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GIT – Dr.Chintan
Important: Please refer standard textbook of PHYSIOLOGY for further reading…
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Gastro Intestinal Tract
- Dr. Chintan

GIT – Dr.Chintan
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INDEX
1. Pancreatic Secretion………………………………………………………………………...03
2. Cholecystokinin……………………………………………………………………………….06
3. Succus Entericus ……………………………………………………………………………..07
4. Movements of small intestine …………………………………………………………..09
5. Sham feeding ……………………………………………………..........................................16
6. Gall bladder functions …………………………………………………………………….17
7. GIT Hormones…….……………………………………………………………………………18
8. Enterohepatic circulation ……………………………………………………………….19
9. Gastric Emptying ……………………………………………………………………………20
10. HCL Secretion ………………………………………………….…………………………….22
11. Deglutition Reflex……………………………………………………………………………24
12. Defecation Reflex……………………………………………………………………………29
13. Gastrin……………………………………………………………………………………………30

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Q-1. Pancreatic secretion
- The pancreatic digestive enzymes are secreted by pancreatic acini,
- large volumes of sodium bicarbonate solution are secreted by the small
ductules and larger ducts leading from the acini
- pancreatic duct joins the hepatic duct before it empties into the duodenum
through the papilla of Vater, surrounded by the sphincter of Oddi
- response to the presence of chyme in the upper portions of the small
intestine, and the characteristics of the pancreatic juice are determined by
the types of food in the chyme
- large quantities of bicarbonate ions, which play an important role in
neutralizing the acidity of the chyme
Digestive Enzymes:
- The most important of the pancreatic enzymes for digesting proteins are
trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypolypeptidase
- Trypsin and chymotrypsin split whole and partially digested proteins into
peptides of various sizes but do not cause release of individual amino acids
- carboxypolypeptidase split some peptides into individual amino acids
- Inactive forms trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, and
procarboxypolypeptidase
- Enterokinase activates trypsinogen → trypsin
- Trypsin activates trypsinogen → trypsin
- Trypsin activate
Chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin
- Trypsin activate
Procarboxypolypeptidase → carboxypolypeptidase

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- The pancreatic enzyme for digesting carbohydrates is pancreatic amylase,
which hydrolyzes
- starches, glycogen and most other carbohydrates (except cellulose) to form
disaccharides and trisaccharides
- The main enzymes for fat digestion are
- (1) pancreatic lipase, which is capable of hydrolyzing neutral fat into fatty
acids and monoglycerides;
- (2) cholesterol esterase, which causes hydrolysis of cholesterol esters;
- (3) phospholipase, which splits fatty acids from phospholipids
Trypsin Inhibitor:
- Proteolytic enzymes of the pancreatic juice not become activated until after
they have been secreted into the intestine,
- Otherwise the trypsin and the other enzymes would digest the pancreas
itself
- trypsin inhibitor prevents activation of trypsin & so other enzymes inside
the secretory cells and in the acini and ducts
- When the pancreas becomes severely damaged or when a duct becomes
blocked - digest the entire pancreas within a few hours - acute pancreatitis
Secretion of HCO3 Ions:
- enzymes of the pancreatic juice - the acini of the pancreatic glands
- bicarbonate ions and water - the ductules and ducts that lead from the
acini
- Neutralizes HCL
- Carbonic anhydrase
- HCO3 + Na + Water

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Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion:
- Ach and cholecystokinin, stimulate the acinar cells of the pancreas, causing
production of large quantities of pancreatic digestive enzymes
- Secretin stimulates secretion of large quantities of water solution of sodium
bicarbonate by the pancreatic ductal epithelium
- Cephalic Phase: Ach – 20 % of total enzymes secretion
- Gastric Phase: 5 to 10 %
- small amounts reach the duodenum because of continued lack of
significant fluid secretion

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Intestinal Phase:
- Secretin is a polypeptide, containing 27 amino acids (molecular weight
about 3400), present in an inactive form, prosecretin, S cells in the mucosa
of the duodenum and jejunum
- Acid chyme with pH less than 4.5 to 5.0 enters the duodenum – HCL –
potent stimulus
- Large quantities of fluid containing a high concentration of HCO3 ion & a
low concentration of chloride ion
- HCl +NaHCO3 → NaCl +H2CO3
- the H2CO3 (carbonic acid) immediately dissociates into CO2 and H2O - The
CO2 is absorbed into the blood and expired through the lungs - a neutral
solution of NaCl remains in the duodenum
- Further peptic digestive activity by the gastric juices in the duodenum is
immediately blocked.
- Because the mucosa of the small intestine cannot withstand the digestive
action of acid gastric juice, this is an essential protective mechanism to
prevent development of duodenal ulcers
- pancreatic digestive enzymes, which function optimally in a slightly alkaline
or neutral medium, at a pH of 7.0 to 8.0
Q-2. Cholecystokinin
- a polypeptide containing 33 amino acids, to be released from the I cells, in
the mucosa of the duodenum and upper jejunum
- This release of cholecystokinin results especially from the presence of
proteoses and peptones (products of partial protein digestion) and long
chain fatty acids in the chyme
- much more pancreatic digestive enzymes by the acinar cells

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- 70 to 80 % of the total secretion of the pancreatic digestive enzymes after a
meal
Q-3. Succus Entericus
- compound mucous glands, called Brunner’s glands, is located in the wall of
the first few centimeters of the duodenum
- secrete large amounts of alkaline mucus in response to
- (1) tactile or irritating stimuli on the duodenal mucosa;
- (2) vagal stimulation,
- (3) secretin
- the mucus contains a large excess of bicarbonate ions
- Sympathetic – duodenal ulcer

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Crypts of Lieberkühn:
- The intestinal secretions are formed by the enterocytes of the crypts at a rate
of about 1800 ml/day - pH in the range of 7.5 to 8.0
- (1) active secretion of chloride ions into the crypts
- (2) active secretion of bicarbonate ions
↓
Electrical drag of positively charged sodium ions
↓
Osmotic movement of water

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Digestive Enzymes:
- The enterocytes of the mucosa, especially those that cover the villi, contain
digestive enzymes that digest specific food substances while they are being
absorbed through the epithelium
- (1) peptidases for splitting small peptides into amino acids,
- (2) sucrase, maltase, isomaltase and lactase — for splitting disaccharides
into monosaccharides
- (3) small amounts of intestinal lipase for splitting neutral fats into glycerol
and fatty acids
- The life cycle of an intestinal epithelial cell is about 5 days
Q-4. Movements of small intestine
- The basic propulsive movement of the GIT is peristalsis
- A contractile ring appears around the gut and then moves forward
- Any material in front of the contractile ring is moved forward
- Stimulation at any point in the gut can cause a contractile ring to
appear in the circular muscle, and this ring then spreads along the
gut tube.
- Peristalsis also occurs in the bile ducts, glandular ducts, ureters,
and many other smooth muscle tubes of the body
- The usual stimulus for intestinal peristalsis is distention of the gut
- if a large amount of food collects at any point in the gut, the
stretching of the gut wall stimulates the enteric nervous system
to contract the gut wall 2 to 3 cm behind this point, and a
contractile ring appears that initiates a peristaltic movement

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- chemical or physical irritation of the epithelial lining of gut
- strong parasympathetic nervous signals

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- Peristalsis occurs only weakly or not at all in any portion of the GIT has
that had congenital absence of the myenteric plexus.
- Also, it is greatly depressed or completely blocked in the entire gut when a
person is treated with atropine to paralyze the cholinergic nerve endings of
the myenteric plexus.
- Peristalsis normally dies out rapidly in the oral direction while continuing
for a considerable distance toward the anus
- “Law of the Gut” - “Receptive relaxation”
- *myenteric reflex or the peristaltic reflex
Mixing Movements – segmentation:
- Mixing movements differ in different parts of the alimentary tract. In some
areas, the peristaltic contractions themselves cause most of the mixing
- when forward progression of the intestinal contents is blocked by a
sphincter, so that a peristaltic wave can then only churn the intestinal
contents, rather than propelling them forward
- Local intermittent constrictive contractions occur every few centimeters
in the gut wall. These constrictions usually last only 5 to 30 seconds;

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- New constrictions occur at other points in the gut, thus ―chopping‖ and
―shearing‖ the contents first here and then there.

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- Mixing movements – segmentation – also helps propulsion
- Propulsive – peristaltic - velocity of 0.5 to 2.0 cm/sec,
- faster in the proximal intestine and slower in the terminal intestine - very
weak and usually die out after traveling only 3 to 5 cm
- Net movement 1 cm/min - 3 to 5 hours are required for passage of chyme
from the pylorus to the ileocecal valve
- Peristaltic activity of the small intestine is greatly increased after a meal -
by the beginning entry of chyme into the duodenum causing stretch of the
duodenal wall
- gastroenteric reflex that is initiated by distention of the stomach and
conducted principally through the myenteric plexus from the stomach down
along the wall of the small intestine.

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- gastrin, CCK, insulin, motilin, and serotonin, all of which enhance intestinal
motility
- secretin and glucagon inhibit small intestinal motility
- The function of the peristaltic waves in the small intestine is not only to
cause progression of chyme toward the ileocecal valve but also to spread
out the chyme along the intestinal mucosa
- On reaching the ileocecal valve, the chyme is sometimes blocked for several
hours until the person eats another meal;
- gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis in the ileum and forces the remaining
chyme through the ileocecal valve into the cecum of the large intestine
- Although peristalsis in the small intestine is normally weak, intense
irritation of the intestinal mucosa, as occurs in some severe cases of
infectious diarrhea, can cause both powerful and rapid peristalsis, called the
peristaltic rush
- nervous reflexes that involve the ANS and brain stem and partly by
intrinsic enhancement of the myenteric plexus reflexes
- The powerful peristaltic contractions travel long distances in the small
intestine within minutes, sweeping the contents of the intestine into the
colon
- relieve the small intestine of irritative chyme and excessive distention
Ileocecal Valve:
- prevent backflow of fecal contents from the colon into the small intestine
- the ileocecal valve protrudes into the lumen of the cecum and therefore is
forcefully closed when excess pressure builds up in the cecum
- thickened circular muscle - the ileocecal sphincter

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- remains mildly constricted and slows emptying of ileal contents into the
cecum - immediately after a meal, a gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis
in the ileum
- Resistance to emptying at the ileocecal valve prolongs the stay of chyme in
the ileum and thereby facilitates absorption.
- Normally, only 1500 to 2000 milliliters of chyme empty into the cecum
each day
- When the cecum is distended, contraction of the ileocecal sphincter
becomes intensified and ileal peristalsis is inhibited
- When a person has an inflamed appendix, the irritation of this vestigial
remnant of the cecum can cause such intense spasm of the ileocecal
sphincter and partial paralysis of the ileum

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Q-5. Sham feeding
- Cephalic Phase: The cephalic phase of gastric secretion occurs even before
food enters the stomach, especially while it is being eaten
- It results from the sight, smell, thought or taste of food, and the greater the
appetite, the more intense is the stimulation
- Neurogenic signals that cause the cephalic phase of gastric secretion
originate in the cerebral cortex and in the appetite centers of the amygdala
and hypothalamus
- They are transmitted through the dorsal motor nuclei of the vagi and
thereafter through the vagus nerves to the stomach
- about 20 % of the gastric secretion associated with eating a meal
- Can be demonstrated experimentally in dogs by cutting the esophagus from
stomach and then collecting gastric juice from stomach after giving food
as shown in figure below

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Q-6. Gall bladder functions
Storage of bile
Bile secreted during interdigestive period is stored in the Gall Bladder – stores
30-50 ml of bile.
During meal – contracts – release contents to duodenum
Concentration of bile
Folded mucosa actively absorbs fluid & electrolytes
Bile becomes thicker, viscous, and darker
Water content ↓
All organic constituents concentrated 5-6 times
Cl, HCO3 ↓
Ca, K ↑
pH ↓

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Secretion of mucous
Mucin – lubricant & protective
Equalization of pressure in biliary system
Prevent the rise of pressure in biliary tree
When bile duct, cystic duct clamped – pressure rises above 30 cm of bile in 30
minutes & bile secretion stopped
When bile duct clamed alone – water absorbed in gall bladder – pressure rises to
only 10 cm of bile in several hours
Q-7. GIT Hormones
- Gastrin is secreted by the ―G‖ cells of the antrum of the stomach in
response to stimuli associated with ingestion of a meal, such as;
- distention of the stomach,
- the products of proteins,
- Gastrin releasing peptide, which is released by the nerves of the gastric
mucosa during vagal stimulation.
- (1) stimulation of gastric acid secretion and
- (2) stimulation of growth of the gastric mucosa
- Cholecystokinin is secreted by ―I‖ cells in the mucosa of the duodenum
and jejunum mainly in response to digestive products of fat, fatty acids, and
monoglycerides in the intestinal contents.
- This hormone strongly contracts the gallbladder, expelling bile into the
small intestine where the bile in turn plays important roles in emulsifying
fatty substances, allowing them to be digested and absorbed.

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- Cholecystokinin also inhibits stomach contraction moderately - give
adequate time for digestion of the fats in the upper intestinal tract.
- Secretin is secreted by the ―S‖ cells in the mucosa of the duodenum in
response to acidic gastric juice emptying into the duodenum from the
pylorus of the stomach.
- Secretin has a mild effect on motility of the GIT and acts to promote
pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate which in turn helps to neutralize the
acid in the small intestine
- Gastric inhibitory peptide is secreted by the mucosa of the upper small
intestine, mainly in response to fatty acids and amino acids but to a lesser
extent in response to carbohydrate.
- It has a mild effect in decreasing motor activity of the stomach and
therefore slows emptying of gastric contents into the duodenum when the
upper small intestine is already overloaded with food products.
- Motilin is secreted by the upper duodenum during fasting, and the only
known function of this hormone is to increase gastrointestinal motility.
- Motilin is released cyclically and stimulates waves of gastrointestinal
motility called interdigestive myoelectric complexes;
- That move through the stomach and small intestine every 90 minutes in a
fasted person.
Q-8. Enterohepatic circulation
- Reabsorbed from intestine – portal vein – liver sinusoids – hepatic cells –
bile – intestine – reabsorbed……………………………………………..
- about 94 % of all the bile salts are recirculated into the bile, so that on the
average these salts make the entire circuit some 17 times before being
carried out in the feces

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- The quantity of bile secreted by the liver each day is highly dependent on the
availability of bile salts
Q-9. Gastric Emptying
- Most of the time, the rhythmical stomach contractions are weak and function
mainly to cause mixing of food and gastric secretions
- For some time, strong peristaltic, very tight ring like constrictions that
can cause stomach emptying
- These intense peristaltic contractions often create 50 to 70 centimeters of
water pressure, which is about six times as powerful as the usual mixing
type of peristaltic waves.

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- When pyloric tone is normal, each strong peristaltic wave forces up to
several milliliters of chyme into the Duodenum - “pyloric pump.”
- The pyloric circular muscle remains slightly tonically contracted almost all
the time – thick walled - pyloric sphincter
- the pylorus usually is open for water and other fluids to empty from the
stomach into the duodenum - prevents passage of food particles until they
have become mixed in the chyme to almost fluid consistency
- Increased food volume in the stomach promotes increased emptying from
the stomach
- stretching of the stomach wall elicit local myenteric reflexes in the wall
that greatly ↑ activity of the pyloric pump and at the same time inhibit the
pyloric sphincter – no role of pressure
- Gastrin enhance the activity of the pyloric pump
- Enterogastric inhibitory reflexes from duodenum strongly inhibit the
“pyloric pump” propulsive contractions, and increase the tone of the pyloric
sphincter
- 1. The degree of distention of the duodenum
- 2. The presence of any degree of irritation of the duodenal mucosa
- 3. The degree of acidity of the duodenal chyme
- 4. The degree of osmolality of the chyme
- 5. The presence of certain breakdown products in the chyme, proteins and
to a lesser extent of fats
- On entering the duodenum, the fats extract several different hormones from
the duodenal and jejunal epithelium, by binding with “receptors” on the
epithelial cells

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- hormones are carried by way of the blood to the stomach, where they inhibit
the pyloric pump and at the same time increase the strength of
contraction of the pyloric sphincter
- cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
- The rate at which the stomach empties into the duodenum depends on the
type of food ingested. Food rich in carbohydrate leaves the stomach in a
few hours. Protein-rich food leaves more slowly, and emptying is slowest
after a meal containing fat – fat and alcohol
Q-10. HCL Secretion
- The oxyntic (Gastric) glands
- HCL, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor and mucus
- body and fundus of the stomach
- proximal 80 % of the stomach

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- The ECL (Entero Chromaffin Like) cells lie in the deep parts of the oxyntic
glands and release histamine in direct contact with the parietal cells of the
glands.
- The rate of formation and secretion of HCL by the parietal cells is directly
related to the amount of histamine secreted by the ECL cells
- Stimulants of histamine
- gastrin, which is formed almost entirely in the antral portion of the stomach
mucosa in response to proteins in the foods
- Ach released from stomach vagal nerve endings
Acid Secretion by Gastrin:
- Gastrin cells - G cells - in the pyloric glands in the distal end of the stomach
- meats or other protein-containing foods
- The vigorous mixing of the gastric juices transports the gastrin rapidly to
the ECL cells in the body of the stomach – histamine
- Histamine stimulate gastric HCL secretion

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Q-11. Deglutition Reflex (Swallowing)
- Voluntary Stage of Swallowing - squeezed or rolled posteriorly into the
pharynx by pressure of the tongue upward and backward against the palate
- Pharyngeal Stage of Swallowing – stimulates epithelial swallowing receptor
areas all around the opening of the pharynx
- The soft palate is pulled upward to close the posterior nares, to prevent
reflux of food into the nasal cavities
- The palatopharyngeal folds on each side of the pharynx are pulled
medially to approximate each other - form a sagittal slit through which the
food must pass into the posterior pharynx
- The vocal cords of the larynx are strongly approximated, and the larynx is
pulled upward and anteriorly by the neck muscles.

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- Presence of ligaments prevents upward movement of the epiglottis, cause
the epiglottis to swing backward over the opening of the larynx.
- Prevent passage of food into the nose and trachea.
- The upward movement of the larynx also pulls up and enlarges the
opening to the esophagus.
- At the same time, the upper 3 to 4 centimeters of the esophageal muscular
wall, called the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, thus allowing food to
move easily and freely from the posterior pharynx into the upper esophagus
- Between swallows, upper esophageal sphincter remains strongly
contracted, thereby preventing air from going into the esophagus during
respiration
- Once the larynx is raised and the pharyngoesophageal sphincter becomes
relaxed, the entire muscular wall of the pharynx contracts,
- First in the superior part of the pharynx, then spreading downward over the
middle and inferior pharyngeal areas, which propels the food by peristalsis
into the esophagus
- less than 6 seconds

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- Impulses are transmitted from posterior mouth and pharynx through the
sensory portions of the 5th
& 9th
nerve into the medulla oblongata – NTS
- The successive stages of the swallowing process are then automatically
initiated in orderly sequence by neuronal areas of the reticular substance of
the medulla and lower portion of the pons.
- The areas in the medulla and lower pons that control swallowing are
collectively called the deglutition or swallowing center
- 5th
,9th
,10th
and 12th
cranial nerves
- Deglutition apnea
- Swallowing is difficult but not impossible when the mouth is open. A
normal adult swallows frequently while eating, but swallowing also
continues between meals.
- The total number of swallows per day is about 600:
- 200 while eating and drinking,
- 350 while awake without food,
- 50 while sleeping.
- Some air is unavoidably swallowed in the process of eating and drinking
(aerophagia). Some of the swallowed air is regurgitated (belching).
Esophageal Stage:
- Esophageal Stage of Swallowing - primary peristalsis and secondary
peristalsis
- Primary peristalsis is simply continuation of the peristaltic wave that
begins in the pharynx and spreads into the esophagus during the pharyngeal
stage of swallowing - pharynx to the stomach in about 8 to 10 seconds
- 5 to 8 seconds, because of the additional effect of gravity

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- secondary peristaltic waves result from distention of the esophagus itself
by the retained food - continue until all the food has emptied into the
Stomach
- Afferent – 10th
nerve, Efferent – 9th
, 10th
nerve
- The musculature of the pharyngeal wall and upper one third of the
esophagus is striated muscle
- In the lower two thirds of the esophagus, the musculature is smooth muscle
- even after paralysis of the brain stem swallowing reflex, food fed by tube
or in some other way into the esophagus still passes readily into the stomach
- Receptive Relaxation of the Stomach - When the esophageal peristaltic
wave approaches toward the stomach, a wave of relaxation, transmitted
through myenteric inhibitory neurons, precedes the peristalsis
- entire stomach and the duodenum become relaxed as peristaltic wave
reaches the lower end of the esophagus - prepared ahead of time to receive
the food
- At the lower end of the esophagus, the esophageal circular muscle
functions as a broad lower esophageal sphincter - the gastroesophageal
sphincter
- LES normally remains tonically constricted in contrast to the midportion
of the esophagus, which normally remains relaxed.
- When a peristaltic swallowing wave passes down the esophagus, there is
―receptive relaxation‖ of the LES ahead of the peristaltic wave, which
allows easy propulsion of the swallowed food into the stomach.
- The stomach secretions are highly acidic and contain many proteolytic
enzymes. The esophageal mucosa, except in the lower 1/8th
of the
esophagus, is not capable of resisting for long the digestive action of gastric
secretions

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- the tonic constriction of the LES helps to prevent significant reflux of
stomach contents into the esophagus except under very abnormal conditions
- Another factor that helps to prevent reflux is a valve like mechanism of a
short portion of the esophagus that extends slightly into the stomach.
- Increased intra-abdominal pressure yields the esophagus inward at this point
- this valve like closure of the lower esophagus helps to prevent high intra-
abdominal pressure from forcing stomach contents backward into the
esophagus.
- Otherwise, every time we walked, coughed, or breathed hard, we might
expel stomach acid into the esophagus.

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Q-11. Defecation Reflex
- Most of the time, the rectum is empty of feces - weak functional sphincter
exists about 20 centimeters from the anus at the juncture between the
sigmoid colon and the rectum.
- There is also a sharp angulation here that contributes additional resistance
to filling of the rectum.
- When a mass movement forces feces into the rectum, the desire for
defecation occurs immediately, including reflex contraction of the rectum
and relaxation of the anal sphincters.
- Internal & External (Voluntary, striated, pudendal nerve) sphincters
- When feces enter the rectum, distention of the rectal wall initiates afferent
signals that spread through the myenteric plexus to initiate peristaltic waves
in the descending colon, sigmoid, and rectum, forcing feces toward the anus
- As the peristaltic wave approaches the anus, the internal anal sphincter is
relaxed by inhibitory signals from the myenteric plexus;
- if the external anal sphincter is also consciously, voluntarily relaxed at
the same time, defecation occurs
- Parasympathetic defecation reflex that involves the sacral segments of the
spinal cord – pelvic nerves – enhance intrinsic myenteric reflex

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- Defecation signals entering the spinal cord initiate other effects,
- such as taking a deep breath, closure of the glottis, and contraction of the
abdominal wall muscles to force the fecal contents of the colon downward
- and at the same time cause the pelvic floor to relax downward and pull
outward on the anal ring to evaginate the feces
- people who often inhibit their natural reflexes are likely to become
severely constipated – automatic emptying
Q-12. Gastrin
- The pyloric glands in the distal end of the stomach
- Gastrin is secreted by the ―G‖ cells of the antrum of the stomach in
response to stimuli associated with ingestion of a meal, such as;
- meats or other protein-containing foods
- distention of the stomach,
- Gastrin releasing peptide, which is released by the nerves of the gastric
mucosa during vagal stimulation.
- The vigorous mixing of the gastric juices transports the gastrin rapidly to
the ECL cells in the body of the stomach – histamine
- Histamine stimulate gastric HCL secretion
- Actions:
- (1) stimulation of gastric acid secretion and
- (2) stimulation of growth of the gastric mucosa
- (3) enhance intestinal motility
- (4) Gastrin enhance the activity of the pyloric pump

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Page31

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