29.
[294] See the War Articles for 1673, 1749, 1794.
[295] 82.
[296] Quintus Curtius, viii. 2.
[297] Military Law, 163.
[298] 286, 290.
[299] Despatches, iii. 302, June 17, 1809.
[300] Compare also Despatches, iv. 457; v. 583, 704, 5.
[301] China War, 225.
[302] Scott’s British Army, ii. 411.
[303] Wellington’s Despatches, v. 705.
[304] See Windham’s Speech in the House of Commons. April 3,
1806.
[305] Ibid.
[306] P. 122.
[307] Fleming, 109.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11572-250222211934-660971fd/85/Get-full-Solution-Manual-for-Fundamentals-of-Management-8th-Edition-free-all-chapters-67-320.jpg)
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- 5. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Teaching Tip: Note the similarities and differences among the kinds of resources used by profit- seeking and not-for-profit organizations. For example, both an airline and a university may buy food in bulk, but they have different revenue sources to pay for that food. Group Exercise: A good icebreaking exercise for the first day of class is to have students form into small groups, select two or three different kinds of organizations, and identify examples of the different kinds of resources they use. Efficient means using resources wisely and in a cost-effective way. Effective means making the right decisions and successfully implementing them. A. Kinds of Managers 1. Managers at different levels of the organization a) Top managers are the small group of executives who control the organization by setting its goals, overall strategy, and operating policies. Top managers also represent the organization to the external environment. Job titles for top managers include CEO, president, and vice president. Management Update: While CEO salaries have risen over the years, they have been affected by the economic downturn. The average salary for S&P 500 company CEOs was $11.4 million in 2009, a 11% cut over 2008. The decline was starker in 2012, where the average salary was $9.6 million, while it increased to $14.1 million in 2013. b) Middle managers are the largest group of managers in most companies. These managers hold positions such as plant manager, operations manager, and division head. They primarily take the goals and strategies designed by top managers and put them into effect. They supervise lower-level managers. c) First-line managers supervise and coordinate the activities of operating employees. They often have job titles such as foreman, supervisor, and office manager. The majority of their work is direct supervision of their subordinates. 2. Areas of management a) Marketing managers work in areas related to the marketing function of the organization. They help to find ways to get consumers and clients to buy the organization’s products. Discussion Starter: Point out for students that their major will play a large role in determining the area of management they enter after graduation (assuming that they go to work for a large organization). For example, a marketing major’s first job is likely to be a first-line management position in the marketing function, whereas a finance major will more likely start out as a first-line financial manager. b) Financial managers deal primarily with an organization’s financial resources and are involved in such activities as accounting, cash management, and investments. c) Operations managers are concerned with creating and managing the systems that create an organization’s products and services. They achieve their goals through production control, inventory control, quality control, and plant site selection and layout. d) Human resource managers are responsible for hiring and developing employees. They are concerned with the flow of employees into the organization, through the organization, and out of the organization. e) General managers are generalists who have some basic familiarity with all functional areas of management rather than specialized training in any one area. f) Specialized types of managers include those who work in public relations, R&D, internal consulting, and international business.
- 6. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 3 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify additional examples of managers, with an emphasis on as many different kinds of organizations and management positions as possible. The wide variety of answers that is likely to emerge can be used to stress the diversity that exists in managerial work. B. Bas The decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling. Extra Example: Richard Parsons, the former CEO of Time Warner, can be used to illustrate the basic management functions. He planned how the firm will increase the value of its stock. He fostered an organization design that helped to better integrate the firm’s many business units. He had a reputation for being well liked, thanks to his self-deprecating sense of humor. He continually monitored the firm’s progress toward its goals. 1. 2. Planning and decision making determine courses of action. Planning means setting an organization’s goals and deciding how best to achieve them. Decision making, a part of the planning process, involves selecting a course of action from a set of alternatives. Organizing is grouping activities and resources. Management Update: The most significant trend in organizing today is the elimination of management layers to create organizations that are leaner and flatter. 3. 4. Leading is the set of processes used to get people to work together to further the interests of the organization. Controlling is monitoring the progress of the organization as it works toward its goals to ensure that it is effectively and efficiently achieving these goals. C. Fundamental Management Skills Management Update: In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the concept of managerial skills. There are useful self-assessment skills exercises found at the end of each chapter in this book. 1. Technical skills are necessary to accomplish or understand tasks relevant to the organization. Extra Example: When Louis Gerstner was appointed as CEO of IBM, some critics argued that he knew nothing about computers. However, he silenced his critics by immersing himself in the study of new technology and soon became a knowledgeable expert. 2. 3. 4. 5. Interpersonal skills rely on the ability to communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups. Conceptual skills include the ability to think in abstract terms and the mental capacity to understand the “big picture” or the overall workings of the organization and its environment. Diagnostic skills consist of the ability to recognize the symptoms of a problem and then determine an action plan to fix it. Communication skills are abilities to effectively convey ideas and information to others and effectively receive ideas and information from others. Extra Example: Bill Ford, the former CEO and chairman of Ford Motors, is known for his ability to effectively convey a vision of the firm’s future to both workers and investors. 6. Decision-making skills include the ability to correctly recognize and define problems and opportunities and to then select an appropriate course of action to solve problems and capitalize on opportunities. 7. Time management skills are abilities such as prioritizing work, working efficiently, and delegating appropriately.
- 7. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 4 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Extra Example: One of the criticisms of Martha Stewart, head of Living Omnimedia, is that she has a hard time delegating tasks to her subordinates and becomes personally involved in too many decisions. Stewart, however, responds that her attention to detail is an important factor in her success. D. The Science and the Art of Management 1. Management is partly a science, because some aspects of management are objective and can be approached with rationality and logic. Discussion Starter: The science of management might be analogous to the activities of developing computer hardware or playing a violin. There are specific right and wrong ways of doing things, and mistakes are easily noted. 2. Management is partly an art, because some aspects of management are subjective and are based on intuition and experience. Discussion Starter: The art of management might be analogous to the activities of writing computer software or conducting the orchestra. More intuition and “feel” are needed to complete these activities, and mistakes may be harder to pinpoint. II. The Evolution of Management A. The Importance of History and Theory Teaching Tip: Many students seem to react negatively to the concept of a “theory.” Ask for student opinions about the reasons for the popularity or lack of popularity of a particularly high-profile politician (such as the president) or other public figure (such as a sports figure or movie star). Then point out that their explanation is a theory. Go on to stress the point that theories are simply frameworks of thought and that most people hold a number of different theories. 1. Why theory? Theory provides a simple conceptual framework for organizing knowledge and providing a blueprint to help organizations achieve their goals. Management Update: Andrew Grove continued to espouse his theory of organizations at Intel until his retirement. He gave the theory credit for Intel’s continued success in the semiconductor business. 2. Why history? Contributions from past industrialists have molded the American culture, and managers can benefit from an awareness of these contributions. Interesting Quote: “Business history lets us look at what we did right and, more important, it can help us be right the next time.” (Alfred Chandler, Harvard Business School professor, Audacity, Fall 1992, p. 15.) Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have read any books about history that may help them be better managers. B. The While the practice of management can be traced back thousands of years, it was not given serious attention until the 1800s, when large organizations emerged. Global Connection: Many Japanese executives today give some of the credit for their success to a book written in 1645. The book, entitled A Book of Five Rings, was written by a samurai warrior. The book describes numerous ideas and concepts for successful competition that can be generalized to management.
- 8. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 5 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Discussion Starter: Ask students to think about social, economic, and political forces today that may shape the way business will be conducted in the future. How can managers better anticipate these changes? C. The Classical Management Perspective The classical management perspective includes two approaches: scientific management and administrative management. 1. Scientific management focuses on ways to improve the performance of individual workers. a) Frederick W. Taylor saw workers soldiering, or deliberately working beneath their potential. He divided each job into parts and determined how much time each part of the job should take, thus indicating what each worker should be producing. He designed the most efficient way of doing each part of the job, and instituted a piecework pay system with incentives for workers who met or exceeded the target output level. Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have ever observed soldiering. Ask them if they have ever been “guilty” of such behavior themselves. Extra Example: Frederick Taylor applied many of the concepts of scientific management to his favorite sports, lawn tennis and croquet. b) Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband-and-wife team, also helped to find more efficient ways for workers to produce output. Discussion Starter: Ask students to discuss or debate the merits of time-and-motion studies and other efficiency techniques. Extra Example: Another area in which Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made substantial contributions was in assisting the handicapped. In particular, they helped develop vocational training methods for assisting disabled veterans. Extra Example: Other businesses today that rely heavily on scientific management concepts include poultry processing plants and recycling centers that sort glass, plastics, and papers into different categories.2. Administrative management focuses on managing the total organization. a) Henri Fayol was the first to identify the four management functions—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—and he developed guidelines for managers to follow. These guidelines form fourteen principles for effective management. Discussion Starter: Ask students to discuss the relevance of each of Fayol’s principles to modern management. b) Lyndall Urwick is best known for integrating scientific management with administrative management. c) Max Weber outlined the concept of bureaucracy based on a rational set of guidelines for structuring organizations in the most efficient manner. His work is the foundation of contemporary organization theory. Global Connection: Note the influence of foreign scholars. For example, Fayol was French, Urwick was British, and Weber was German.
- 9. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 6 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 3. Assessment of the classical perspective a) Contributions of the classical perspective are that it laid the foundation for management theory; it identified key processes, functions, and skills that are still important today; and it made management a valid subject of scientific inquiry. b) Limitations include that it is not well suited for complex or dynamic organizations, it provided universal procedures that are not appropriate in all settings, and it viewed employees as tools rather than resources. D. The Behavioral Management Perspective The behavioral management perspective placed more emphasis on individual attitudes and behaviors and on group and behavioral processes. Hugo Munsterberg and Mary Parker Follett were early contributors to this perspective. Global Connection: Again, note the international influence on management, as evidenced by Hugo Munsterberg, a German psychologist. 1. The Hawthorne studies Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have ever been in a group that deliberately limited its productivity or output. a) b) The Hawthorne studies, performed by Elton Mayo, showed that when illumination was increased, productivity increased. However, productivity also increased in a control group, where the lighting did not change. The increase in productivity was attributed to the fact that the workers were having extra attention paid to them, maybe for the first time. Other studies found that employees will not work as fast as they can when being paid piecework wages. Instead, they will perform to the level informally set by the group in order to be accepted by the group. These two studies, and others, led Mayo to the conclusion that individual and social processes played a major role in shaping employee attitudes and behavior at work. Discussion Starter: Recent evidence suggests that important details about the Hawthorne studies were not reported properly. For example, all the workers in the illumination study were paid extra for participating. What, if any, implications might be drawn from this? 2. The The on t improved performance. The movement includes the need theories of motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. Teaching Tip: Use Table 1.1 from the text to summarize the assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y. 3. Contemporary behavioral science in management The emergence of organizational behavior occurred because of the too-simplistic descriptions of work behavior by the human relationists. Organizational behavior takes a holistic view of behavior, including individual, group, and organization processes. 4. Assessment of the behavioral perspective a) Contributions include that it gave insights into interpersonal processes, focused managerial attention on these processes, and challenged the view of employees as tools and not resources.
- 10. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 7 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. b) Limitations include that prediction is difficult due to the complexity of human behavior, managers may be reluctant to adopt some of the behavioral concepts, and contributions may not be communicated to practicing managers in an understandable form. E. The Quantitative Management Perspective The quantitative management perspective focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness, mathematical models, and the use of computers in organizations. The two branches of the quantitative perspective are management science and operations management. Extra Example: Many business programs today have separate courses in management science and/or operations management. If your school has either or both courses, identify its number and title for your students and briefly review their topical coverage (i.e., their course description). 1. Management science 2. Management science focuses specifically on the development of mathematical models. These models help organizations to try out various activities with the use of a computer. Modeling can help managers locate the best way to do things and save money and time. Operations management Operations management is an applied form of management science that helps organizations develop techniques to produce their products and services more efficiently. Extra Example: General Motors uses elaborate management science and operations management models to determine the optimum number and types of cars to make during a given period of time, what options to put on them, and so forth. 3. Assessment of the quantitative perspective a) Contributions include that it developed sophisticated quantitative techniques that improve decision making, and it increased awareness of complex organizational processes. b) Limitations are that it cannot fully explain or predict behavior, that mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other important skills, and that the models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions. III. Contemporary Management Perspectives A. The Systems Perspective 1. A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a whole. An organization as a system is composed of four elements: inputs (material or human resources), transformation processes (technological and managerial processes), outputs (products or services), and feedback (reactions from the environment). Group Exercise: Break students up into small groups. Have them select an organization and diagram its inputs, transformation processes, outputs, and feedback mechanisms. 2. 3. Open systems are systems that interact with their environment. Closed systems do not interact with their environment. Subsystems are systems within a broader system. Synergy refers to units that are more successful working together than working alone. Entropy is the process that leads to decline. Teaching Tip: Note the subtle but important distinction between entropy and poor management.
- 11. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 8 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. B. The Contingency Perspective Appropriate managerial behavior depends on the elements of the situation. Universal perspectives try to identify the “one best way” to manage organizations. The contingency perspective argues that universal theories cannot be applied to organizations because each is unique. Group Exercise: Form small groups of students. Have them identify a problem or opportunity facing a business or other organization. Then have them identify elements and ideas from the classical, behavioral, and quantitative perspectives that might be relevant. In addition, ask them to discuss how systems and contingency perspectives might affect the situation. C. Contemporary Management Challenges and Opportunities 1. Books written for the popular press, including executive biographies and profiles of successful companies, are having an important impact on the theory and practice of management today. 2. Management challenges include the following: a) Globalization is another significant challenge as managers must reach out across cultural and national boundaries. b) There is renewed importance placed on ethics, social responsibility, and corporate governance. c) Quality also poses an important challenge, as a basis for competition, improving customer satisfaction, lowering costs, and increasing productivity. d) The shift toward a service economy continues to be important, challenging managers who may be more familiar with manufacturing sectors. e) The economic recession of 2008-2010 and slow recovery in 2011-2014 pose many challenges as well as offering some opportunities. f) Managers must contend with the changing nature of the workplace, including workforce reductions and expansion. e) The management of diversity is an important opportunity and challenge, especially with regard to younger generations of workers. f) Organizations need more than ever to monitor the environment and change to keep pace with it. g) Technological advances, especially in communication, have increased the pace of work, reduced managers’ available time to consider decisions, and increased the amount of information managers must process. END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. What are the three basic levels of management that can be identified in most organizations? How precise are the lines differentiating these levels? In which of the basic areas do managers work? Top managers manage the overall organization. They create the organization’s goals, overall strategy, and operating policies. Middle managers are primarily responsible for implementing the policies and plans developed by top managers and for supervising and coordinating the activities of lower-level managers. First-line managers supervise and coordinate the activities of operating employees. How well defined are the lines differentiating these levels often depends on the type of organization and its size. Managers may work in various areas within an organization. Common areas include marketing, financial, operations, human resources, and administrative.
- 12. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 9 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 2. What four basic functions make up the management process? How are they related to one another? Planning and decision making, leading, organizing, and controlling are the four basic management functions. Each is related to and must occur simultaneously with the others. Planning and decision making are perhaps the most intertwined with the three other functions. For example, managers must plan and make decisions about how to lead, organize, and control. Another example of an important interrelationship is how managers must balance the need for control against the need for autonomy that makes leadership easier. 3. Identify several of the important skills that help managers succeed. Give an example of each. How might the importance of different skills vary by level and area within an organization? Managerial skills include technical, interpersonal, conceptual, diagnostic, communication, decision making, and time management. Technical skills are specialized skills related to a specific area or a specialized industry. An example is an oil and gas exploration project leader who holds an engineering degree. Interpersonal skills are the ability to understand and motivate others. An example is a manager who knows how to give rewards that will motivate workers. Conceptual skills consist of abstract and logical thinking that will aid the manager as an innovator and an integrator. An example is an architect who is able to see what a house will look like from just studying a blueprint. Diagnostic skills are the ability to observe the current situation and understand the cause-and- effect relationships that are leading to success or failure. An example is a manager who recognizes that productivity is dropping in an area and is able to investigate and isolate the problem. Communication skills are the ability to give and receive information. An example is a manager who has the skills needed to plan and run an effective business meeting. Decision-making skills are the capacity to choose the correct course of action, based on information. An example is a manager who introduces a new product just at the time when customers are demanding that product. Time management skills are the ability to prioritize appropriately and to use time resources effectively. An example is a manager who spends more time on critical tasks, such as training workers, and less time on routine tasks, such as reading routine reports. In a large organization with distinct layers of management, these skills are likely to vary significantly, but may not be so in smaller organizations where these levels are not distinct. 4. Briefly describe the principles of scientific management and administrative management. What assumptions do these perspectives make about workers? To what extent are these assumptions still valid today? The principles of scientific management and administrative management are founded upon concerns about efficiency. Scientific management looks at the performance of individual workers and attempts to improve productivity through measures such as incentive pay systems, optimal task design, specialized training, and careful selection of the most productive workers. Administrative management looks at the performance of the organization as a whole and attempts to improve overall organizational efficiency by utilizing bureaucracy, effective planning, top- down coordination and control, and so on. Both scientific management theory and administrative management theory assume that workers do not like to work, accept responsibility, or change their behavior; that they are motivated only
- 13. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 10 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. by money; and that they prefer to be told exactly what to do. One could argue that many of these assumptions are valid even today. 5. Describe the systems perspective. Why is a business organization considered an open system? The systems perspective describes an organization as a set of elements that function together as a whole. The theory looks at the linkages between elements and at the functioning of the system, from inputs to transformation processes to outputs and feedback. Systems theory also investigates the interaction of the system with its environment. A business organization has a lot of interactions with its environment, including the labor force, customers, regulators, and local communities. Thus a business organization is considered to be an open system because it interacts with its environment. Questions for Analysis 1. Recall a recent group project or task in which you have participated. Explain how members of the group displayed each of the managerial skills. Clearly, answers will vary. Students should have no trouble thinking of a situation. They should then describe how technical, interpersonal, conceptual, diagnostic, communication, decision- making, or time management skills were used in that situation. 2. The text notes that management is both a science and an art. Recall an interaction you have had with someone at a higher level in an organization (manager, teacher, group leader, or the like). In that interaction, how did the individual use science? If he or she did not use science, what could have been done to use science? In that interaction, how did the individual use art? If he or she did not use art, what could have been done to use art? Students’ answers will vary, depending on the situation they describe. Examples of the use of science would include mention of rational, systematic, objective decision making or the use of quantitative models and scientific approaches to problem solving. Examples of the use of art would include mention of intuition, experience, instinct or personal insights. Other examples would include the use of communication or interpersonal skills. 3. Watch a movie that involves an organization of some type. Harry Potter, Avatar, The Avengers, Flight, and Up in the Air would all be good choices. Identify as many management activities and skills as you can. Depending on the movie selected, answers will vary. Students who choose a Harry Potter movie, for example, will find examples of leading and planning as well as a variety of roles and skills. 4. Young, innovative, or high-tech firms often adopt the strategy of ignoring history or attempting to do something radically new. In what ways might this strategy help them? In what ways might this strategy hinder their efforts? Innovations that are truly radical are the only ones that have the potential to break through tradition and create something that has a chance of great success. Also, if the new firm is able to innovate in a way that is valued by consumers, they will attain an advantage over their rivals that may endure for a long time—a sustainable competitive advantage. On the other hand, willfully ignoring history increases the chances of repeating an error—for example, of trying a strategy or creating a product that has already been shown to be a failure or dead end. Also, by ignoring history, firms reject strategies and techniques that are known to work, and so they risk terrible failure. 5. Can a manager use tools and techniques from several different perspectives at the same time? For example, can a manager use both classical and behavioral perspectives? Give an example of a time when a manager did this and explain how it enabled him or her to be effective.
- 14. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 11 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Managers can and do use multiple tools and techniques at the same time. This is often necessary to effectively cope with complex, varied situations and persons. Students will give different examples, but here is one possibility. “When I worked at a fast food restaurant, the manager had problems with one employee. This employee made mistakes, arrived at work late, and had a poor attitude. First, the manager tried to use a behavioral approach, where the manager reasoned with the employee and asked the other employees to use peer pressure to change the problem employee’s behavior. Next, the manager tried to use needs theories of motivation by threatening to cut the employee’s pay if the employee continued to create difficulties. Finally, the manager used scientific management to assign that employee to tasks where politeness, accuracy, and timeliness were less important, such as cleaning the restrooms and taking out the trash.” Building Effective Time-Management Skills Exercise Teaching Tip: Each chapter concludes with three skill-building exercises. These are designed for both groups and individuals. Some are best done during class, while others are intended to be begun or completed outside of class. a. Purpose This exercise allows students to assess their current time-management skills and to understand ways to improve in this area. b. Format This exercise must be done individually, outside of class. It will take about 20 minutes to complete. The results may be discussed in class. c. Exercise Task 1. Visit the web site of Franklin Covey, at www.franklincovey.com. Click on the tab marked “Effectiveness Zone,” then select “assessment center.” Take the Urgency Analysis Profile. This short online survey will require you to answer several questions and take about 10 minutes. 2. Look at your profile. Explore the information available there, including the assessment of your current use of time and the suggestions for how you can improve your time management. Covey’s site shows students that they spend time on tasks of four different types: critical but not urgent, urgent but not critical, critical and urgent, and neither urgent nor critical. Covey recommends that students spend the most time on tasks that are both critical and urgent, and that they do not neglect tasks that are critical but not urgent. 3. Think of a task that you regularly perform and that, if you were being perfectly honest, you could label not urgent and not critical. How much time do you spend on this task? What might be a more appropriate amount of time? To what tasks could you give some of the time that you spend on this not urgent and not critical task? Students’ opinions will vary. Covey’s characterization can be useful because it points out that too many people spend most of their time on urgent tasks, especially on urgent tasks that are not critical. 4. What is one thing that you can do today to make better use of your time? Try it, and see if your time management improves. Covey’s web site makes few suggestions in this regard (although his books do a very thorough job of this). Upon reflection, however, students should be able to think of ideas for better time-management on their own. Remind students that it’s not really a good use of time to try to eliminate all non-critical, non-urgent tasks. Some of these tasks, such as hanging out
- 15. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 12 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. with friends or watching TV, can be relaxing and allow one to return to urgent and critical tasks with a fresh enthusiasm. Building Effective Decision-Making Skills Exercise a. Purpose This exercise is designed to help students develop their decision-making skills, emphasizing the importance of system interdependencies in organizations. b. Format This exercise is designed so that it can be effective when done individually or in small groups. Answers could be written or presented to the class for evaluation. It should take less than a half hour. c. Follow-up 1. Carefully examine each of the three alternatives under consideration. In what ways might each alternative impact other parts of the organization? The option to buy lower-grade materials will require changes in purchasing, but it will also impact workers, because they will have to work harder to make a good quality product from inferior materials. It may also have a major impact on sales, if the decline in quality is recognized by buyers. The layoff option will create anxiety and resentment in those workers remaining in the firm, and it will probably raise overall wage expense, because the less skilled workers will not work as efficiently as those who have better training. The option to purchase new equipment requires the most up-front investment, but has the greatest potential for cost savings later. 2. Which is the most costly option (in terms of impact in other parts of the organization, not absolute dollars)? Which is the least costly? Both layoffs and inferior materials will be very costly for the organization. The use of inferior materials may be the “most costly,” because it could cause customers to buy competitors’ products and, eventually, lead to the failure of the firm. The least costly option is the purchase of new equipment. (See reasons under item 1 above.) 3. What are the primary obstacles that you might face regarding each of the three alternatives? The option to use inferior materials may cause dissatisfaction from the workers and will certainly cause customers’ dissatisfaction, if it is detected. The layoff option will encounter resistance from workers, and the best, most experienced workers may leave the company for other employment. The purchase of new equipment will likely encounter resistance from the CEO or other financial personnel, based on the increase in up-front costs. 4. Can you think of other alternatives that might accomplish the cost-reduction goal? Students may suggest cost-cutting ideas, such as better inventory control or improved use of information systems. They may also suggest a closer integration with suppliers or use of a less expensive distribution channel. There are possibilities for cost savings in every functional area of the firm.
- 16. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 13 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Self-Awareness a. Purpose This instrument is designed to help students become more self-aware of their possession or lack of skills generally felt to be required of effective managers. The intent is that students will use the feedback from this self-assessment to focus better on the skills they need to develop to increase their chances of being an effective manager. b. Format Students should respond individually and privately to the items in this self-assessment. c. Interpretation Students’ total numerical score (obtained by finding the sum of the individual scores) suggests their perceptions of their possession of the skills of effective managers—the lower the total score, the lower the level of skills. Students should be encouraged to examine their item scores for lower numbers and then to try to use their educational experiences to develop more skill in the areas identified. Experiential Exercise Johari Window a. Purpose This exercise has two purposes: to encourage students to analyze themselves more accurately and to start them working on small-group cohesiveness. This exercise encourages students to share data about themselves and then to assimilate and process the feedback. b. Format Students individually complete three lists: Quadrant 1—things that they and others know about themselves Quadrant 3—things that they know about themselves that others do not know Quadrant 2—things that they did not know about themselves but that they learned from others last semester c. Follow-up You might want to lead a group discussion on interpersonal perception as a follow-up to this exercise. Any students who wish to share how they have moved information about themselves from, say, Quadrant 3 to Quadrant 1 should be encouraged to do so. If you are doing a major group project throughout the course, you may want to use this exercise around the middle of the term, having each student focus on Johari Window as it relates to his or her group.
- 17. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 14 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. MANAGEMENT AT WORK SOME KEYS TO MAKING A STEINWAY The case details the painstaking way in which Steinway & Sons builds its pianos, world-renowned instruments that have earned the company plaudits from generations of professional musicians. A variety of processes—sourcing inputs, employing skilled labor—are used to build the product and extreme care is taken every step of the way. The vignette illustrates a variety of management principles at work, such as the systems view and the contingency perspective of management. 1. Explain the process by which a Steinway grand piano is constructed as a subsystem of a larger system. From what the text tells you, give some examples of how the production subsystem is affected by the management, financial, and marketing subsystems. The company Steinway & Sons is a large system that is made up of several interrelated subsystems such as operations, management, and marketing. The operations subsystem is responsible for constructing pianos. Here, skilled employees use various inputs (wood, glue, etc.) to make the product. The operations subsystem at Steinway (and in any organization) is, however, not independent of the other subsystems in the organization. For example, the employees have to be recruited, trained, and retained by the organization (the management subsystem), the inputs have to paid for and the cash flow managed over the long period from when inputs are sourced until the piano is sold (the finance subsystem), and the operations process must work in tandem with the marketing subsystem to synchronize the demand and supply of the product. 2. Discuss the Steinway process in terms of the systems perspective of organizations summarized in Figure 1.4. Explain the role of each of the three elements highlighted by the figure—inputs from the environment, the transformation process, and outputs into the environment. Steinway & Sons illustrates all three essential elements of the systems perspective. The company obtains various kinds of inputs—materials (wood, glue), human inputs (skilled labor, for example), financial inputs (cash from sales of pianos)—to run the business. In turn, it uses its labor and technology to transform inputs into finished products, and finally, it sells the product in the market to complete the cycle. 3. Discuss some of the ways in which the principles of behavioral management and operations management can shed light on the Steinway process. How about the contingency perspective? In what ways does the Steinway process reflect the universal perspective and in what ways does it reflect a contingency perspective? Behavioral management comes into play at Steinway when it comes to managing its employees. Its skilled employees—many of them with long tenures—are most likely the company’s most valuable resource and they have to be managed with care, keeping their motivation, their stake in the company, and their personal growth in mind. Operations management is important because Steinway builds its product very carefully and its product is meant to both perform well and be long lasting. Steinway illustrates both the universal and the contingency perspective at work. Some things at Steinway are universal, such as building the piano. The case describes how the company “bends” wood to take the shape of the outer case. This is a practice that has remained unchanged over the years. The contingency perspective is reflected in the situation involving the loss of a worker due to an accident. The company had to change its plans, in this case to slow down its production, until a replacement could be found.
- 18. Chapter 1: Understanding the Manager’s Job 15 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. YOU MAKE THE CALL Reed Hastings Doesn’t Like Standing Still 4. You’re a Netflix employee and Reed Hastings has just stopped by your desk. “I’d like to know,” he says, “what you like most and least about working here.” How do you think you might respond? Student response may vary depending upon how they approach work. Some may like the work culture at Netflix that fosters innovation and unleashes their creativity. Others may prefer a more structured workplace. 5. You’re a major Netflix stockholder attending the firm’s annual board meeting. When you bump into Reed Hastings at a reception, he asks you, “How do you think we’re doing with this company?” How would you respond? Netflix’s financial performance is mixed: it has had its ups and downs in recent years. On the one hand, if you were a stockholder at the very beginning (when the company did its IPO), you would have been handsomely rewarded, given that the company’s market price (and hence the value of your shares) peaked in 2014. On the other hand, if you were a stockholder in 2011 when the company briefly split into two parts and saw an adverse downturn in its stock price, you would have seen a sharp decline in your investments. Your question to him could be how to compete in an industry with significant technology shifts. 6. You’re the founder and owner of a small media company and Netflix has indicated an interest in buying your business. In addition to price, what other factors, if any, are important to you? Responses may vary depending upon one’s personal values. Relevant questions might include whether the employees of the acquired company would be retained, and what the role of the new company would be in Netflix. 7. You’ve been contacted by a marketing research company doing work for Netflix. The researcher asks if you use Netflix and if not, why not? If you do use Netflix and the researcher asks what you like and dislike most about it, what would you say? This question is from the perspective of a user or a potential user of Netflix, so opinions are likely to vary considerably. Issues such as availability of content and price are relevant here.
- 19. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 1 CHAPTER 2 The Environments of Organizations and Managers CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 2 is devoted to the environment and culture of organizations. It begins with a description of the organization’s external and internal environments. Then the ethical and social environments are discussed. A discussion of the international environment follows. Finally, organization culture is described. LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Discuss the nature of an organization’s environments and identify the components of its general, task, and internal environments. 2. Describe the ethical and social environment of management, including individual ethics, the concept of social responsibility, and how organizations can manage social responsibility. 3. Discuss the international environment of management, including trends in international business, levels of international business activities, and the context of international business. 4. Describe the importance and determinants of an organization’s culture, as well as how organizational culture can be managed. The opening vignette features the nonprofit organization, the Oregon-based Mercy Corps. In the aftermath of the devastating 2010 earthquake in Haiti, Mercy Corps quickly set up shop in that country to provide much needed relief services. Since its founding, Mercy Corps has provided $2.2 billion in humanitarian aid and development assistance to 114 countries (including India, Japan, and Sudan) and annually reaches almost 19 million people in 36 nations. Management Update: Mercy Corps’ website www.mercycorps.org provides recent examples of the organization’s activities such as helping out in the Philippines after typhoon Haiyan. It is interesting to note that 88% of donations go to relief activities, with very little spent on running the organization.
- 20. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 2 LECTURE OUTLINE I. The Organization’s Environments Managers must develop and maintain a deep understanding and appreciation of the environments in which they and their organization function. The external environment is everything outside an organization that might affect it and contains the general environment and the task environment. The general environment consists of broad dimensions and forces in an organization’s context, while the task environment is the specific organizations or groups that have a direct impact on a firm. The internal environment consists of conditions and forces within the organization. Teaching Tip: Stress the fact that an organization’s boundaries are not always clear and precise. As a result, it may not always be clear whether a particular individual or group is part of an organization or part of its environment. Discussion Question: As a follow-up, ask students whether they think alumni, campus recruiters, and bookstores are part of the organization or part of its environment. A. The General Environment The general environment of a business has three dimensions: economic, technological, and political-legal. 1. The economic dimension includes the overall health of the economic system in which the organization operates, which is related to inflation, interest rates, unemployment, demand, and so on. Extra Example: Note how economic conditions have affected your college or university. Specific points can be made regarding state revenues, alumni contributions, government grants, and endowment earnings. 2. The technological dimension refers to the methods available for converting resources into products or services. Extra Example: Note that Federal Express has been hurt by new technology such as facsimile machines and e-mail. For example, companies now find it more cost-efficient to fax shorter documents than to send them by express delivery. And many managers find e-mail more efficient than distributing memos and letters through printed “hard copy.” 3. The political-legal dimension refers to government regulation of business and the relationship between business and government. Extra Example: The Small Business Administration (SBA) Office of Advocacy reports that the regulatory costs for small businesses amount to roughly $7,000 per person employed. These costs have mainly to do with regulations concerning OSHA and compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. (www. Bizjournal.com) Management Update: While Microsoft has resolved most of its legal problems in the United States, it still faces a number of antitrust lawsuits in Europe.
- 21. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 3 B. The Task Environment Group Exercise: Divide your class into small groups and have each group develop a diagram similar to Figure 2.1 for an organization in a different task environment. Good examples include Google, IBM, ExxonMobil, and UPS. 1. Competitors consist of other organizations that compete for the same resources. Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify the primary competitors of your college or university. 2. 3. Customers are those who pay money to acquire an organization’s products or services. Suppliers include organizations that provide resources for other organizations. Discussion Starter: Ask students to identify the various suppliers that your college or university might use. 4. Regulators have the potential to control, regulate, or influence an organization’s policies and practices. a) Regulatory agencies are created by the government to protect the public from certain business practices or to protect organizations from one another. Examples include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Extra Example: Point out to students the various regulatory agencies that most directly affect your college or university (e.g., state coordinating boards, etc.). b) Interest groups are groups organized by their members to attempt to influence organizations. Examples include the National Organization for Women (NOW) and Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). Extra Example: The American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) is an interest group for members 50 and older. It has over 40 million members, making it one of the most powerful interest groups in the country. It has influenced legislation on many issues, including Social Security reform and government policy on medical research. 5. Strategic partners (also called strategic allies) occur when two or more companies work together in joint ventures. Extra Example: Microsoft Corporation has formed alliances with many other organizations, including hardware manufacturers, small software development firms, TV and appliance makers, automakers, cell phone and long distance providers, Internet service providers, and universities. The firm hopes to gain access to customers, resources, and information through its joint ventures. C. The Internal Environment 1. Owners are whoever can claim property rights on an organization. In smaller businesses, the owner is likely to also be the manager. In a larger business, however, managers are more likely to be professional employees of the firm. Stockholders are the owners of publicly traded corporations. Teaching Tip: Point out again the “fuzziness” that may exist regarding boundaries. For example, while this book treats owners as part of the internal environment, it could also be argued that owners are part of the external environment as well. Teaching Tip: Stress to students the significance of institutional owners and investors in corporations today. Such owners and investors can exert enormous power over a corporation.
- 22. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 4 2. A board of directors, elected by stockholders, is required of organizations that are incorporated; however, many other firms also have them. The board of directors is responsible for corporate governance and charged with overseeing the management of the firm to ensure that it is being run in a way that best serves the stockholders’ interests. Group Exercise: Assign groups of students one or more corporations. Have them identify the members who serve on its board of directors. 3. Employees are another significant element of the internal environment. The composition of the workforce is changing, employees are asking for increased job participation and ownership, and organizations are increasingly relying on temporary workers. Global Connection: Note that many Japanese firms used to offer guaranteed lifetime employment to some employees. In recent years, however, this practice has been abandoned by many firms. 4. A firm’s physical work environment—where facilities are located and how they are furnished and arranged—is also important. The layout of an office or factory can be a strong influence on the way in which people interact with equipment and with each other. Extra Example: Walmart is known for having a very spartan headquarters office, in keeping with the cost-cutting philosophy of founder Sam Walton. The building contains plain metal desks and uncarpeted floors, even in executive office areas. This physical environment serves as a constant reminder to employees of the firm’s culture and values. II. The Ethical and Social Environment of Management Discussion Starter: A debate that has plagued some business programs is the extent to which colleges can teach ethics. Some experts believe that ethics can indeed be taught, while other experts believe that ethics are formed much earlier and thus cannot be taught to people as they get older. Ask students for their opinions. A. Individual Ethics in Organizations Ethics are an individual’s personal beliefs regarding right and wrong behavior. Ethical behavior is behavior that conforms to generally accepted social norms. Unethical behavior is behavior that does not conform to generally accepted social norms. Interesting Quote: “Moral character is shaped by family, church, and education long before an individual joins a company to make a living.” (See Kenneth R. Andrews, Harvard Business Review, October 1989, p. 99.) Discussion Starter: Ask students if they can identify personal examples or events that shaped their ethics or the ethics of someone they know.
- 23. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 5 1. Managerial ethics are standards for behavior that guide individual managers in their work. Unethical behavior by management and other employees sometimes occurs because the firm has an organizational context that is conducive to such behavior. Employees who work for firms that support and encourage unethical acts, though they are in the best interests of the firm, may find themselves in a conflict-of-interest situation. Discussion Starter: Ask students to provide examples in which an organization they worked for treated them or others in an ethical or an unethical fashion. Teaching Tip: Note that as organizations enter a period of cutbacks and downsizing, the potential for unethical treatment of employees tends to increase. Extra Example: Many recent ethical concerns focus on financial disclosure and transparency. Whereas companies that consistently met their profitability targets were considered to be the most desirable investments, today the business practices and reporting methods used to reach those targets are under heavy scrutiny. General Electric, which has long-term consistent profitability, is now under suspicion for that very consistency. 2. Effective management of ethical behavior includes the following: a) Top managers should set ethical standards for the organization. b) Committees can investigate possible unethical activities internally. c) Employees can attend training sessions to learn to act more ethically when faced with certain situations. d) A code of ethics is a formal written statement of the values and ethical standards that guide the firm’s actions. Teaching Tip: If your school has a code of ethical conduct for students, it might be interesting to discuss it here. Note, for example, the similarities and differences that might exist between a university code and a business code. Extra Example: Other firms that use codes of ethics include Coca-Cola and Texas Instruments. Group Exercise: Ask students to identify common themes and ideas that are likely to be reflected in all corporate codes of ethics. 3. A number of ethical issues are receiving widespread attention today. a) A challenge for CEOs is to display ethical leadership and to establish an ethical culture for the entire organization. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires CEOs to be held personally responsible for their firm’s financial disclosures. b) Corporate governance is another area with many ethical concerns. Boards of directors are under increased pressure to provide effective oversight. c) Information technology poses new ethical issues in the area of privacy. B. Social Responsibility in Organizations Social responsibility is the set of obligations an organization has to protect and enhance the society in which it functions.
- 24. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 6 Extra Example: One firm that has an exemplary record of social responsibility is Target. The firm gives $2 million each week to local community and charitable groups. Global Connection: Concerns for the environment are given low priority in some parts of the world. The clearing of the rain forests in the Amazon basin is one significant example. Another is the continued destruction of animals facing extinction in parts of Africa. The United States is the world’s largest creator of the pollution that is destroying the Earth’s ozone layer and is unwilling to consider international limits on the polluting gases. 1. Arguments for social responsibility: a) Business creates problems and should therefore help solve them. b) Corporations are citizens in our society too and should not avoid their obligations as citizens. c) Businesses often have the resources to help. d) Business should be a partner in society along with the government and the general population. 2. Arguments against social responsibility: a) Businesses have the responsibility to focus on making a profit for their owners. b) Involvement in social programs gives business too much power. c) There is a potential for conflict of interest. d) Organizations lack the expertise to manage social programs. Discussion Starter: Ask students to help identify other specific examples of how socially responsible behavior has had a positive impact. C. Managing Social Responsibility 1. Firms can adopt a number of different formal organizational stances regarding social responsibility. a) Legal compliance is the extent to which the organization and its members comply with local, state, federal, and international laws. Discussion Starter: Ask students whether they believe tobacco will ever be outlawed. Ask their thoughts on whether or not it should be banned. Teaching Tip: Describe how your local community regulates business through its own zoning procedures. If relevant, describe a recent controversial zoning decision. Teaching Tip: Emphasize the point that an organization’s approach to social responsibility may be inconsistent and/or contradictory. b) Ethical compliance is the extent to which the firm and its members follow ethical standards of behavior. Teaching Tip: Point out to students that, with the escalating diversity of viewpoints on ethical standards, organizations have increased difficulty in demonstrating ethical compliance. Every industry, from energy to bioengineering to education, is swamped with a complex and thorny set of ethical issues today. c) Philanthropic giving occurs through the awarding of funds or gifts to charities and social programs.
- 25. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 7 Global Connection: As noted, international businesses have become frequent contributors in different countries where they do business. For example, UPS supports national Olympic teams in dozens of different countries. 2. Informal organizational dimensions, including the culture and leadership practices of an organization, can define the social responsibility stance adopted by the organization and its members. Whistle-blowing occurs when an employee discloses illegal or unethical conduct by others within the organization. Discussion Starter: Solicit student opinions regarding whistle-blowing. In particular, ask how many of them would, in fact, “blow the whistle” themselves if it meant the possible loss of a job. Extra Example: Sherron Watkins, an Enron accounting manager, was a whistleblower for some of the firm’s unethical and illegal practices. Her actions were instrumental in uncovering the alleged extensive fraud occurring at that firm. III. The International Environment of Management A. Trends in International Business Extra Example: Based on sales revenues, only two of the world’s largest ten businesses are U.S. firms (Walmart and ExxonMobil). Four are European, three Chinese, and one is Japanese. (For details, see Fortune.com.) Teaching Tip: Note the diverse set of countries represented on the list of the world’s largest firms. 1. After World War II, U.S. firms dominated most industrial and consumer markets. From the 1950s to 1970s, Europe and Japan rebuilt their factories and gained market power. 2. Today, U.S. firms dominate in some industries, including auto making and fast food, but many other industries are dominated by non-U.S. firms, including chemicals, steel, banking, and electronics. 3. To be competitive, firms must think globally. International business touches every sector of the economy and every business and every consumer in the world. Group Exercise: Have students generate a list of the ten products they use most frequently. Then have them research the national origin of the companies that make them. B. Levels of International Business Activity Firms that plan to increase their international business activity must plan their expansion into foreign markets very carefully. Several alternative approaches are possible. 1. Importing and exporting are the easiest ways to enter a market with a small outlay of capital. Exporting is making the product in the firm’s domestic marketplace and selling it in another country. Importing means a good, service, or capital is brought into the home country from abroad. Teaching Tip: Most small businesses begin international activity by importing or exporting. A good source of information about international business opportunities for small business is the Small Business Administration’s Office of International Trade website. For more information, see the SBA website at http://www.sba.gov/OIT/.
- 26. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 8 Teaching Tip: Stress for students that the difference in exporting versus importing is point of view. When Rolex markets its watches and ships them to U.S. jewelers, Rolex is exporting, but the stores that buy the watches for sale in the United States are importing them. 2. Licensing is an arrangement whereby one company allows another to use its brand name, trademark, technology, patent, copyright, or other assets in exchange for a royalty based on sales. Franchising is a special form of licensing. Extra Example: Some of the most successful international franchisers include The Athlete’s Foot, Subway, and Century 21 Real Estate. 3. Strategic alliances occur when two or more firms jointly cooperate for mutual gain. A joint venture is a special type of strategic alliance in which the partners actually share ownership of a new enterprise. Extra Example: One of the most successful strategic alliances is Cereal Partners Worldwide, between General Mills and Nestlé. The firms entered into the partnership to compete with Kellogg, which dominated European markets. General Mills contributes its cereal names and technology, while Nestlé adds its recognized consumer brand name and handles distribution. 4. Direct investment occurs when a firm headquartered in one country builds or purchases operating facilities or subsidiaries in a foreign country. Maquiladoras are light assembly plants built by U.S. firms in northern Mexico close to the U.S. border. These plants receive tax breaks from the Mexican government. and the area is populated with workers willing to work for low wages. Global Connection: The passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement has increased the importance of the maquiladoras to firms doing business in Mexico. Extra Example: Disneyland Paris represents a combination of direct investment and strategic alliance. Disney contributed a portion of the park’s construction costs from its own sources and oversaw construction of the park, while a French firm contributed the remainder of the investment capital. Disney shares both profits and losses with its European partner. Teaching Tip: Emphasize the fact that large firms use multiple methods of managing international business. For example, Ford ships cars made in the United States to Canada (exporting), contracts with Mazda to manufacture part of the Ford Probe (licensing), jointly developed the Mercury Villager minivan with Nissan (strategic alliance), and owns several manufacturing plants in other countries (direct investment). Teaching Tip: Use Table 2.1 to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the four levels of international business activity. C. The Context of International Business 1. The cultural environment can create challenges for managers, when the countries in which a firm is manufacturing or selling a product or service have different cultures. Religious beliefs, time and schedules, language, and nonverbal communication can all pose problems for managers in a foreign country. Discussion Starter: Ask students to predict which products made in the United States are most and least likely to be successful abroad.
- 27. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 9 Discussion Starter: Ask students which countries in Europe and Asia they have visited. Then ask how similar or different each was from the United States. Discussion Starter: Ask students to think of common business practices in the United States that might seem odd or unusual in a foreign country. If you have any international students in class, you might ask them about business practices in their home countries that would seem odd or unusual in the United States. 2. A government can impose a variety of controls on international trade to protect its country. a) A tariff is a tax collected on goods shipped across national boundaries. b) Quotas are limits on the number or value of goods that can be traded. c) Export restraint agreements are agreements that convince other governments to voluntarily limit the volume or value of goods exported to a particular country. d) “Buy national” legislation gives preference to domestic producers through content or price restrictions. Teaching Tip: The stiff trade barriers employed by the government of Japan continue to be a point of contention between that country and the United States. U.S. firms, for example, argue that there are so many trade barriers in place in Japan that it results in unfair competition for them. Extra Example: In an interesting reversal of normal procedures, the government of China has played Ford and General Motors against each other. Rather than offer inducements to get the automakers to set up shop in its borders, China is getting the companies to make offers on what they will give in return for the right to be the only U.S. auto company to be allowed to build cars in one of the world’s largest untapped markets. 3. Economic communities are sets of countries that have agreed to significantly reduce or eliminate trade barriers among its member nations. a) The European Union, the Latin American Integration Association (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Argentina, and other South American countries), and the Caribbean Common Market (the Bahamas, Belize, Jamaica, Antigua, Barbados, and twelve other countries) are examples. b) The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) created an economic system between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Discussion Starter: Ask students why they think Asian nations have not formed an economic community with the strength and identity of the EU or NAFTA. 4. GATT, the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, and the WTO, the World Trade Organization, both play significant roles in regulating international trade. a) GATT, first ratified in 1948, is an attempt to reduce trade barriers. One of its provisions, the granting of most favored nation status, specifies that a member country must extend equal treatment to all nations that sign the agreement. b) The World Trade Organization was begun in 1995 as a replacement for GATT. The WTO works to promote trade, reduce trade barriers, and resolve international trade disputes. IV. The Organization’s Culture
- 28. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 10 Organization culture is the set of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs, and attitudes that helps the members of the organization understand what it stands for, how it does things, and what it considers important. Extra Example: Some experts would use the extent to which investors and other experts admire a company as an indication of its effectiveness. Each year Fortune conducts a survey of the most admired corporations in the world. Apple, Amazon, Google, and Starbucks were at the top of the list in 2014. Extra Example: Other firms with strong cultures include Disney, 3M, Coca-Cola, UPS, and IBM. Discussion Starter: Ask students to discuss the culture that exists in your college or university. A. The Importance of Organization Culture A strong organization culture can shape the firm’s overall effectiveness and long-term success and help employees to be more productive. B. Determinants of Organization Culture Culture develops over a long period of time. It often starts with the organization’s founder; however, corporate success and shared experiences also shape culture. Stories, heroes, and symbols have a powerful effect. C. Managing Organization Culture In order to manage corporate culture, managers must first understand the current culture. 1. If the culture is one that is in the best interest of the firm, managers can reward behavior that is consistent with the existing culture in order to enforce it. 2. If the culture needs to be changed, managers must know what it is they want the culture to be and then take actions that will help to change the culture into the type management wants. One effective action is to hire outsiders, who will change the existing culture. END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. Identify and discuss each major dimension of the general environment and the task environment. Because the environment provides the context in which a business operates, it determines the firm’s eventual success or failure. The general environment consists of three dimensions: economic, technological, and political-legal. The economic dimension includes macroeconomic trends that impact all businesses, such as inflation and unemployment. The technological dimension includes advances in computing and communications. The political-legal dimension consists of legislation, legal proceedings, and the political climate. The task environment of an organization consists of specific dimensions of the organization’s surroundings that are very likely to influence the organization. Competitors, customers, suppliers, regulators, and strategic allies comprise the task environment. Competitors are firms that are competing for resources, and customers are those that purchase the firm’s products. Suppliers include any organizations or individuals that supply resources to the firm. Regulators provide
- 29. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 11 oversight to the firm and include regulatory agencies and interest groups. Strategic allies are partners with the firm in joint ventures. 2. Do organizations have ethics? Why or why not? As defined here, organizations do not have ethics—only individuals have ethics. However, the ethical norms and climate that exist within an organization can significantly affect the organization. 3. What are the arguments for and against social responsibility on the part of businesses? In your opinion, which set of arguments is more compelling? Arguments for social responsibility include: (a) organizations create problems and should be responsible for solving them; and (b) corporations are citizens in our society, too, and should not avoid their obligations as citizens. Arguments against include: (a) businesses should simply focus on making a profit, (b) there is the potential for a conflict of interest, and (c) businesses lack the expertise to understand how to assess and make decisions about worthy social programs. 4. Describe the basic levels of international business involvement. Why might a firm use more than one level at the same time? There are four levels of international business activity: (1) A domestic business has no international ties and buys and sells goods only in its own country. (2) An international business primarily resides in one country but purchases components from abroad or sells a substantial amount of finished products to other countries. (3) A multinational business has a worldwide marketplace from which it buys raw materials, borrows money, manufactures its products, and to which it sells its products. (4) A global business transcends national boundaries and is not committed to a single home country. Many organizations use more than one level at the same time. This is done in order to adapt to the needs of different countries or regions, or to implement different strategies for different countries. 5. Describe various barriers to international trade. Why do such barriers exist? The economic environment, the political-legal environment, and the cultural environment are three areas of challenge to international managers. Numerous specific instances of each can be identified. They exist for a variety of reasons including the interests of the host government in protecting home businesses and simply the differences across countries. Questions for Analysis 1. Can you think of dimensions of the task environment that are not discussed in the text? Indicate their linkages to those that are discussed. Student responses will vary, but one environmental dimension that was not discussed in the text was climate and weather. The climate and weather may have a great impact on the farming industry. A late frost in Florida may hurt the orange crop, or a drought in the Midwest may be responsible for poor grain yields. For the downhill skiing industry, sustained low temperatures and snow are prerequisites, so climate in this instance may dictate the location of the industry. Climate and weather are also important to surgeons specializing in skin cancer and orthopedic surgeons who specialize in broken limbs.
- 30. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 12 2. What is the relationship between the law and ethical behavior? Can a behavior be ethical but illegal at the same time? The law mandates or prohibits certain behaviors, with relatively little flexibility or subjectivity. Ethics suggests desired behaviors, but is equally concerned with the intention and reasons behind a behavior as with the behavior itself. Ethics is based on standards that are flexible and subjective. Individuals or organizations can act in what they feel is an ethical manner while also breaking the law. For example, some individuals try to block abortion clinics in an effort to stop actions that they believe are harmful. In their eyes, these actions are ethical, but to the police, who may arrest them for trespassing, the actions are illegal. In the news today are stories about pharmaceutical companies in China, Africa, and India that illegally produce patented drugs, which they feel is an ethical necessity to stop the spread of contagious diseases in countries where drugs produced in the United States are prohibitively expensive. 3. What is your opinion of whistle-blowing? If you were aware of a criminal activity in your organization but knew that reporting it would likely cost you your job, what would you do? Answers will vary. Some will say that it is their duty to society to report criminal activities, whereas others may feel it is their duty to protect the organization and not report criminal activity. Still others will feel that their primary responsibility is to themselves or their families, which would require them to protect their jobs. 4. What industries do you think will feel the greatest impact of international business in the future? Will some industries remain relatively unaffected by globalization? If so, which ones? If not, explain why not. International industries generally involve mass-produced consumer or industrial products such as automobiles, electronics, steel, chemicals, and so forth. In contrast, industries that would experience high costs for shipping or manufacturing goods in distant locations are somewhat sheltered from the effects of globalization, as are industries where local tastes and needs are very different from global tastes. Examples would include restaurants, home builders, and plant nurseries. However, you can point out to students that consumer preferences are becoming more global, with more Americans buying imported chocolates and more Latin Americans buying Nikes, for example. 5. What is the culture of your college, university, or place of employment? How clear is it? What are its most positive and its most negative characteristics? Students should recognize that all organizations have a culture, but they may differ in their perceptions of the existence of a culture and what that culture is. Generally, a majority will agree on a “party,” “athletics,” “research,” or “scholarly” culture. Words such as these will be used to describe the culture to outsiders. You can remind students that every culture has its positive and negative characteristics, encouraging them to think more deeply about culture’s effects. Building Effective Interpersonal Skills Exercise a. Purpose This exercise uses a fun, easy scenario-based exercise to help students understand the complexities of culture in various countries when it comes to communication. b. Format This exercise is most effective if administered in class. That way, students can work individually and then share their responses with the class. This exercise takes about 15–20 minutes to administer, but the discussion could take much longer.
- 31. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 13 c. Follow-up In terms of difficulty (easiest first), the following is the likely rank order. German and French colleagues exchanging emails about a new project Young U.S. female manager meeting with older female manager from Mexico Telephone conference call between a young Indian male manager and an older Chinese male manager A face-to-face committee meeting with five people of the same gender from Indonesia, Russia, Canada, Pakistan, and Israel Skype call involving a male Jordanian manager, a female Australian manager, and a male Israeli manager This can then set up a class discussion to examine and assess the rankings. Building Effective Communication Skills Exercise a. Purpose This exercise assigns students the difficult—but realistic—task of persuading a superior that his or her ideas may be inadequate. The task requires students to justify the need to gather more information about the customer segment of the environment. b. Format This exercise is best done outside of class by individual students, and it requires about 20–30 minutes. c. Follow-up (1) With this background in mind, compose a written proposal for your boss, outlining your position. Be sure to emphasize your fundamental concern—that the marketing department needs to better understand the needs of each customer segment in order to provide products that meet those needs. Consider ways to persuade your boss to change his or her mind. (Hint: Telling him or her bluntly that he or she is wrong is unlikely to be effective.) Students’ answers will focus on the importance of understanding the specific needs of various groups of consumers. Students are likely to describe the importance of consumers to the firm, the necessity of obtaining accurate and specific feedback, and the likely negative consequences if consumer feedback is not obtained. The challenge for students will be to present their position in a forceful yet tactful way. (2) On the basis of what you wrote in response to Exercise Task 1 above, do you think your boss will change his or her mind? If yes, what persuaded him or her to change his or her mind? If no, what other actions could you take to attempt to have your ideas adopted by the firm? Students’ answers will vary. They will see that persuasion requires tact as well as strong logical arguments. For additional actions, students might suggest an appeal to a superior, gathering the feedback anyway without informing the boss, or simply dropping the idea. For each of these actions, ask students to consider what would happen then. For example, how would their boss respond to finding out that he had been deceived?
- 32. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 14 Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Global Awareness a. Purpose This self-assessment is designed to help students understand their readiness to respond to managing in a global context through assessing their knowledge of cultural differences among countries. b. Format Students should respond individually to the items in this self-assessment using the scale provided. c. Interpretation All of the statements are true, so a perfect score would be 40. The closer a student’s score is to that, the more knowledge he or she has of cultural differences among countries and the more he or she understands the global context of organizational environments. The closer the score is to 10 (the minimum possible score), the less the student knows and the less prepared the student is for managing in a global context. Students should be encouraged to improve their knowledge for any area in which they had a low score. They should be encouraged to read Nancy Adler’s International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 2nd ed. (Boston: PWS-Kent, 1991). Experiential Exercise Assessing Organizational Culture Purpose: While organization culture is intangible, it is not difficult to observe. This activity will help to improve your skills in observing and interpreting organization culture, which can help to make you a more effective participant and leader in organizations. Introduction: Clues to organization culture may be found by observing details that relate to member behavior, traditions or customs, stories, attitudes, values, communication patterns, organization structure, employee dress and appearance, and even office space arrangements. Do members address each other by first names? Are office doors left open or closed? What do members wear? How are achievements recognized? Does the workplace feel energized or laid-back? Do members smile and laugh often? Does seniority or expertise earn more respect? Instructions: First, observe clues to organization behavior at your school, college, or university. To the extent possible, observe a diversity of members including students, teaching faculty, and non- teaching staff. Write down specific examples. For example, students typically wear blue jeans, while instructors usually wear suits. In the cafeteria, freshmen sit mainly with other freshmen. A professor may be referred to as “Doctor” by staff, while she may refer to staff by their first name. It is possible that variations exist across schools within the same university. Students are likely to see a different set of norms in nonprofessional schools (where they are likely to have had classes) in comparison to those at professional schools. Second, interpret the facts. Use your observations to describe the organization’s core values. What does it value most? How did you come to that conclusion? Do some schools value the end results and downplay the means leading to those results? Again, it is possible to see variations across programs.
- 33. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 15 Third, with the class or in small groups, discuss your facts and interpretations. Focus especially on areas of disagreement. Where individuals disagree about the culture, try to understand why the disagreement occurs. If the facts differ, perhaps the individuals observed two different groups. For example, students majoring in business may be different than students in engineering or education. Or perhaps the organization culture tolerates or encourages lots of differences. If there is agreement on facts but interpretations differ, then perhaps the individuals making the interpretations can explore their differing perceptions. It is also possible that traditional students in the class may have a different viewpoint as compared to nontraditional students. Older students returning to the classroom after years of work in the “real” world may have opinions about organization culture different from those of younger students. MANAGEMENT AT WORK IS FAIR TRADE A FAIR TRADE-OFF? The case features the world market for cocoa. The world market for cocoa beans is highly volatile. Consequently, farmers in cocoa export-dependent nations such as Ivory Coast strive for any means to cut costs. One such measure is to employ child labor, who work long hours in poor conditions. The Fairtrade Labeling Organization (FLO) addresses this concern by promoting programs designed to ensure that export-dependent farmers in developing countries receive fair prices for their crops. The organization has its critics, though, who contend that the program enriches the middlemen and do not really benefit the farmers. 1. How does the environment affect fair trade? To help students with this answer, it may be a good idea to get students to think of the entire cocoa supply chain, from farmers in Africa to retailers of chocolates worldwide. Each is affected by various types of environmental changes. For example, everyone in the chain is affected by the global economic environment. In addition, farmers in Africa are affected by a changing social environment where views on child labor are changing. 2. What are the trade-offs in the fair-trade process? Do you think that fair trade promotes fair trade- offs? Why or why not? Fair trade protects suppliers. The trade-off, though, is that fair trade products cost more. This is a question that is likely to provide contrasting viewpoints among students as they look at the cost versus benefits of fair trade. 3. Do you pay attention to fair-trade products in your own purchasing behavior? For what kind of products might you be willing to pay premium prices? Responses will vary depending on how the student views fair trade. 4. Under what circumstances might fair trade actually cause harm? To whom? At what point would fair-trade trade-offs no longer be acceptable? If the price of fair trade products to consumer become so high that they are uncompetitive it may have an adverse effect on demand, which may, in turn, affect suppliers. Fair trade would be acceptable till such a point is reached.
- 34. Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers 16 YOU MAKE THE CALL Social Entrepreneurship at its Finest 1. What environmental events and forces have led to the existence of organizations such as Mercy Corps? A variety of environmental threats – economic, social, natural disasters – have led to the existence of an organization like Mercy Corps. When a disaster hits an area – such as the earthquake in Haiti – everything is in disarray and an organization like Mercy Corps. provides the infrastructure and support for regular life to go on. 2. In what ways does Mercy Corps interact with its environment in order to fulfill its mission? It is important to note that Mercy Corps believes communities that are affected must be the agents of their own change. This means that Mercy Corps interacts with the social, cultural, economic, and political environments of the place that it is providing relief in. 2. Discuss how economic, global, and ethical environments interact with respect to an organization like Mercy Corps. Take the Haiti earthquake as an example. When Mercy Corps landed in Haiti to address the effects of the disaster, it had to deal with the economic environment (providing a means of income to people by getting them to clear the debris, for example), the global environment (coordinating the worldwide response to the disaster) and the ethical aspects of its work. 3. If you were asked to critique Mercy Corps in terms of effectiveness, what factors would you focus on? While student responses will vary, they have to keep in mind that in measuring how well an organization like Mercy Corps function, one has to see what its mission is and judge it based on that. For example, Mercy Corps’ mission says that the affected community must take ownership of the change. A Mercy Corps mission is effective if this actually happens.
- 35. 17 Chapter 2: The Environments of Organizations and Managers Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
- 36. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 37. Christendom in resorting to hostilities; recourse had to arms for slight motives or for none; and when war was once begun an utter rejection of all reverence for divine or human law, just as if the unrestrained commission of every crime became thenceforth legitimate. Yet, instead of throwing the weight of his judgment into the scale of opinion which opposed the custom altogether (though he did advocate an international tribunal that should decide differences and compel obedience to its decisions), he only tried to shackle it with rules of decency that are absolutely foreign to it, with the result, after all, that he did very little to humanise wars, and nothing to make them less frequent. Nevertheless, though Grotius admitted the abstract lawfulness of military service, he made it conditional on a thorough conviction of the righteousness of the cause at issue. This is the great and permanent merit of his work, and it is here that we touch on the pivot or central question of military ethics. The orthodox theory is, that with the cause of war a soldier has no concern, and that since the matter in contention is always too complicated for him to judge of its merits, his only duty is to blindfold his reason and conscience, and rush whithersoever his services are commanded. Perhaps the best exposition of this simple military philosophy is that given by Shakespeare in his scene of the eve of Agincourt, where Henry V., in disguise, converses with some soldiers of the English army. ‘Methinks,’ says the king, ‘I could not die anywhere so contented as in the king’s company, his cause being just and his quarrel honourable.’ William. ‘That’s more than we know.’ Bates. ‘Ay, or more than we should seek after, for we know enough if we know we are the king’s subjects. If his cause be wrong, our obedience to the king wipes the crime of it out of us.’ Yet the whisper of our own day is, Does it? For a soldier, nowadays, enjoys equally with the civilian, who by his vote contributes to prevent or promote hostilities, the greater facilities afforded by the
- 38. spread of knowledge for the exercise of his judgment; and it is to subject him to undeserved ignominy to debar him from the free use of his intellect, as if he were a minor or an imbecile, incompetent to think for himself. Putting even the difficulty of decision at its worst, it can never be greater for the soldier than it is for the voter; and if the former is incompetent to form an opinion, whence does the peasant or mechanic derive his ability? Moreover, the existence of a just and good cause has always been the condition insisted on as alone capable of sanctioning military service by writers of every shade of thought—by St. Augustine as representing the early Catholic Church, by Bullinger or Becon as representatives of the early Reformed Church, and by Grotius as representative of the modern school of publicists. Grotius contends that no citizen or subject ought to take part in an unjust war, even if he be commanded to do so. He openly maintains that disobedience to orders is in such a case a lesser evil than the guilt of homicide that would be incurred by fighting. He inclines to the opinion that, where the cause of war seems doubtful, a man would do better to refrain from service, and to leave the king to employ those whose readiness to fight might be less hampered by questions of right and wrong, and of whom there would always be a plentiful supply. Without these reservations he regards the soldier’s task as so much the more detestable than the executioner’s, as manslaughter without a cause is more heinous than manslaughter with one,[316] and thinks no kind of life more wicked than that of men who, without regard for the cause of war, fight for hire, and to whom the question of right is equivalent to the question of the highest wage.[317] These are strong opinions and expressions, and as their general acceptance would logically render war impossible, it is no small gain to have in their favour so great an authority as Grotius. But it is an even greater gain to be able to quote on the same side an actual soldier. Sir James Turner at the end of his military treatise called ‘Pallas Armata,’ published in 1683, came to conclusions which, though adverse to Grotius, contain some remarkable admissions and
- 39. show the difference that two centuries have made on military maxims with regard to this subject. ‘It is no sin for a mere soldier,’ he says, ‘to serve for wages, unless his conscience tells him he fights in an unjust cause.’ Again, ‘That soldier who serves or fights for any prince or State for wages in a cause he knows to be unjust, sins damnably.’ He even argues that soldiers whose original service began for a just cause, and who are constrained by their military oaths to continue in service for a new and unjust cause of war, ought to ‘desert their employment and suffer anything that could be done to them before they draw their swords against their own conscience and judgments in an unjust quarrel.’[318] These moral sentiments of a military man of the seventeenth century are absolutely alien to the military doctrines of the present day; and his remarks on wages recall yet another important landmark of ancient thought that has been removed by the progress of time. Early Greek opinion justly made no distinction between the mercenary who served a foreign country and the mercenary who served his own. All hired military service was regarded as disgraceful, nor would anyone of good birth have dreamt of serving his own country save at his own expense. The Carians rendered their names infamous as the first of the Greek race who served for pay; whilst at Athens Pericles introduced the custom of supporting the poorer defenders of their country out of the exchequer.[319] Afterwards, of course, no people ever committed itself more eagerly to the pursuit of mercenary warfare. In England also gratuitous military service was originally the condition of the feudal tenure of land, nor was anyone bound to serve the king for more than a certain number of days in the year, forty being generally the longest term. For all service in excess of the legal limit the king was obliged to pay; and in this way, and by the scutage tax, by which many tenants bought themselves off from their strict obligations, the principle of a paid military force was recognised from the time of the Conquest. But the chief stipendiary forces appear to have been foreign mercenaries, supported, not out
- 40. of the commutation tax, but out of the king’s privy purse, and still more out of the loot won from their victims in war. These were those soldiers of fortune, chiefly from Flanders, Brabançons, or Routers, whose excesses as brigands led to their excommunication by the Third Lateran Council (1179), and to their destruction by a crusade three years later.[320] But the germ of our modern recruiting system must rather be looked for in those military contracts or indentures, by which from about the time of Edward III. it became customary to raise our forces: some powerful subject contracting with the king, in consideration of a certain sum, to provide soldiers for a certain time and task. Thus in 1382 the war-loving Bishop of Norwich contracted with Richard II. to provide 2,500 men-at-arms and 2,500 archers for a year’s service in France, in consideration of the whole fifteenth that had been voted by Parliament for the war.[321] In the same way several bishops indented to raise soldiers for Henry V. And thus a foreign war became a mere matter of business and hire, and armies to fight the French were raised by speculative contractors, very much as men are raised nowadays to make railways or take part in other works needful for the public at large. The engagement was purely pecuniary and commercial, and was entirely divested of any connection with conscience or patriotism. On the other hand, the most obviously just cause of war, that of national defence in case of invasion, continued to be altogether disconnected with pay, and remained so much the duty of the militia or capable male population of the country, that both Edward III. and Richard II. directed writs even to archbishops and bishops to arm and array all abbots, priors, and monks, between the ages of sixteen and sixty, for the defence of the kingdom.[322] Originally, therefore, the paid army of England, as opposed to the militia, implied the introduction of a strictly mercenary force consisting indifferently of natives or foreigners, into our military system. But clearly there was no moral difference between the two classes of mercenaries so engaged. The hire, and not the cause,
- 41. being the main consideration of both, the Englishman and the Brabançon were equally mercenaries in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The prejudice against mercenaries either goes too far or not far enough. If a Swiss or an Italian hiring himself to fight for a cause about which he was ignorant or indifferent was a mercenary soldier, so was an Englishman who with equal ignorance and indifference accepted the wages offered him by a military contractor of his own nation. Either the conduct of the Swiss was blameless, or the Englishman’s moral delinquency was the same as his. The public opinion of former times regarded both, of course, as equally blameless, or rather as equally meritorious. And it is worth noticing that the word mercenary was applied alike to the hired military servant of his own as of another country. Shakespeare, for instance, applies the term mercenary to the 1,600 Frenchmen of low degree slain at Agincourt, whom Monstrelet distinguishes from the 10,000 Frenchmen of position who lost their lives on that memorable day— In this ten thousand they have lost, There are but sixteen hundred mercenaries. And even so late as 1756, the original signification of the word had so little changed, that in the great debate in the House of Lords on the Militia Bill of that year Lord Temple and several other orators spoke of the national standing army as an army of mercenaries, without making any distinction between the Englishmen and the Hessians who served in it.[323] The moral distinction that now prevails between the paid service of natives and of foreigners is, therefore, of comparatively recent origin. It was one of the features of the Reformation in Switzerland that its leaders insisted for the first time on a moral difference between Swiss soldiers who served their own country for pay, and
- 42. those who with equal bravery and credit sold their strength to the service of the highest foreign bidder. Zwingli, and after him his disciple Bullinger, effected a change in the moral sentiment of Switzerland equivalent to that which a man would effect nowadays who should persuade men to discountenance or abandon military service of any kind for pay. One of the great obstacles to Zwingli’s success was his decided protest against the right of any Swiss to sell himself to foreign governments for the commission of bloodshed, regardless of any injury in justification; and it was mainly on that account that Bullinger succeeded in 1549 in preventing a renewal of the alliance or military contract between the cantons and Henry II. of France. ‘When a private individual,’ he said, ‘is free to enrol himself or not, and engages himself to fight against the friends and allies of his sovereign, I know not whether he does not hire himself to commit homicide, and whether he does not act like the gladiators, who, to amuse the Roman people, let themselves to the first comer to kill one another.’ But it is evident that, except with a reservation limiting a man’s service to a just national cause, Bullinger’s argument will also apply to the case of a hired soldier of his own country. The duty of every man to defend his country in case of invasion is intelligible enough; and it is very important to notice that originally in no country did the duty of military obedience mean more. In 1297 the High Constable and Marshal of England refused to muster the forces to serve Edward I. in Flanders, on the plea that neither they nor their ancestors were obliged to serve the king outside his dominions;[324] and Sir E. Coke’s ruling in Calvin’s case,[325] that Englishmen are bound to attend the king in his wars as well without as within the realm, and that their allegiance is not local but indefinite, was not accepted by writers on the constitution of the country. The existing militia oath, which strictly limits obedience to the defence of the realm, covered the whole military duty of our ancestors; and it was only the innovation of the military contract that prepared the way for our modern idea of the soldier’s duty as unqualified and unlimited
- 43. with regard to cause and place and time. The very word soldier meant originally stipendiary, his pay or solde (from the Latin solidum) coming to constitute his chief characteristic. From a servant hired for a certain task for a certain time the steps were easy to a servant whose hire bound him to any task and for the whole of his life. The existing military oath, which binds a recruit and practically compels him as much to a war of aggression as of defence at the bidding of the executive, owes its origin to the revolution of 1689, when the refusal of Dumbarton’s famous Scotch regiment to serve their new master, William III., in the defence of Holland against France, rendered it advisable to pass the Mutiny Act, containing a more stringent definition of military duty by an oath couched in extremely general terms. Such has been the effect of time in confirming this newer doctrine of the contract implied by the military status, that the defence of the monarch ‘in person, crown, and dignity against all enemies,’ to which the modern recruit pledges himself at his attestation, would be held to bind the soldier not to withhold his services were he called upon to exercise them in the planet Mars itself. Hence it appears to be an indisputable fact of history that the modern military theory of Europe, which demands complete spiritual self-abandonment and unqualified obedience on the part of a soldier, is a distinct trespass outside the bounds of the original and, so to speak, constitutional idea of military duty; and that in our own country it is as much an encroachment on the rights of Englishmen as it is on the wider rights of man. But what is the value of the theory itself, even if we take no account of the history of its growth? If military service precludes a man from discussing the justice of the end pursued in a war, it can hardly be disputed that it equally precludes him from inquiries about the means, and that if he is bound to consider himself as fighting in any case for a lawful cause he has no right to bring his moral sense to bear upon the details of the service required of him. But here occurs a loophole, a flaw, in the argument; for no subject nor soldier can be
- 44. compelled to serve as a spy, however needful such service may be. That proves that a limit does exist to the claims on a soldier’s obedience. And Vattel mentions as a common occurrence the refusal of troops to act when the cruelty of the deeds commanded of them exposed them to the danger of savage reprisals. ‘Officers,’ he says, ‘who had the highest sense of honour, though ready to shed their blood in a field of battle for their prince’s service, have not thought it any part of their duty to run the hazard of an ignominious death,’ such as was involved in the execution of such behests. Yet why not, if their prince or general commanded them? By what principle of morality or common sense were they justified in declining a particular service as too iniquitous for them and yet in holding themselves bound to the larger iniquity of an aggressive war? What right has a machine to choose or decide between good and bad any more than between just and unjust? Its moral incompetence must be thoroughgoing, or else in no case afford an extenuating plea. You must either grant it everything or nothing, or else offer a rational explanation for your rule of distinction. For it clearly needs explaining, why, if there are orders which a soldier is not bound to obey, if there are cases where he is competent to discuss the moral nature of the services required of him, it should not also be open to him to discuss the justice of the war itself of which those services are merely incidents. Let us turn from the abstract to the concrete, and take two instances as a test of the principle. In 1689, Marshal Duras, commander of the French army of the Rhine, received orders to destroy the Palatinate, and make a desert between France and Germany, though neither the Elector nor his people had done the least injury to France. Did a single soldier, did a single officer quail or hesitate? Voltaire tells us that many officers felt shame in acting as the instrument of this iniquity of Louis XIV., but they acted nevertheless in accordance with their supposed honour, and with the still orthodox theory of military duty. They stopped short at no atrocity. They cut down the fruit- trees, they tore down the vines, they burnt the granaries; they set fire to villages, to country-houses, to castles; they desecrated the
- 45. tombs of the ancient German emperors at Spiers; they plundered the churches; they reduced well-nigh to ashes Oppenheim, Spiers, Worms, Mannheim, Heidelberg, and other flourishing cities; they reduced 400,000 human beings to homelessness and destruction— and all in the name of military duty and military honour! Yet, of a truth, those were dastardly deeds if ever dastardly deeds have been done beneath the sun; and it is the sheerest sophistry to maintain that the men who so implicitly carried out their orders would not have done more for their miserable honour, would not have had a higher conception of duty, had they followed the dictates of their reason and conscience rather than those of their military superiors, and refused to sacrifice their humanity to an overstrained theory of their military obligation, and their memory to everlasting execration. In the case of these destroyers military duty meant simply military servility, and it was this reckless servility that led Voltaire in his ‘Candide’ to put into the mouth of his inimitable philosopher, Martin, that definition of an army which tales like the foregoing suggested and justified: ‘A million of assassins, in regiments, traversing Europe from end to end, and committing murder and brigandage by rules of discipline for the sake of bread, because incompetent to exercise any more honest calling.’[326] An English case of this century may be taken as a parallel one to the French of the seventeenth, and as an additional test of the orthodox military dogma that with the cause of war a soldier has no concern. It is the Copenhagen expedition of 1807, than which no act of might within this century was more strongly reprobated by the public opinion of Europe, and by all but the Tory opinion of England. A fleet and army having been sent to the Danish capital, and the Danish Government having refused to surrender their fleet, which was demanded as the alternative of bombardment, the English military officials proceeded to bombard the city, with infinite destruction and slaughter, which were only stayed at last by the surrender of the fleet as originally demanded. There was no quarrel with Denmark at the time, there was no complaint of injury; only the surrender of the
- 46. fleet was demanded. English public opinion was both excited and divided about the morality of this act, which was only justified on the plea that the Government was in possession of a secret article of the Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and the Czar of Russia, by which the Danish fleet was to be made use of in an attack upon England. But this secret article was not divulged, according to Alison, till ten years afterwards,[327] and many disbelieved in its existence altogether, even supposing that its existence would have been a good case for war. Many military men therefore shared in the feeling that condemned the act, yet they scrupled not to contribute their aid to it. Were they right? Read Sir C. Napier’s opinion of it at the time, and then say where, in the case of a man so thinking, would have lain his duty: ‘This Copenhagen expedition—is it an unjust action for the general good? Who can say that such a precedent is pardonable? When once the line of justice has been passed, there is no shame left. England has been unjust.... Was not our high honour worth the danger we might perhaps have risked in maintaining that honour inviolate?’[328] These opinions, whether right or wrong, were shared by many men in both services. Sir C. Napier himself says: ‘Were there not plenty of soldiers who thought these things wrong? ... but would it have been possible to allow the army and navy ... to decide upon the propriety of such attacks?’[329] The answer is, that if they did, whether allowed or not, such things would be impossible, or, at all events, less probable: which is the best reason possible for the contention that they should. Had they done so in this very instance, our historians would have been spared the explanation of an episode that is a dark blot upon our annals. A more pleasing precedent, therefore, than that of the French officers in the Palatinate, or of the English at Copenhagen, is the case of Admiral Keppel, who, whilst numbers of naval officers flocked to the Admiralty to offer their services or to request employment, steadily declined to take part in the war of England against her
- 47. American colonies, because he deemed her cause a bad one.[330] He did no violence to his reason or conscience nor tarnished his fame by acting a part, of which in his individual capacity he disapproved. His example is here held up as illustrating the only true doctrine, and the only one that at all accords with the most rudimentary principles of either religion or morality. The contrary doctrine bids a man to forswear the use of both his reason and his conscience in consideration for his pay, and deprives him of that liberty of thought and moral action compared with which his civil and political liberty are nothing worth. For what indeed is this contrary time-honoured doctrine when stripped of all superfluities, and displayed in the outfit of common sense and common words? What is it but that the duty of military obedience overrides all duty of a man towards himself; that, though he may not voluntarily destroy his body, he cannot do too much violence to his soul; that it is his duty to annihilate his moral and intellectual being, to commit spiritual suicide, to forego the use of the noblest faculties which belong to him as a man; that to do all this is a just cause of pride to him, and that he is in all respects the nobler and better for assimilating himself to that brainless and heartless condition which is that also of his charger or his rifle? If this doctrine is true and sound, then it may be asked whether there has ever been or exists upon the earth any tyranny, ecclesiastical or political, comparable to this military one; whether any but the baser forms of priestcraft have ever sought to deprive a man so completely of the enjoyment of his highest human attributes, or to absolve him so utterly from all moral responsibility for his actions. This position can scarcely be disputed, save by denying the reality of any distinction between just and unjust in international conduct; and against this denial may be set not only the evidence of every age, but of every language above the stage of mere barbarism. Disregard of the difference is one of the best measures of the civilisation of a people or epoch. We at once, for instance, form a higher estimate of
- 48. the civilisation of ancient India, when we read in Arrian that her kings were so apprehensive of committing an unjust aggression that they would not lead their armies out of India for the conquest of other nations.[331] One of the best features in the old pagan world was the importance attached to the justice of the motives for breaking the peace. The Romans appear never to have begun a war without a previous consultation with the College of Fecials as to its justice; and in the same way, and for the same purpose, the early Christian emperors consulted the opinion of the bishops. If a Roman general made an unjust attack upon a people his triumph was refused, or at least resisted; nor are the instances infrequent in which the senate decreed restitution where a consul, acting on his own responsibility, had deprived a population of its arms, its lands, or its liberties.[332] Hence the Romans, with all their apparent aggressiveness, won the character of a strict regard to justice, which was no small part of the secret of their power. ‘You boast,’ the Rhodians said to them, ‘that your wars are successful because they are just, and plume yourselves not so much on the victory which concludes them as on the fact that you never begin them without good cause.’[333] Conquest corrupted the Romans in these respects as it has done many another people; but even to the end of the Republic the tradition of justice survived; nor is there anything finer in the history of that people than the attempt of the party headed by Ateius the tribune to prevent Crassus leaving Rome when he was setting out to make war upon the Parthians, who not only had committed no injury, but were the allies of the Republic; or than the vote of Cato, that Cæsar, who, in time of peace, had slain or routed 300,000 Germans, should be given up to the people he had injured in atonement for the wrong he had done to them. The idea of the importance of a just cause of war may be traced, of course, in history, after the extinction of the grand pagan philosophy in which it had its origin. It was insisted on even by Christian writers who, like St. Augustine, did not regard all military service as wicked. What, he asked, were kingdoms but robberies on a vast scale, if
- 49. their justice were put out of the reckoning.[334] A French writer of the time of Charles V. concluded that while soldiers who fell in a just cause were saved, those who died for an unjust cause perished in a state of mortal sin.[335] Even the Chevalier Bayard, who accompanied Charles VIII. without any scruple in his conquest of Naples, was fond of saying that all empires, kingdoms, and provinces were, if without the principle of justice, no better than forests full of brigands;[336] and the fine saying is attributed to him, that the strength of arms should only be employed for the establishment of right and equity. But on the whole the justice of the cause of war became of less and less importance as time went on; nor have our modern Christian societies ever derived benefit in that respect from the instruction or guidance of their churches at all equal to that which the society of pagan Rome derived from the institution of its Fecials, as the guardians of the national conscience. It was among the humane endeavours of Grotius to try to remedy this defect in modern States by establishing certain general principles by which it might be possible to test the pretext of any given war from the side of its justice. At first sight it appears obvious that a definite injury is the only justification for a resort to hostilities, or, in other words, that only a defensive war is just; but then the question arises how far defence may be anticipatory, and an injury feared or probable give the same rights as one actually sustained. The majority of wars, that have not been merely wars of conquest and robbery, may be traced to that principle in history, so well expressed by Livy, that men’s anxiety not to be afraid of others causes them to become objects of dread themselves.[337] For this reason Grotius refused to admit as a good casus belli the fact that another nation was making warlike preparations, building garrisons and fortresses, or that its power might, if unchecked, grow to be dangerous. He also rejected the pretext of mere utility as a good ground for war, or such pleas as the need of better territory, the right of first discovery, or the improvement or punishment of barbarous nations.
- 50. A strict adherence to these principles, vague as they are, would have prevented most of the bloodshed that has occurred in Europe since Grotius wrote. The difficulty, however, is, that, as between nations, the principle of utility easily overshadows that of justice; and although the two are related as the temporary to the permanent expediency, and therefore as the lesser to the greater expediency, the relation between them is seldom obvious at the time of choice, and it is easy beforehand to demonstrate the expediency of a war of which time alone can show both the inexpediency and the injustice. Any war, therefore, however unjust it may seem, when judged by the canons of Grotius, is easily construed as just when measured by the light of an imperious and magnified passing interest; and the absence of any recognised definition or standard of just dealing between nations affords a salve to many a conscience that in the matters of private life would be sensitive and scrupulous enough. The story of King Agesilaus is a mirror in which very few ages or countries may not see their own history reflected. When Phœbidas, the Spartan general, seized the Cadmeia of Thebes in the time of peace, the greater part of Greece and many Spartans condemned it as a most iniquitous act of war; but Agesilaus, who at other times was wont to talk of justice as the greatest of all the virtues, and of valour without it as of little worth, defended his officer’s action, on the plea that it was necessary to regard the tendency of the action, and to account it even as glorious if it resulted in an advantage to Sparta. But when every allowance is made for wars of which the justice is not clearly defined from the expediency, many wars have occurred of so palpably unjust a character, that they could not have been possible but for the existence of the loosest sentiments with regard to the responsibility of those who took part in them. We read of wars or the pretexts of wars in history of which we all, whether military men or civilians, readily recognise the injustice; and by applying the same principles of judgment to the wars of our own country and time we are each and all of us furnished for the direction of our conscience with a standard which, if not absolutely scientific or
- 51. consistent, is sufficient for all the practical purposes of life, and is completely subversive of the excuse which is afforded by occasional instances of difficult and doubtful decision. The same facilities which exist for the civilian when he votes for or against taxation for a given war, or in approval or disapproval of the government which undertakes it, exist also for the soldier who lends his active aid to it; nor is it unreasonable to claim for the action of the one the same responsibility to his own conscience which by general admission attaches to the other. It is surely something like a degradation to the soldier that he should not enjoy in this respect the same rights as the civilian; that his merit alone should be tested by no higher a theory of duty than that which is applied to the merit of a horse; and that his capacity for blind and unreasoning obedience should be accounted his highest attainable virtue. The transition from the idea of military vassalage to that of military allegiance has surely produced a strange conception of honour, and one fitter for conscripts than for free men, when a man is held as by a vice to take part in a course of action which he believes to be wrong. Not only does no other profession enforce such an obligation, but in every other walk of life a man’s assertion of his own personal responsibility is a source rather of credit to him than of infamy. That in the performance of any social function a man should be called upon to make an unconditional surrender of his free will, and yield an obedience as thoughtless as a dummy’s to superior orders, would seem to be a principle of conduct pilfered from the Society of Jesus, and utterly unworthy of the nobility of a soldier. As a matter of history, the priestly organisation took the military one for its model: which should lead us to suspect that the tyranny we find fault with in the copy is equally present in the original, and that the latter is marked by the same vices that it transmitted to the borrowed organisation. The principle here contended for, that the soldier should be fully satisfied in his own mind of the justice of the cause he fights for, is the condition that Christian writers, from Augustine to Grotius, have
- 52. placed on the lawfulness of military service. The objection to it, that its adoption would mean the ruin of military discipline, will appear the greatest argument of all in its favour when we reflect that its universal adoption would make war itself, which is the only reason for discipline, altogether impossible. Where would have been the wars of the last two hundred years had it been in force? Or where the English wars of the last six, with their thousands of lives and their millions of money spent for no visible good nor glory in fighting with Afghans, Zulus, Egyptians, and Arabs? Once restrict legitimate warfare to the limits of national defence, and it is evident that the refusal of men to take part in a war of aggression would equally put an end to the necessity of defensive exertion. If no government could rely on its subjects for the purposes of aggression and injustice, it goes without saying that the just cause of war would perish simultaneously. It is therefore altogether to be wished that that reliance should be weakened and destroyed. The reasoning, then, which contains the key that is alone capable of closing permanently the portals of Janus is this: that there exists a distinction between a just and an unjust war, between a good and a bad cause, and that no man has a right either to take part knowingly and wilfully in a cause he believes to be unjust, nor to commit himself servilely to a theory of duty which deprives him, at the very outset, of his inalienable human birthright of free thought and free will. This is the principle of personal responsibility which has long since won admission everywhere save in the service of Mars, and which requires but to be extended there to free the world from the custom that has longest and most ruinously afflicted it. For it attacks that custom where it has never yet been seriously attacked before, at its real source—namely, in the heart, the brain, and the conscience, that, in spite of all warping and training, still belong to the individual units who alone make it possible. It behoves all of us, therefore, who are interested in abolishing military barbarism, not merely to yield a passive assent to it ourselves, but to claim for it assent and assertion from others. We must ask and reask the question: What is the title by which a man, through the mere fact of
- 53. his military cloth, claims exemption from the moral law that is universally binding upon his fellows? For this principle of individual military responsibility is of such power, that if carried to its consequences, it must ultimately prove fatal to militarism; and if it has not yet the prescription of time and common opinion in its favour, it is sealed nevertheless with the authority of many of the best intellects that have helped to enlighten the past, and is indissolubly contained in the teaching alike of our religious as of our moral code. It can, in fact, only be gainsaid by a denial of the fundamental maxims of those two guides of our conduct, and for that reason stands absolutely proof against the assaults of argument. Try to reconcile with the ordinary conceptions of the duties of a man or a Christian the duty of doing what his conscience condemns, and it may be safely predicted that you will try in vain. The considerations that may occur of utility and expediency beat in vain against the far greater expediency of a world at peace, freed from the curse of the warrior’s destructiveness; nor can the whole armoury of military logic supply a single counter-argument which does not resolve itself into an argument of supposed expediency, and which may not therefore be effectually parried, even on this narrower debating ground, by the consideration of the overwhelming advantages which could not but flow from the universal acceptance of the contrary and higher principle—the principle that for a soldier, as for anyone else, his first duty is to his conscience. Or, to put the conclusion in the fewest words: The soldier claims to be a non-moral agent. That is the corner-stone of the whole military system. Challenge then the claimant to justify his first principle, and the custom of war will shake to its foundation, and in time go the way that other evil customs have gone before it, when once their moral support has been undermined or shattered. FOOTNOTES:
- 54. [1] Halleck’s International Law, ii. 21. Yet within three weeks of the beginning of the war with France 60,000 Prussians were hors de combat. [2] ‘Artem illam mortiferam et Deo odibilem balistrariorum et sagittariorum adversus Christianos et Catholicos exerceri de cætero sub anathemate prohibemus.’ [3] Fauchet’s Origines des Chevaliers, &c. &c., ii. 56; Grose’s Military Antiquities, i. 142; and Demmin’s Encyclopédie d’Armurerie, 57, 496. [4] Fauchet, ii. 57. ‘Lequel engin, pour le mal qu’il faisait (pire que le venin des serpens), fut nommé serpentine,’ &c. [5] Grose, ii. 331. [6] Dyer, Modern Europe, iii. 158. [7] Scoffern’s Projectile Weapons, &c., 66. [8] Sur l’Esprit, i. 562. [9] Reade, Ashantee Campaign, 52. [10] Livy, xliv. 42. [11] These Instructions are published in Halleck’s International Law, ii. 36-51; and at the end of Edwards’s Germans in France. [12] ‘It would have been desirable,’ said the Russian Government, ‘that the voice of a great nation like England should have been heard at an inquiry of which the object would appear to have met with its sympathies.’ [13] Jus Gentium, art. 887, 878. [14] Florus, ii. 20. [15] Edwards’s Germans in France, 164. [16] This remarkable fact is certified by Mr. Russell, in his Diary in the last Great War, 398, 399. [17] Cicero, In Verrem, iv. 54. [18] See even the Annual Register, lvi. 184, for a denunciation of this proceeding.
- 55. [19] Sismondi’s Hist. des Français, xxv. [20] Edwards’s Germans in France, 171. [21] Lieut-Col. Charras, La Campagne de 1815, i. 211, ii. 88. [22] Woolsey’s International Law, p. 223. [23] Cf. lib. xii. 81, and xiii. 25, 26; quoted by Grotius, iii. xi. xiii. [24] iii. 41. [25] Cambridge Essays, 1855, ‘Limitations to Severity in War,’ by C. Buxton. [26] See Raumer’s Geschichte Europa’s, iii. 509-603, if any doubt is felt about the fact. [27] General Order of October 9, 1813. Compare those of May 29, 1809, March 25, 1810, June 10, 1812, and July 9, 1813. [28] Vattel, iii. ix. 165. [29] Sir W. Napier (Peninsular War, ii. 322) says of the proceeding that it was ‘politic indeed, yet scarcely to be admitted within the pale of civilised warfare.’ It occurred in May 1810. [30] Bluntschli’s Modernes Völkerrecht, art. 573. [31] For the character of modern war see the account of the Franco-German war in the Quarterly Review for April 1871. [32] Halleck, ii. 22. [33] Vehse’s Austria, i. 369. Yet, as usual on such occasions, the excesses were committed in the teeth of Tilly’s efforts to oppose them. ‘Imperavit Tillius a devictorum cædibus et corporum castimonia abstinerent, quod imperium a quibusdam furentibus male servatum annales aliqui fuere conquesti.’—Adlzreiter’s Annales Boicæ Gentis, Part iii. l. 16, c. 38. [34] Battles in the Peninsular War, 181, 182. [35] Ibid. 396. [36] Foxe’s Actes and Monuments, iii. 52. [37] Saint-Palaye, Mémoires sur la Chevalerie, iii. 10, 133.
- 56. [38] Vinsauf’s Itinerary of Richard I., ii. 16. [39] Matthew of Westminster, 460; Grose, ii. 348. [40] Monstrelet, ii. 115. [41] Mémoires sur la Chevalerie, i. 322. [42] Petitot, v. 102; and Ménard, Vie de B. du Guesclin, 440. [43] Petitot, v. 134. [44] Meyrick, Ancient Armour, ii. 5. [45] i. 123. [46] Monstrelet, i. 259. [47] ii. 5. [48] ii. 11. [49] ii. 22, compare ii. 56. [50] Monstrelet, ii. 111. [51] ii. 113. [52] See for some, Livy, xxix. 8, xxxi. 26, 30, xxxvii. 21, xliii. 7, xliv. 29. [53] Livy, xliv. 29. [54] Meyrick, i. 41. [55] Demmin, Encyclopédie d’Armurerie, 490. [56] Meyrick, ii. 204. [57] Grose, ii. 114. [58] Petitot, xvi. 134. [59] Grose, ii. 343. [60] iv. 27. [61] iv. 36. [62] iii. 109. [63] Mémoires, vi. 1.
- 57. [64] Halleck, International Law, ii. 154. [65] Elements of Morality, sec. 1068. [66] Des Droits et Devoirs des Nations neutres, ii. 321-323. [67] History of the Royal Navy, i. 357. [68] Nicolas, ii. 341. [69] Nicolas, ii. 405. [70] Monstrelet, i. 12. [71] Nicolas, ii. 108. [72] Ibid. i. 333. [73] Froissart, ii. 85. [74] Entick, New Naval History (1757), 823. ‘Some of the Spanish prizes were immensely rich, a great many of the French were of considerable value, and so were many of the English; but the balance was about two millions in favour of the latter.’ [75] From Entick’s New Naval History (1757), 801-817. [76] Martens, Essai sur les Corsaires (Horne’s translation), 86, 87. [77] Ibid. 93. [78] III. xv. 229. [79] Emerigon, On Insurances (translation), 442. [80] Martens, 19. [81] Hautfeuille, Des Droits et Devoirs des Nations neutres, ii. 349. [82] De Jure Maritimo, i. 72. [83] Despatches, vi. 145. [84] Despatches, vi. 79. [85] The last occasion was on April 13, 1875. [86] Halleck, International Law, ii. 316. [87] Bluntschli, Modernes Völkerrecht, art. 665.
- 58. [88] James, Naval History, i. 255. [89] James, ii. 71. [90] Ibid. ii. 77. [91] Ortolan, Diplomatie de la Mer, ii. 32. [92] Campbell’s Admirals, viii. 40. [93] Campbell, vii. 21. James, i. 161. Stinkpots are jars or shells charged with powder, grenades, &c. [94] James, i. 283. [95] Brenton, ii. 471. [96] Caltrops, or crows’-feet, are bits of iron with four spikes so arranged that however they fall one spike always remains upwards. Darius planted the ground with caltrops before Arbela. [97] Chapter xix. of the Tactica. [98] Frontinus, Strategematicon, IV. vii. 9, 10. ‘Amphoras pice et tæda plenas; ... vascula viperis plena.’ [99] Roger de Wendover, Chronica. ‘Calcem vivam, et in pulverem subtilem redactam, in altum projicientes, vento illam ferente, Francorum oculos excæcaverunt.’ [100] Brenton, i. 635. [101] De Jure Maritimo, i. 265. [102] Rees’s Cyclopædia, ‘Fire-ship.’ [103] Brenton, ii. 493, 494. [104] Halleck, ii. 317. [105] Woolsey, International Law, 187. [106] James, i. 277. [107] Phillimore, International Law, iii. 50-52. [108] International Law, ii. 95. [109] Villiaumé, L’Esprit de la Guerre, 56. [110] De Commines, viii. 8.
- 59. [111] Watson’s Philip II., ii. 74. [112] Ibid. i. 213. [113] Memoirs, c. 19. [114] Villiaumé (L’Esprit de la Guerre, 71) gives the following version: ‘En 1793 et en 1794, le gouvernement anglais ayant violé le droit des gens contre la République Française, la Convention, dans un accès de brutale colère, décréta qu’il ne serait plus fait aucun prisonnier anglais ou hanovrien, c’est-à-dire que les vaincus seraient mis à mort, encore qu’ils se rendissent. Mais ce décret fut simplement comminatoire; le Comité de Salut Public, sachant très-bien que de misérables soldats n’étaient point coupables, donna l’ordre secret de faire grâce à tous les vaincus.’ [115] Herodotus, vii. 136. [116] Livy, xlv. 42. [117] Ibid. xlv. 43. [118] Ward, Law of Nations, i. 250. [119] Petitot’s Mémoires, xvi. 177. [120] Livy, xlii. 8, 9. [121] Monstrelet, Chronicles, i. 200. [122] Ibid. i. 224. [123] Ibid. i. 249. [124] Ibid. i. 259. [125] Monstrelet, ii. 156. [126] Ibid. 120. [127] Philip de Commines, ii. 1. [128] Ibid. ii. 2. [129] Ibid. ii. 14. [130] Philip de Commines, iii. 9. [131] Motley’s United Netherlands, iii. 323. [132] Vattel, iii. 8, 143.
- 60. [133] Borbstaedt, Franco-German War (translation), 662. [134] Ward, i. 223. [135] Quintus Curtius, iv. 6, and Grote, viii. 368. [136] Quintus Curtius, vii. 11. [137] Ibid. iv. 15. [138] Arrian, iii. 18. [139] Quintus Curtius, vii. 5. [140] ‘Tous deux furent très braves, très vaillants, fort bizarres et cruels.’ [141] Lyttleton, Henry II., i. 183. [142] Hoveden, 697. [143] 2 Samuel xii. 31. [144] Memoirs of a Cavalier, i. 47. [145] Memoirs of a Cavalier, 49. [146] ‘Life of Bayard’ in Petitot’s Mémoires, xvi. 9. [147] Major-General Mitchell’s Biographies of Eminent Soldiers, 92. [148] Livy, xxxi. 40. When Pelium was taken by storm, only the slaves were taken as spoil; the freemen were even let off without ransom. [149] Ibid. xxviii. 3. [150] Ibid. xxviii. 20, xxvii. 16, xxxi. 27. [151] De Officiis, i. 12. Yet on this passage is founded the common assertion that among the Romans ‘the word which signified stranger was the same with that which in its original denoted an enemy’ (Ward, ii. 174); implying that in their eyes a stranger and an enemy were one and the same thing. Cicero says exactly the reverse. [152] Recueil de Documents sur les exactions, vols, et cruautés des armées prussiennes en France. The book is out of print, but may be seen at the British Museum, under the title, ‘Prussia—
- 61. Army of.’ It is to be regretted that, whilst every book, however dull, relating to that war has been translated into English, this record has hitherto escaped the publicity it so well deserves. [153] Ibid. 19. [154] Ibid. 8. [155] Ibid. 13. [156] Chaudordy’s Circular of November 29, 1870, in the Recueil. [157] Recueil, 12, 15, 67, 119. [158] Ibid. 56. [159] Ibid. 54. [160] Recueil, 33-37, and Lady Bloomfield’s Reminiscences, ii. 235, 8, 9. [161] The Times, March 7, 1881. [162] Recueil, 29; compare 91. [163] Morley’s Cobden, ii. 177. [164] Professor Sheldon Amos quotes the fact, but refrains from naming the paper, in his preface to Manning’s Commentaries on the Law of Nations, xl. Was it not the Journal de France for Nov. 21, 1871? [165] iii. i. viii. 4. [166] De Officiis, i. 13. [167] Modernes Völkerrecht, Art. 565. [168] Polyænus, Strategematum libri octo, i. 34. [169] Polyænus, v. 41. [170] Ortolan’s Diplomatie de la mer, ii. 31, 375-7. [171] James’s Naval History, ii. 211; Campbell’s Admirals, vii. 132. [172] James, Naval History, ii. 225. [173] Nicolas, Royal Navy, ii. 27.
- 62. [174] Hautefeuille, Droit Maritime, iii. 433. ‘Les vaisseaux de l’Etat eux-mêmes ne rougissent pas de ces grossiers mensonges qui prennent le nom de ruses de guerre.’ [175] xiii. 1. [176] Montaigne, ch. v. [177] vii. 4. ‘Quia appellatione nostra vix apte exprimi possunt, Græca pronuntiatione Stratagemata dicuntur.’ [178] Livy, xlii. 47. [179] Histoire de la France, iii. 401. [180] The word musket is from muschetto, a kind of hawk, implying that its attack was equally destructive and unforeseen. [181] Polyænus, ii. 19. [182] Polyænus, iii. 2; from Thucydides, iii. 34. [183] Ibid. vii. 27, 2. [184] Ibid. iv. 2-4. [185] Liskenne, Bibliothèque Historique et Militaire, iii. 845. [186] Memoirs, ch. xix. [187] ix. 6, 3. [188] vi. 22. [189] vi. 15. [190] iv. 7, 17. [191] E. Fournier, L’Esprit dans l’Histoire, 145-150. [192] iii. 10. [193] Liskenne, v. 233-4. [194] Soldier’s Pocket-Book, 81. [195] Polyænus, viii. 16, 8. ‘Lege Romanorum jubente hostium exploratores interficere.’ [196] Livy, xxx. 29. According to Polyænus, he gave them a dinner and sent them back with instructions to tell what they had
- 63. seen; viii. 16, 8. [197] Watson’s Philip II. iii. 311. [198] Liskenne, iii. 840. [199] Hoffman, Kriegslist, 15. [200] Petitot’s Mémoires de la France, xv. 317. [201] Polyænus, ii. 27. [202] Ibid. v. 1, 4. [203] Memoirs, ch. xix. [204] Livy, xxxiv. 17. [205] As at the Brussels Conference, 1874, when such a proposal was made by the member for Sweden and Norway. [206] In Pinkerton, xvi. 817. [207] Turner’s Nineteen Years in Samoa, 304. [208] Schoolcraft’s Indian Tribes, iv. 52. [209] The Basutos, 223. [210] Potter’s Grecian Antiquities, ii. 69. [211] Turner’s Samoa, 298. [212] Ellis’s Polynesian Researches, i. 275. [213] Hutton’s Voyage to Africa, 1821, 337. [214] Colenso and Durnford’s Zulu War, 364, 379. [215] Petitot’s Mémoires, xv. 329. [216] The evidence is collected in Cetschwayo’s Dutchman, 99- 103. [217] Henty’s March to Coomassie, 443. Compare Reade’s Ashantee Campaign, 241-2. [218] Florus, ii. 19; iii. 4; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 1. [219] Florus, ii. 20. [220] Ibid. iii. 7.
- 64. [221] Florus, iii. 4; Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, ix. 44. [222] Morley’s Cobden, ii. 355. [223] Sir A. Helps’ Las Casas, 29. [224] T. Morton’s New England Canaan, 1637, iii. [225] Belknap’s New Hampshire, i. 262. [226] Penhallow’s Indian Wars, 1826, republished 1859, 31-3. [227] Ibid. 105, 6. [228] Ibid. 103. For further details of this debased military practice, see Adair’s History of American Indians, 245; Kercheval’s History of the Valley of Virginia, 263; Drake’s Biography and History of the Indians, 210, 373; Sullivan’s History of Maine, 251. [229] Kercheval’s Virginia, 113. [230] Eschwege’s Brazil, i. 186; Tschudi’s Reisen durch Südamerika, i. 262. [231] Parkman’s Expedition against Ohio Indians, 1764, 117. [232] Argensola, Les Isles Molucques, i. 60. [233] Drake’s Biography and History of the Indians, 489, 490. [234] R. C. Burton’s City of the Saints, 576; Eyre’s Central Australia, i. 175-9. [235] Borwick’s Last of the Tasmanians, 58. [236] Tschudi’s Reisen, ii. 262. [237] Maccoy’s Baptist Indian Missions, 441; Froebel’s Seven Years in Central America, 272; Wallace’s Travels on the Amazon, 326. [238] Bancroft’s United States, ii. 383-5; and compare Clarkson’s Life of Penn, chaps. 45 and 46. [239] Brooke’s Ten Years in Sarawak, i. 74. [240] Captain Hamilton’s East Indies, in Pinkerton, viii. 514. [241] W. H. Russell’s My Diary in India, 150. [242] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, viii. 280-6.
- 65. [243] Caffres and Caffre Missions, 210. [244] Memorials of Henrietta Robertson, 259, 308, 353. [245] Ibid. 353. [246] Colenso and Durnford’s Zulu War, 215. [247] Holden’s History of Natal, 210, 211. [248] Moister’s Africa, Past and Present, 310, 311. [249] Tams’s Visit to Portuguese Possessions, i. 181, ii. 28, 179. [250] Robertson’s America; Works, vi. 177, 205. [251] Thomson’s Great Missionaries, 30; Halkett’s Indians of North America, 247, 249, 256. [252] Le Blant, Inscriptions Chrétiennes, i. 86. [253] Bingham, Christian Antiquities, i. 486. [254] Cæsar, De Bello Gallico, vi. 14. ‘Druides a bello abesse consuerunt ... militiæ vacationem habent;’ and Origen, In Celsum, viii. 73, for the Romans. [255] Vaughan’s Life of Wycliffe, ii. 212-3. [256] Turner’s England, iv. 458, from Duchesne, Gesta Stephani. [257] ‘Non filius meus est vel ecclesiæ; ad regis autem voluntatem redimetur, quia potius Martis quam Christi miles judicatur.’ [258] Turner’s England, v. 92. [259] ‘Sanxit ut nullus in posterum sacerdos in hostem pergeret, nisi duo vel tres episcopi electione cæterorum propter benedictionem populique reconciliationem, et cum illis electi sacerdotes qui bene scirent populis pœnitentias dare, missas celebrare, etc.’ (in Du Cange, ‘Hostis’). [260] Guicciardini. ‘Prometteva che se i soldati procedevano virilmente, che non accetterebbe la Mirandola con alcuno patto: ma lascierebbe in potestà loro il saccheggiarla.’ [261] Monstrelet, i. 9. [262] Crichton’s Scandinavia, i. 170.
- 66. [263] Mémoires du Fleurange. Petitot, xvi. 253. [264] See Palmer, Origines Liturgicæ, ii. 362-65, for the form of service. [265] Petitot, xvi. 229. [266] Ibid. 135. [267] Petitot, viii. 55. ‘Feciono venire per tutto il campo un prete parato col corpo di Christo, e in luogo di communicarsi ciascuno prese uno poco di terra, e la si mise in boca.’ [268] Livy, xxxvi. 2. [269] Robertson, Charles V., note 21. Ryan, History of Effects of Religion on Mankind, 124. [270] M. J, Schmidt, Histoire des Allemands traduite, etc., iv. 232, 3. [271] ‘Christianis licet ex mandato magistratus arma portare et justa bella administrare.’ [272] Policy of War a True Defence of Peace, 1543. [273] Pallas Armata, 369, 1683. [274] In his treatise Du droit de la guerre. [275] L’Esprit, i. 562. [276] Strafgesetzbuch, Jan. 20, 1872, 15, 75, 150. [277] Fleming’s Volkommene Teutsche Soldat, 96. [278] Benet’s United States Articles of War, 391. [279] Grose, ii. 199. [280] See Turner’s Pallas Armata, 349, for these and similar military tortures. [281] Crichton’s Scandinavia, i. 168. [282] Grose, ii. 6. [283] Sir S. Scott’s History of the British Army, ii. 436. [284] ii. 16. ‘Omnes autem signarii vel signiferi quamvis pedites loricas minores accipiebant, et galeas ad terrorem hostium ursinis
- 67. pellibus tectas.’ [285] Scott, ii. 9. [286] Scott, i. 311. [287] Said to have been invented about 400 B.C. by Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. [288] Mitchell’s Biographies of Eminent Soldiers, 208, 287. [289] Compare article 14 of the German Strafgesetzbuch of January 20, 1872. [290] Nineteenth Century, November 1882: ‘The Present State of the Army.’ [291] De Re Militari, vi. 5. [292] Bruce’s Military Law (1717), 254. [293] See Fleming’s Teutsche Soldat, ch. 29. [294] See the War Articles for 1673, 1749, 1794. [295] 82. [296] Quintus Curtius, viii. 2. [297] Military Law, 163. [298] 286, 290. [299] Despatches, iii. 302, June 17, 1809. [300] Compare also Despatches, iv. 457; v. 583, 704, 5. [301] China War, 225. [302] Scott’s British Army, ii. 411. [303] Wellington’s Despatches, v. 705. [304] See Windham’s Speech in the House of Commons. April 3, 1806. [305] Ibid. [306] P. 122. [307] Fleming, 109.