Global Innovation Index 2013
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The document is about the Global Innovation Index 2013 report published by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization. The theme of the 2013 report is "The Local Dynamics of Innovation" and it examines how local innovation hubs and clusters foster innovation through pooling of talent, knowledge, and resources. Examples of successful innovation hubs mentioned include Silicon Valley in the US, regions in Germany and South Korea, and cities in China, India, Israel, and Brazil. The report also analyzes factors that contribute to the success of innovation hubs such as the role of large local companies, availability of funding, and linkages between different stakeholders in the innovation ecosystem.
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THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013
top 100. Low-income Cambodia is
ranked 110th.
China, Viet Nam, Malaysia, and
Mongolia are among the innovation
learners this year, whereas Brunei
Darussalam shows below-par per-
formance (Figure 4).
For the third year in a row, China
shows several strengths. China is
ranked 35th, down from 34th in
2012, 3rd among upper-middle-
income countries (after Malaysia and
Latvia) and 8th in the region. Similar
to BRIC countries India and Brazil,
China shows relatively strong posi-
tions (within the top 30) in six new
indicators: the QS university rank-
ing average score of top 3 universi-
ties (9th), high-tech and medium-
high-tech output (16th), GERD
performed by business enterprise
(17th), the citable documents H
index (17th), logistics performance
(24th), and patent families filed in at
least three offices (30th), and a rela-
tive weakness in royalties and license
fees receipts (55th). Ranking a
healthy 14th in efficiency (although
down from 1st place in 2012), China
made a commendable leap forward
in the Input Sub-Index (from 55th to
46th), although it lost six positions in
the Output Sub-Index (25th).
Europe (39 countries)
As last year, a total of 16 European
countries are among the top 25, 13
of them from the EU: Switzerland
(1st), Sweden (2nd, leader among the
EU15),theUK(3rd),theNetherlands
(4th), Finland (6th), Denmark (9th),
Ireland (10th), Luxembourg (12th),
Iceland (13th), Germany (15th),
Norway (16th), France (20th),
Belgium (21st), Austria (23rd), Malta
(24th, leader among the EU12), and
Estonia (25th). All of them achieve
positions in the top 25 in the Output
and Input Sub-Indices, with the
exception of Austria (27th in out-
puts) and Malta (34th in inputs).
Fifteen countries follow among
the top 50, including all remain-
ing EU countries, with the excep-
tion of Greece (55th): Spain (26th),
the Czech Republic (28th), Italy
(29th), Slovenia (30th), Hungary
(31st), Latvia (33rd), Portugal
(34th), Slovakia (36th), Croatia
(37th, leader among non-EU tran-
sition economies), Lithuania (40th),
Bulgaria (41st), Montenegro (44th),
the Republic of Moldova (45th),
Romania (48th), and Poland (49th).
The former Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia (51st), Serbia
(54th), Greece (55th), the Russian
Federation (62nd), Bosnia and
Herzegovina (65th), and Ukraine
(71st) come next in the upper half
of the rankings, followed by Belarus
(77th) and Albania (93rd).
In addition, the Republic of
Moldova, Hungary, Montenegro,
and Latvia are positioned among the
innovation learners, while Greece
and Belarus show below-par perfor-
mances (Figure 4).
Ranked 62nd, down 11 posi-
tions from its 51st place in 2012, the
Russian Federation is ranked 19th
among upper-middle-income coun-
tries, 35th in Europe, and 2nd among
the BRICs. It must be noted, how-
ever, that the Joint Research Centre
audit provided a 90% confidence
interval of [43, 62] for Russia’s GII
ranking (see Annex 3). This year,
the country makes significant prog-
ress in the Input Sub-Index (from
60th in 2012 to 52nd) closing gaps
in Institutions (from 93rd in 2012 to
87th), Human capital and research
(from 43rd to 33rd), Infrastructure
(from 54th to 49th), and Market
sophistication (from 87th to 74th),
although nine positions were lost in
Business sophistication (from 43rd
to 52nd). Its relatively strong posi-
tion in Knowledge and technology
outputs is maintained this year, even
though it fell slightly, from 46th
to 48th place. In fact, the Russian
Federation places better in new key
indicators than in its GII ranking
this year, something shared with the
other three BRIC countries: the cit-
able documents H index (20th), the
QS university ranking average score
of top 3 universities (25th), royalties
and license fees receipts over total
services exports (28th), GERD per-
formed by business enterprise over
GDP (30th), high-tech and medium-
high-tech output (46th), and patent
families filed in at least three offices
(47th).
Conclusion
This year’s report provides a cau-
tiously optimistic and yet highly
contrasted view of innovation: on
the one hand, spending and invest-
ment in R&D and innovation has
been sustained in spite of the cri-
sis. On the other hand, innovation
remains a spikily dispersed phenom-
enon, where many obstacles remain
in the path of poorer economies. In
these countries, as in other parts of
the world, a better understanding
and appreciation of the local dynam-
ics of innovation can clearly con-
tribute to unleashing new sources
of growth, competitiveness, and job
creation.
As stated at the start of this chap-
ter, policies to promote innovation
lay the foundation for future growth,
productivity improvements, and
better jobs. Opportunities for new
sources of innovation-based growth
abound in fields such as education,
the environment, energy, food,
health, information technologies,
and transport, among others. The
challenge from a policy perspective
is for nations to optimize the inter-
play of institutions and the interac-
tive processes in the creation, appli-
cation, and diffusion of knowledge,
human capital, and technology.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gii-2013-130708160635-phpapp01/85/Global-Innovation-Index-2013-57-320.jpg)
![57
THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII
the GII and each of the seven pil-
lars (see Table 1). Of the 142 coun-
tries included in the GII 2013, for
more than 53.5% (up to 62.0%) of
the countries, the GII ranking and
any of the seven pillar rankings dif-
fer by 10 positions or more.
Step 4: Qualitative review
Finally, the GII results—including
overall country classifications and
relative performances in terms of the
Innovation Input or Output Sub-
Indices—were evaluated to verify
that the overall results were, to a
great extent, consistent with cur-
rent evidence, existing research, or
prevailing theory.
Notwithstanding these statistical
tests and the positive outcomes on
the statistical coherence of the GII
structure, it is important to men-
tion that the GII model is, and has
to remain, open for future improve-
ments as better data, more compre-
hensive surveys and assessments,
and new relevant research studies
become available.
Impact of modelling assumptions on the
GII results
Every country score on the GII
and its two sub-indices depends on
modelling choices: the seven-pillar
structure, selected indicators, impu-
tation or not of missing data, nor-
malization, weights, aggregation
method, among other elements.
These choices are based on expert
opinion (e.g., selection of indica-
tors), common practice (e.g., min-
max normalization in the [0,100]
range), driven by statistical analysis
(e.g., treatment of outliers), or sim-
plicity (e.g., no imputation of miss-
ing data). The robustness analysis
is aimed at assessing the simultane-
ous and joint impact of these mod-
elling choices on the rankings. The
data are assumed to be error-free,
since potential outliers and eventual
errors and typos were corrected dur-
ing the computation phase (see Step
2 in Figure 1).
The robustness assessment of the
GII was based on a combination of
a Monte Carlo experiment and a
multi-modelling approach that dealt
with three issues: pillar weights,
missing data, and the aggregation
formula. This type of assessment
aims to respond to eventual criti-
cism that the country scores asso-
ciated with aggregate measures are
generally not calculated under con-
ditions of certainty, even if they are
frequently presented as such.6
The Monte Carlo simulation
related to the issue of weighting and
comprised 1,000 runs, each corre-
sponding to a different set of weights
of the seven pillars, randomly sam-
pled from uniform continuous dis-
tributions centred in the reference
values. The choice of the range for
the weights’ variation was driven by
two opposite needs: (1) to ensure a
wide enough interval to have mean-
ingful robustness checks, and (2) to
respect the rationale of the GII that
places on an equal footing the Input
Sub-Index and the Output Sub-
Index. Given these considerations,
limit values of uncertainty intervals
for the pillar weights are: 10%–30%
for the five Input pillars and 40%–
60% for the two Output pillars (see
Table 2).7
The GII developing team, for
transparency and replicability, opted
to not estimate missing data. The ‘no
imputation’ choice, which is com-
mon in similar contexts, might
encourage countries not to report
low data values.8 To overcome this
limitation, the JRC opted to impute
missing data using the Expectation
Maximization (EM) algorithm.9
Regarding the aggregation for-
mula, decision-theory practitioners
have challenged the use of simple
arithmetic averages because of their
fully compensatory nature, in which
a comparative high advantage on a
Table 1: Distribution of differences between pillar and GII rankings
Innovation Input Sub-Index Innovation Output Sub-Index
Rank differences (positions) Institutions (%)
Human capital
and research (%) Infrastructure (%)
Market
sophistication (%)
Business
sophistication (%)
Knowledge and
technology outputs (%) Creative outputs (%)
More than 30 19.7 13.4 10.6 20.4 18.3 25.4 17.6
20 to 29 13.4 20.4 15.5 14.1 16.2 15.5 14.8
10 to 19 20.4 24.6 29.6 27.5 20.4 19.0 29.6
5 to 9 26.1 19.0 19.7 20.4 24.6 21.1 16.2
Less than 5 20.4 22.5 22.5 15.5 17.6 16.2 19.0
Same rank 0.0 0.0 2.1 2.1 2.8 2.8 2.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gii-2013-130708160635-phpapp01/85/Global-Innovation-Index-2013-81-320.jpg)
![THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII
58
few indicators can compensate a
comparative disadvantage on many
indicators (Munda, 2008). Despite
receiving statistical support in the
previous section, the geometric
average was considered instead,10
which is a partially compensatory
approach that rewards economies
with balanced profiles and motivates
them to improve in the dimensions
in which they perform poorly, and
not just in any dimension.
Four models were tested based
on the combination of no impu-
tation versus EM imputation, and
arithmetic versus geometric average,
combined with 1,000 simulations
per model (random weights versus
fixed weights), for a total of 4,000
simulations for the GII and each of
the two sub-indices (see Table 2 for
a summary of the uncertainties con-
sidered in the GII 2013).
Uncertainty analysis results
The main results of the robustness
analysis are shown in Figures 2a,
2b, and 2c with median ranks and
90% confidence intervals computed
across the 4,000 Monte Carlo simu-
lations for the GII and the two sub-
indices. Countries are ordered from
best to worst according to their ref-
erence rank (black line), the dot
being the median rank. Error bars
represent, for each country, the
90% interval across all simulations.
Table 3 reports the published rank-
ings and the 90% confidence inter-
vals. It can be verified that all but
five country ranks lie within the
simulated intervals, and that these
are narrow enough for most coun-
tries (less than 10 positions) to allow
meaningful inferences to be drawn.
GII ranks are rather robust: the
median rank is close to the reference
rank (six or fewer positions away) for
75% of the countries. Results for the
Input Sub-Index are relatively more
robust (75% of the countries shift
fewer than three positions) for two
main reasons: the high correlations
between the five Input pillars (the
average bivariate Pearson correla-
tion coefficient of 0.82) and the very
good data coverage (only 1 of the
142 countries has an indicator cov-
erage below 63% of the 57 variables
included in the Input Sub-Index).
In contrast, the Output Sub-
Index is more sensitive to the meth-
odological choices (one-fourth of
the countries shift more than 10
positions) for the same two reasons:
there are only two pillars that are
moderately correlated (0.60) and the
data coverage is less satisfactory (15
countries have an indicator cover-
age of less than 63% of the 27 vari-
ables included in the Output Sub-
Index). However, it cannot be ruled
out altogether that the correlation
between the two Output pillars
could improve as data become avail-
able, as suggested by theory. The
currently observed moderate corre-
lation might be the result of (1) the
fact that missing values are particu-
larly distorting; (2) the use of count
and not value variables; (3) the use of
proxies due to the lack of statistics.
Sensitivity analysis results
Complementary to the uncertainty
analysis, sensitivity analysis has been
used to identify which of the mod-
elling assumptions have the great-
est impact on certain country ranks.
Figure 3 plots the rankings of the
GII and sub-indices versus one-at-
a-time changes of either the EM
imputation method or the geomet-
ric aggregation formula, with ran-
dom weights, with summary results
included in Table 4. Figure 4 pres-
ents the box plots of ranking shifts
with respect to the original ranking
resulting from random weights only.
The most influential assump-
tion is the choice of no imputation
versus EM imputation, particularly
Reference Alternative
I. Uncertainty in the treatment of missing values No estimation of missing data Expectation Maximization (EM)
II. Uncertainty in the aggregation formula at the pillar level Arithmetic average Geometric average
III. Uncertainty intervals for the GII weights
GII Sub-Index Pillar Reference value for the weight Distribution assigned for robustness analysis
Innovation Input Institutions 0.2 U[0.1,0.3]
Human capital and research 0.2 U[0.1,0.3]
Infrastructure 0.2 U[0.1,0.3]
Market sophistication 0.2 U[0.1,0.3]
Business sophistication 0.2 U[0.1,0.3]
Innovation Output Knowledge and technology outputs 0.5 U[0.4,0.6]
Creative outputs 0.5 U[0.4,0.6]
Table 2: Uncertainty parameters: Missing values, aggregation, and weights
Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gii-2013-130708160635-phpapp01/85/Global-Innovation-Index-2013-82-320.jpg)
![THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII
60
Table 3: GII 2013 and Input/Output Sub-Indices: Ranks and 90% confidence intervals
GII 2013 Input Sub-Index Output Sub-Index
Country/Economy Rank Interval Rank Interval Rank Interval
Switzerland 1 [1, 2] 7 [5, 11] 1 [1, 3]
Sweden 2 [2, 4] 5 [3, 5] 3 [3, 6]
United Kingdom 3 [2, 4] 4 [3, 6] 4 [4, 5]
Netherlands 4 [1, 4] 10 [9, 13] 2 [1, 2]
United States of America 5 [5, 12] 3 [3, 13] 12 [10, 13]
Finland 6 [6, 8] 6 [4, 10] 8 [6, 9]
Hong Kong (China) 7 [6, 10] 2 [1, 3] 15 [15, 18]
Singapore 8 [6, 16] 1 [1, 2] 18 [15, 26]
Denmark 9 [8, 12] 8 [5, 8] 14 [12, 14]
Ireland 10 [5, 11] 12 [6, 15] 11 [3, 11]
Canada 11 [7, 12] 9 [6, 13] 13 [10, 14]
Luxembourg 12 [12, 16] 18 [15, 21] 6 [5, 16]
Iceland 13 [5, 15] 21 [15, 23] 7 [2, 11]
Israel 14 [10, 16] 19 [16, 25] 9 [5, 10]
Germany 15 [11, 15] 20 [18, 22] 10 [7, 11]
Norway 16 [10, 16] 13 [7, 15] 16 [11, 17]
New Zealand 17 [17, 20] 15 [11, 17] 19 [18, 25]
Korea, Rep. 18 [17, 29] 16 [11, 21] 24 [22, 32]
Australia 19 [17, 23] 11 [9, 14] 32 [17, 36]
France 20 [17, 21] 23 [21, 24] 17 [13, 18]
Belgium 21 [18, 22] 22 [16, 24] 22 [18, 22]
Japan 22 [21, 27] 14 [12, 19] 33 [30, 34]
Austria 23 [20, 24] 17 [16, 20] 27 [19, 27]
Malta 24 [21, 27] 34 [30, 36] 5 [5, 21]
Estonia 25 [22, 25] 25 [24, 26] 21 [18, 25]
Spain 26 [23, 27] 24 [21, 25] 35 [29, 35]
Cyprus 27 [23, 30] 30 [24, 33] 20 [20, 26]
Czech Republic 28 [26, 31] 27 [26, 31] 26 [25, 28]
Italy 29 [24, 29] 28 [26, 31] 29 [21, 30]
Slovenia 30 [28, 31] 29 [27, 30] 34 [27, 34]
Hungary 31 [30, 32] 36 [35, 40] 23 [19, 24]
Malaysia 32 [30, 36] 32 [26, 33] 30 [29, 44]
Latvia 33 [32, 34] 33 [29, 33] 37 [30, 38]
Portugal 34 [33, 35] 31 [29, 34] 39 [35, 41]
China 35 [33, 63] 46 [39, 58] 25 [24, 55]
Slovakia 36 [35, 38] 37 [36, 41] 45 [35, 45]
Croatia 37 [36, 39] 43 [40, 45] 41 [37, 41]
United Arab Emirates 38 [36, 63] 26 [26, 36] 81 [60, 107]
Costa Rica 39 [37, 46] 66 [55, 70] 31 [30, 41]
Lithuania 40 [36, 43] 35 [34, 38] 56 [40, 57]
Bulgaria 41 [38, 43] 50 [46, 53] 38 [36, 39]
Saudi Arabia 42 [40, 68] 44 [40, 52] 44 [42, 79]
Qatar 43 [41, 53] 38 [37, 45] 52 [48, 67]
Montenegro 44 [34, 46] 40 [35, 43] 50 [33, 53]
Moldova, Rep. 45 [40, 54] 76 [63, 77] 28 [27, 48]
Chile 46 [42, 47] 41 [40, 45] 48 [48, 53]
Barbados 47 [41, 50] 42 [32, 59] 49 [47, 56]
Romania 48 [40, 49] 55 [51, 60] 40 [33, 41]
Poland 49 [37, 49] 39 [36, 40] 64 [39, 65]
Kuwait 50 [44, 60] 74 [66, 78] 36 [34, 52]
Macedonia, FYR 51 [50, 53] 48 [47, 55] 66 [53, 69]
Uruguay 52 [48, 59] 64 [58, 72] 46 [46, 55]
Mauritius 53 [51, 71] 60 [47, 78] 57 [52, 71]
Serbia 54 [47, 57] 63 [56, 67] 51 [45, 57]
Greece 55 [44, 60] 45 [42, 53] 82 [45, 81]
Argentina 56 [52, 62] 78 [66, 84] 43 [42, 49]
Thailand 57 [51, 65] 57 [49, 62] 61 [57, 69]
South Africa 58 [53, 67] 51 [41, 68] 71 [69, 75]
Armenia 59 [55, 64] 71 [66, 79] 47 [46, 55]
Colombia 60 [53, 61] 59 [51, 62] 65 [56, 65]
Jordan 61 [57, 77] 61 [56, 76] 63 [60, 88]
Russian Federation 62 [43, 62] 52 [46, 60] 72 [43, 74]
Mexico 63 [62, 70] 68 [60, 70] 60 [60, 73]
Brazil 64 [58, 68] 67 [58, 80] 68 [56, 69]
Bosnia and Herzegovina 65 [59, 68] 58 [51, 71] 78 [58, 81]
India 66 [64, 89] 87 [87, 106] 42 [42, 74]
Bahrain 67 [52, 70] 47 [44, 52] 90 [63, 93]
Turkey 68 [61, 71] 81 [78, 87] 53 [49, 54]
Peru 69 [67, 80] 70 [61, 79] 70 [71, 93]
Tunisia 70 [69, 95] 80 [71, 83] 59 [57, 112]
Ukraine 71 [50, 74] 83 [75, 85] 58 [42, 59]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gii-2013-130708160635-phpapp01/85/Global-Innovation-Index-2013-84-320.jpg)
![61
THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII
Table 3: GII 2013 and Input/Output Sub-Indices: Ranks and 90% confidence intervals (continued)
GII 2013 Input Sub-Index Output Sub-Index
Country/Economy Rank Interval Rank Interval Rank Interval
Mongolia 72 [56, 76] 49 [44, 54] 93 [67, 101]
Georgia 73 [64, 75] 62 [58, 78] 83 [63, 84]
Brunei Darussalam 74 [65, 79] 54 [46, 61] 89 [79, 104]
Lebanon 75 [71, 80] 56 [51, 76] 88 [83, 91]
Viet Nam 76 [70, 84] 89 [85, 96] 54 [50, 66]
Belarus 77 [70, 79] 75 [65, 80] 79 [70, 83]
Guyana 78 [74, 84] 94 [87, 113] 55 [53, 64]
Dominican Republic 79 [80, 99] 93 [90, 101] 69 [68, 102]
Oman 80 [76, 85] 53 [51, 63] 111 [103, 113]
Trinidad andTobago 81 [78, 86] 82 [78, 84] 87 [83, 91]
Jamaica 82 [82, 94] 85 [77, 92] 84 [85, 103]
Ecuador 83 [80, 94] 100 [90, 107] 67 [67, 82]
Kazakhstan 84 [73, 85] 69 [61, 71] 106 [82, 106]
Indonesia 85 [82, 116] 115 [104, 125] 62 [62, 109]
Panama 86 [72, 110] 73 [65, 82] 108 [88, 123]
Guatemala 87 [87, 101] 91 [88, 102] 91 [89, 105]
El Salvador 88 [87, 101] 88 [86, 98] 96 [87, 110]
Uganda 89 [90, 122] 109 [103, 117] 75 [74, 129]
Philippines 90 [85, 99] 108 [103, 118] 77 [73, 80]
Botswana 91 [74, 98] 65 [51, 71] 125 [102, 128]
Morocco 92 [89, 96] 90 [86, 101] 99 [92, 101]
Albania 93 [79, 98] 77 [72, 84] 118 [83, 118]
Ghana 94 [89, 115] 99 [89, 105] 95 [88, 119]
Bolivia, Plurinational St. 95 [88, 107] 106 [95, 116] 86 [85, 106]
Senegal 96 [94, 118] 116 [107, 117] 80 [78, 120]
Fiji 97 [77, 109] 72 [60, 83] 129 [88, 129]
Sri Lanka 98 [89, 112] 118 [110, 125] 76 [72, 99]
Kenya 99 [95, 111] 98 [87, 108] 100 [94, 116]
Paraguay 100 [86, 101] 104 [100, 105] 94 [76, 96]
Tajikistan 101 [96, 108] 113 [109, 126] 85 [76, 94]
Belize 102 [37, 102] 95 [79, 103] 102 [25, 106]
CapeVerde 103 [93, 112] 84 [78, 94] 122 [99, 129]
Swaziland 104 [96, 111] 124 [99, 140] 74 [69, 96]
Azerbaijan 105 [100, 111] 92 [90, 99] 114 [111, 120]
Mali 106 [103, 140] 132 [128, 137] 73 [67, 108]
Honduras 107 [95, 107] 96 [88, 99] 115 [98, 117]
Egypt 108 [100, 117] 101 [88, 112] 112 [112, 119]
Namibia 109 [84, 123] 79 [63, 84] 134 [105, 135]
Cambodia 110 [106, 128] 120 [118, 129] 101 [97, 123]
Gabon 111 [104, 117] 117 [107, 118] 104 [103, 117]
Rwanda 112 [111, 132] 102 [88, 114] 121 [119, 138]
Iran, Islamic Rep. 113 [104, 117] 107 [97, 122] 120 [98, 121]
Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 114 [102, 123] 134 [117, 141] 92 [74, 96]
Nicaragua 115 [96, 129] 103 [89, 112] 128 [106, 130]
Burkina Faso 116 [112, 133] 119 [107, 125] 109 [105, 137]
Kyrgyzstan 117 [108, 118] 97 [90, 101] 133 [118, 133]
Zambia 118 [115, 131] 128 [120, 139] 103 [98, 131]
Malawi 119 [115, 138] 125 [115, 134] 105 [100, 140]
Nigeria 120 [117, 141] 137 [133, 138] 97 [97, 141]
Mozambique 121 [116, 134] 111 [102, 119] 124 [119, 137]
Gambia 122 [108, 124] 127 [122, 135] 107 [81, 108]
Tanzania, United Rep. 123 [118, 134] 110 [104, 118] 127 [121, 139]
Lesotho 124 [81, 124] 86 [74, 95] 136 [86, 136]
Cameroon 125 [116, 134] 131 [123, 133] 110 [110, 126]
Guinea 126 [93, 126] 139 [134, 141] 98 [60, 99]
Benin 127 [125, 132] 121 [117, 128] 130 [127, 134]
Nepal 128 [115, 129] 129 [123, 129] 123 [109, 125]
Ethiopia 129 [126, 142] 126 [123, 133] 126 [122, 142]
Bangladesh 130 [124, 135] 135 [132, 137] 119 [111, 123]
Niger 131 [103, 133] 130 [111, 131] 131 [95, 132]
Zimbabwe 132 [130, 139] 138 [132, 142] 116 [114, 122]
Uzbekistan 133 [126, 140] 114 [106, 127] 138 [130, 141]
Syrian Arab Republic 134 [122, 140] 105 [99, 117] 140 [127, 141]
Angola 135 [120, 139] 140 [137, 141] 117 [94, 118]
Côte d'Ivoire 136 [134, 140] 133 [126, 134] 132 [131, 141]
Pakistan 137 [124, 140] 142 [140, 142] 113 [110, 116]
Algeria 138 [119, 139] 112 [105, 118] 141 [124, 141]
Togo 139 [101, 139] 122 [119, 127] 137 [80, 138]
Madagascar 140 [133, 140] 123 [119, 130] 135 [133, 137]
Sudan 141 [137, 142] 136 [124, 140] 142 [126, 142]
Yemen 142 [136, 142] 141 [137, 142] 139 [125, 140]
Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/gii-2013-130708160635-phpapp01/85/Global-Innovation-Index-2013-85-320.jpg)
![THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics
120
teaching—professors are not nec-
essarily good managers).
• A systemic approach must be
promoted from the political envi-
ronment to improve communi-
cation among all the associates.
The quality policies, the infor-
mation systems, and sharing stra-
tegic plans among the actors are
some of the instruments that can
be employed to achieve this goal.
• Mechanisms to evaluate the
impacts of the centres and a clear
commitment with management
that defines short-, medium-, and
long-term goals in accordance
with the goals of the regional
and national governments must
be established. Public support
for these environments must be
directly tied to the fulfilment of
the above-mentioned commit-
ments.
• The innovation environments
must generate ties with local
companies in general and with
the social local actors where the
centre is located.
• The regional centres of inno-
vation are dynamic structures
where the generation of ties with
other actors of the national inno-
vation system must be promoted.
• The creation of public-private
alliances must be encouraged.
• Strategic leadership at the regional
and local levels is necessary.
This chapter has presented evi-
dence that innovation policies have
to focus on social and productive
priorities defined at the national
level by industrial development pol-
icies and at the regional level accord-
ing to the productive specificities
and socioeconomic particularities
of each regional unit. In this con-
text, it is particularly important to
generate innovation environments.
It is also essential that the govern-
ment become involved as a catalyst
for interaction among stakeholders,
particularly in regard to the mecha-
nisms that lead to a closer relation-
ship between academia and busi-
nesses, the promotion of the best
intellectual property management
practices at universities and techni-
cal institutes, and actions that pro-
mote an increase in the number of
patents.
Instead of focusing on finding or
establishing a leader of collaborative
networks, the idea of shared leader-
ship becomes the primary focus. In
this context, leadership is the abil-
ity to be a ‘process catalyst’ and the
emphasis is on building trust and
new ways of working together.27
Hence the challenge of all stakehold-
ers is to coordinate and lead to align
actions, programs, instruments with
the objectives of the national inno-
vation and development policies.
Notes
1 Ogawa, 2000; Love and Stephen, 2001;
Cheshire and Malecki, 2003.
2 Bramanti and Maggioni, 1997; Maillat, 1998.
3 McCann and Shefer, 2003.
4 CEPAL, 2012.
5 CEPAL, 2012.
6 ANII, 2011.
7 De la Cuesta and Heinzen, 2012.
8 Arocena, 2009.
9 UDELAR, 2008.
10 De la Cuesta and Heinzen, 2012.
11 ANII, 2011.
12 ANII, 2011.
13 ANII, 2011.
14 ANII, 2011.
15 ANII, 2011.
16 For details about the Network of Intellectual
Property, see www.redpi.uy.
17 WIPO, 2007.
18 Cervantes, 2013.
19 For further detail about the Pando Science
and Technology Park, see www.pctp.org.uy.
20 For more information about Uruguay
INNOVA, see http://eeas.europa.eu/
delegations/uruguay/projects/list_of_
projects/19040_en.htm.
21 For details about UDELAR’s Technology
Pole, School of Chemistry, see www.
polotecnologico.fq.edu.uy.
22 Barrenechea, Rodriguez, and Troncoso, 2008.
23 Barrenechea, Rodriguez, and Troncoso, 2008.
24 Garofoli, 2009.
25 Teixeira and Ferraro, 2009.
26 For more information about decentralizing
the instruments of innovation, see http://
www.pmgdescentralizacion.gov.cl/.
27 Mandell and Keast, 2009.
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![THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles
127
Thefollowingtablesprovidedetailed
profiles for each of the 142 econo-
mies in the Global Innovation Index
2013. They are constructed around
three sections.
1 Five key indicators at the
beginning of each profile are
intended to put the economy
into context.They present the
population in millions,1
GDP
in US$ billions, and GDP per
capita in PPP current inter-
national dollars.2
The fourth
indicator categorizes the
economy into income group
and the fifth indicates its geo-
graphical region.3
2 The next section pro-
vides the economy’s scores
and rankings on the Global
Innovation Index (GII), the
Innovation Input Sub-Index,
the Innovation Output Sub-
Index, and the Innovation
Efficiency Ratio.
The GII ranking for the
2012 edition comes next.
Three economies were
added in 2013, and two
were excluded. For that reason,
and because of adjustments made to
the GII framework every year and
other technical factors not directly
related to actual performance (miss-
ing data, updates of data, etc.), the
GII rankings are not directly com-
parable from one year to the next.
Please refer to Annex 2 of Chapter
1 for details.
Scores are normalized in the [0,
100] range except for the Innovation
Efficiency Ratio, for which scores
revolve around the number 1 (this
indexiscalculatedastheratiobetween
the Output and Input Sub-Indices).
The Innovation Input Sub-Index
score is calculated as the simple aver-
age of the scores in the first five pil-
lars, while the Innovation Output
Sub-Index is calculated as the simple
average of the last two pillars.
3 Pillars are identified by single-
digit numbers, sub-pillars by two-
digit numbers, and indicators by
three-digit numbers. For example,
indicator 1.3.1, Ease of starting a busi-
ness, appears under sub-pillar 1.3,
Business environment, which in
turn appears under pillar 1,
Institutions.
The 2013 GII includes 84
indicators and three types of
data. Composite indicators
are identified with an aster-
isk (*), survey questions from
the World Economic Forum’s
Executive Opinion Survey
are identified with a dagger
(†), and the remaining indi-
cators are all hard data series.
For hard data, the origi-
nal value is provided (except
for indicators 7.3.1, 7.3.2,
and 7.3.4, for which the raw
data were provided under the
condition that only the nor-
malized scores be published).
Normalized scores in the [0,
100] range are provided for
everything else (index and
survey data, sub-pillars, pil-
lars, and indices).
When data are either not avail-
able or out of date (the cutoff year is
2003), ‘n/a’ is used. The year of each
data point is indicated in the Data
Tables shown in Appendix II.
For further details, see Appendix
III, Sources and Definitions, and
Appendix IV, Technical Notes.
Country/EconomyProfiles
THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013I:Country/EconomyProfiles
130
NOTE: indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question.
Key indicators
Population (millions).............................................................................................................3.3
GDP (US$ billions)................................................................................................................12.4
GDP per capita, PPP$......................................................................................................7,975.9
Income group........................................................................................... Lower-middle income
Region..............................................................................................................................Europe
Score (0–100)
or value (hard data) Rank
Global Innovation Index (out of 142)................................. 30.9 93
Innovation Output Sub-Index ..................................................................................22.7 118
Innovation Input Sub-Index.....................................................................................39.1 77
Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 129
Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework)................................30.4 90
1 Institutions....................................................58.9 73
1.1 Political environment..........................................................................53.9 76
1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................59.5 83
1.1.2 Government effectiveness*............................................................32.9 81
1.1.3 Press freedom*........................................................................................69.1 81
1.2 Regulatory environment..................................................................59.8 89
1.2.1 Regulatory quality*..............................................................................56.9 64
1.2.2 Rule of law*...............................................................................................33.9 93
1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks........................20.8 97
1.3 Business environment........................................................................62.9 73
1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*............................................................91.4 23
1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*........................................................42.6 59
1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*..........................................................................54.7 114
2 Human capital & research..........................27.1 84
2.1 Education...................................................................................................41.8 98
2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI.............................n/a n/a
2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap.....................................13.2 89
2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.........................................................11.3 98
2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science.............................384.3 64
2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary......................................................15.2 72
2.2 Tertiary education.................................................................................37.1 51
2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross............................................................43.9 54
2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %..................................13.8 83
2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................1.1 79
2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %......................................7.7 7
2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................2.4 93
2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..........................................541.0 68
2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................0.2 90
2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*...........................0.0 68
3 Infrastructure................................................31.1 75
3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs)........25.4 97
3.1.1 ICT access*.................................................................................................35.9 90
3.1.2 ICT use*.......................................................................................................12.5 90
3.1.3 Government’s online service*.......................................................42.5 89
3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................10.5 94
3.2 General infrastructure.........................................................................26.7 92
3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap.....................................................2,368.8 71
3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap......................................1,770.6 75
3.2.3 Logistics performance*.....................................................................44.3 78
3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP...................................................24.3 53
3.3 Ecological sustainability....................................................................41.2 31
3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq....................11.8 5
3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................65.9 15
3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP ........0.4 88
4 Market sophistication.................................56.8 32
4.1 Credit.............................................................................................................58.4 29
4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*.......................................................................81.3 22
4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP.............................39.3 82
4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP ..................................................7.1 6
4.2 Investment ................................................................................................38.4 30
4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*.........................................................76.7 17
4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a
4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP............................................n/a n/a
4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP................................................0.0 74
4.3 Trade & competition...........................................................................73.6 92
4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %........................................5.1 80
4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %....................0.1 23
4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................47.6 124
5 Business sophistication..............................21.4 128
5.1 Knowledge workers.............................................................................29.1 118
5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................9.3 95
5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms....................................19.9 90
5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP..........................................n/a n/a
5.1.4 R&D financed by business, % ...........................................................3.3 77
5.1.5 GMAT mean score..............................................................................516.8 63
5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34............................................145.4 38
5.2 Innovation linkages .............................................................................10.5 136
5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†........................21.3 131
5.2.2 State of cluster development† .....................................................19.1 136
5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................7.4 47
5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP....................................0.0 114
5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................0.0 69
5.3 Knowledge absorption......................................................................24.6 81
5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports.........0.6 96
5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................4.4 114
5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %.......................3.0 88
5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP......................................................................10.6 12
6 Knowledge & technology outputs...........19.2 108
6.1 Knowledge creation...............................................................................2.1 136
6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................0.1 104
6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................0.1 72
6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................0.0 61
6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP............................4.8 110
6.1.5 Citable documents H index............................................................34.0 128
6.2 Knowledge impact...............................................................................27.7 90
6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................1.0 83
6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................1.0 62
6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.......................................n/a n/a
6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.5 59
6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %....................14.6 63
6.3 Knowledge diffusion...........................................................................19.3 102
6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports ..............0.5 52
6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.6 85
6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.......................4.8 81
6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP.....................................................................0.3 67
7 Creative outputs ..........................................26.1 121
7.1 Intangible assets....................................................................................26.8 127
7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..........................11.7 78
7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................0.1 57
7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................51.4 91
7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†......................................47.9 88
7.2 Creative goods & services................................................................23.9 104
7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 57
7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a
7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69................................3.1 98
7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a
7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................0.3 83
7.3 Online creativity.....................................................................................26.8 69
7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69...............2.2 87
7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69............................................19.8 78
7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69.......................1,150.4 64
7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69.................................78.7 41
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Global Innovation Index 2013
- 1. The Global Innovation Index 2013 The Local Dynamics of Innovation
- 3. The Global Innovation Index 2013 The Local Dynamics of Innovation Soumitra Dutta and Bruno Lanvin Editors
- 4. The Global Innovation Index 2013: The Local Dynamics of Innovation is the result of a collaboration between Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) as co-publishers, and their Knowledge Partners. The terms ‘country’, ‘economy’, and ‘nation’as used in this report do not in all cases refer to a territorial entity that is a state as understood by international law and practice. The terms cover well-defined, geographically self- contained economic areas that may not be states but for which statistical data are maintained on a separate and independent basis. Disclaimer: The index’s methodology and the rankings do not necessarily present the views of WIPO or its Member States. The same applies to the substantive chapters in this report, which are the responsibility of the authors and not WIPO. © Cornell University, INSEAD, and WIPO 2013. All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise without the prior permission of WIPO. Please write to treaties.mail@wipo.int to obtain permission. Suggested citation: Cornell University, INSEAD, and WIPO (2013): The Global Innovation Index 2013: The Local Dynamics of Innovation, Geneva, Ithaca, and Fontainebleau. ISSN 2263 3693 ISBN 978-2-9522210-3-0 Printed and bound in Geneva, Switzerland, by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and in New Delhi, India, by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
- 5. iii THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Contents Preface: Releasing the Global Innovation Index 2013: v The Local Dynamics of Innovation Are Well at Play By Soumitra Dutta, Anne and Elmer Lindseth Dean, and Professor of Management, Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University; Bruno Lanvin, Executive Director, European Competitiveness Initiative, INSEAD; and Francis Gurry, Director General, World Intellectual Property Organization Foreword: A Virtuous Circle of Innovation vii By Cesare R. Mainardi, Chief Executive Officer, Booz & Company Foreword: Local Solutions to Global Challenges ix By Chandrajit Banerjee, Director General, Confederation of Indian Industry Foreword: Connectivity as the Driver of Innovation xi By Osman Sultan, Chief Executive Officer, du Foreword: Open Innovation with a Global View xii By Ken Hu, Deputy Chairman and Rotating Chief Executive Officer, Huawei Technologies Contributors to the Report xv Advisory Board to the Global Innovation Index xvii Rankings Global Innovation Index 2013 Rankings xx Chapters Chapter 1: The Global Innovation Index 2013: 3 Local Dynamics Keep Innovation Strong in the Face of Crisis By Soumitra Dutta, Cornell University; Daniela Benavente and Bruno Lanvin, INSEAD; and Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, World Intellectual Property Organization Annex 1: The Global Innovation Index Conceptual 37 Framework Annex 2: Adjustments to the Global Innovation Index 49 Framework and Year-on-Year Comparability of Results Annex 3: Joint Research Centre Statistical Audit of the 55 2013 Global Innovation Index By Michaela Saisana and Dionisis Th. Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre (Ispra, Italy) Contents Chapter 2: The Evolving Geography of Innovation: 69 A Territorial Perspective By Annalisa Primi, OECD Development Centre Chapter 3: Measuring Regional Innovation: 79 A European Perspective By Hugo Hollanders, UNU-MERIT (Maastricht University) Chapter 4: The Role of Enterprise Champions 87 in Strengthening Innovation Hubs By Barry Jaruzelski, Rasheed Eltayeb, Tamer Obied, and Hatem Samman, Booz & Company Chapter 5: Open Innovation: The View of an 95 ICT Leader in Distributed Global Innovation By Qian Xiangjiang, James Peng, and Joe Kelly, Huawei Technologies Chapter 6: Local Innovation Dynamics: Examples 99 and Lessons from the Arab World By Jean-Eric Aubert, Tamer Taha, and Anuja Utz, Center for Mediterranean Integration, World Bank Chapter 7: Innovation Clusters Initiative: 107 Transforming India’s Industry Clusters for Inclusive Growth and Global Competition By Samir Mitra, Office of Advisor to the Prime Minister of India Chapter 8: Creating Local Innovation Dynamics: 115 The Uruguayan Experience By Fernando Amestoy, Pando Technology Pole, Universidad de la República, Uruguay Appendices Appendix I: Country/Economy Profiles 125 Appendix II: Data Tables 273 Appendix III: Sources and Definitions 363 Appendix IV: Technical Notes 379 Appendix V: About the Authors 385
- 7. v THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Preface preface ReleasingtheGlobalInnovation Index2013:TheLocalDynamicsof InnovationAreWellatPlay preface We are pleased to present the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2013. The GII 2013, in its 6th edition this year, is co-published by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO, a specialized agency of the United Nations). Booz & Company, the Confederation of Indian Industry, du, and Huawei support the elaboration of the GII as Knowledge Partners in 2013. Over the course of the last six years, the GII has established itself as a leading reference on innovation for researchers and for public and private decision makers. It has evolved into a valuable benchmarking tool to facili- tate public-private dialogue. The GII recognizes the key role of innovation as a driver of economic growth and prosperity, and adopts an inclusive, horizontal vision of innovation applicable to both developed and emerging economies. Local innovation matters The theme of the GII 2013 is ‘The Local Dynamics of Innovation’. The GII 2013 report shows that regional innovation is alive and bustling. New regions are emerg- ing and rejuvenation is taking place even in developed metropolises such as New York City, where Cornell NYC Tech was invited to set up a unique campus focused on technology and innovation on Roosevelt Island. The hope is that this new campus will attract a new talent pool, lead to innovation, create novel jobs, and positively impact the economy of New York City and the surrounding region. The theme ‘Local Dynamics of Innovation’ reflects the importance of local hubs and geographic concentra- tions of universities, companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, and associated institutions in foster- ing innovation. Clusters have an impact on competitive- ness by pooling talent, know-how, research labs, and manufacturing capabilities and concentrating them in a small area. They often specialize in niche markets with a multiplier effect at the national level by fomenting a culture of entrepreneurship. Well-known examples include California in the United States of America, Baden-Württemberg in Germany, the Capital Region of the Republic of Korea, Guangdong Province in China, Stredni Cechy in the Czech Republic, the Mumbai region in India, Tel Aviv in Israel, São Paulo in Brazil, and the list goes on. New initiatives continue to develop in other emerging economies such as in Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, Colombia and Viet Nam. At no other point in history has so much money been spent on R&D worldwide. Never before has innovation been so well distributed among countries. The GII 2013 sheds light on the factors leading to the excellence of innovation hubs, such as the role of local ‘champions’ (large corporations), the availability of funding for the development of start-ups, and the importance of path dependency. Linkages among stake- holders (governments, firms, academia, and society) in the development of innovation capabilities—such as the existence of incubators and technology transfer pro- grammes and the interaction of innovation clusters with local, inter-regional, and global networks and value chains—are included in the analyses. Continuing towards better innovation metrics and policy The innovation framework underlying the GII contin- ues to evolve as we try each year to be responsive to both the availability of data across a diverse set of coun- tries and to our growing understanding of the phenom- enon of innovation. Our goal is to use the GII to cap- ture the multi-dimensional facets of innovation across both developed and emerging economies. We also hope that users of the GII will go further than just focus- ing on year-to-year comparisons of the country rank- ings. Rather, the GII results are useful for benchmark- ing countries against their peers, to study country pro- files over time and identify their relative strengths and weaknesses from the rich and unique GII dataset. We are encouraged by the fact that more and more ministers © WIPO, 2012. Photo by Emmanuel Berrod.
- 8. vi THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Preface and other policy makers around the world are using the GII for just this purpose. We welcome four new members to our Advisory Board: Robert D. Atkinson, President, The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, USA; Robert Bell, Program Director, National Science Foundation, USA; Dongmin Chen, Professor/Dean, School of Innovation and Entrepreneurship and Director, Peking University, China; and Diego Molano Vega, Minister of Information Technologies and Communications, Colombia. We believe that the collective efforts of all members of the GII project is paving the way for better and more informed innovation policies around the world. Soumitra Dutta Dean, Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University Francis Gurry Director General, World Intellectual Property Organization Bruno Lanvin Executive Director, European Competitiveness Initiative, INSEAD
- 9. vii THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Foreword foreword Booz & Company is honoured to be a Knowledge Partner in the Global Innovation Index report for the third consecutive year. This work is a vital part of our continuing efforts to illuminate the nature and mecha- nisms of innovation and to assist companies and govern- ments globally as they seek to capture its rich economic and social returns. One disturbing reality that our research has turned up is a major fault line at the front end of innovation. Booz & Company’s most recent Global Innovation 1000 study revealed that just 43% of senior innovation execu- tives and chief technology officers at nearly 700 com- panies believe their organizations are highly effective at generating new ideas, and only 36% believe they are highly effective at converting ideas to product devel- opment projects. Still fewer—one-quarter of respon- dents—indicate that their organizations are highly effective at both. This year’s Global Innovation Index report is espe- cially timely because it explores a proven solution to the conundrum at the front end of innovation: the inno- vation hub. As innovation hubs such as Silicon Valley in the United States and the Daedeok Innopolis in the Republic of Korea have demonstrated, idea gen- eration and conversion flourish in these robust ecosys- tems. Moreover, success begets success: as the compa- nies in these hubs prosper, they invest more in research and development and attract more talent. They produce more ideas and convert more of those ideas into success- ful products. A virtuous circle is created. For this reason, innovation hubs should be of intense interest to compa- nies and governments worldwide. There are several models for innovation hubs. In every case we have examined, large enterprises—hub champions—have played a central role in hub develop- ment and success. These champions support innovation hubs by providing capital and connections, by facilitat- ing knowledge creation and sharing, and by providing a bridge for the commercialization of ideas. Governments, especially in emerging economies, play an equally important role. Their policies attract enterprise champions and create fertile conditions for hub growth by providing direct investment, streamlin- ing business and logistical processes, and ensuring the availability of talent. Innovation is the process by which ideas are gener- ated and commercialized, and innovation hubs can help elevate that process to the level of a differentiating capa- bility. We at Booz & Company are convinced that such capabilities are an essential mechanism in the achieve- ment of a company’s, or a nation’s, larger strategy—what we call its ‘way to play’. A truly differentiating capa- bilities system is difficult to develop, but, likewise, it is hard for others to replicate. Thus it offers a sustainable competitive advantage that provides the right to win in the market. We believe that both the public and private sectors have important roles to play in the formation of healthy innovation ecosystems. Furthermore, when they work together, as they do in developing innovation hubs, they can raise their innovation capabilities to new heights and drive corporate and national prosperity. Cesare R. Mainardi Chief Executive Officer Booz & Company AVirtuousCircleofInnovation
- 11. ix THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Foreword foreword The Global Innovation Index (GII) has emerged as a truly successful indicator for setting up a benchmark in the innovation ranking of nations across the globe. It is heartening to see the journey closely and remain associ- ated with this publication, which has not only demon- strated success in standardizing the uncertainties of mea- suring innovation but also helped in building a consen- sus among world leaders about the effectiveness of such a study to build future policies. The theme of year’s report, ‘The Local Dynamics of Innovation’, is highly relevant when we see the dif- ferent regional growth patterns of the world influenced by local actors and their interactions. These are unique and reflect the characteristics of each nation’s land, its people, and its culture. Studying these local dynamics is important because it can provide valuable insight into ways that successful models of innovation have taken shape in different conditions and their recipes for suc- cess. It can also help determine how these models can be replicated where the conditions are identical or adjusted where the conditions are similar. One of the important aspects of studying local inno- vation dynamics is associated with the tracking of the movements of the tacit knowledge that prevails in such localized environments and that is mostly insulated from outside world. These localized innovation systems do not always correspond to well-defined innovation parameters such as R&D expenditure or patents or pub- lications, but instead they go much deeper to the psyche of individuals, groups, and society. In India, for exam- ple, we can observe how local innovation functions and adapts in an environment that is constrained by avail- able resources. The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) has been at the core of the Indian journey of innovation for years, and has worked very closely with industry, government (central and state), academia, entrepreneurs, and other actors. In its engagement with the innovation stakehold- ers in the country, the CII has come across some fun- damental weaknesses of the Indian innovation system. Some of these inefficiencies are reflected in the coun- try’s current low R&D expenditure in cutting-edge technology and basic sciences, its low rate of commer- cialization of technology, and its inadequately skilled workforce, to name a few. Despite all these challenges, India has grown rapidly with the help of its people, who are inherently innovative and entrepreneurial, even if their innovations in some cases have been temporary and makeshift. Like India, many developing and developed nations have much to offer to the world in terms of their inno- vation models of growth. This current edition of GII provides some interesting and thought-provoking sto- ries and examples of local innovation dynamics that will enable others to gather helpful insights about different models of innovation. On behalf of the CII, I congratulate INSEAD, the World Intellectual Property Organization, and the new member of the league, Cornell University, for leading this initiative to publish this important innovation index for a global audience. I also thank the other Knowledge Partners for their support and contributions to its suc- cess. Last but not the least, I congratulate the GII core team and the wonderful people associated with it, with- out whom the GII would not have been possible. Chandrajit Banerjee Director General Confederation of Indian Industry LocalSolutionstoGlobalChallenges
- 13. xi THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Foreword foreword In today’s globalized landscape, innovation is often asso- ciated with progress. It represents a business’s tenacity in evolving and adapting to the changing face of compe- tition and market conditions. In short, to innovate is a survival instinct compulsory to staying relevant. Organizations today can no longer take a myopic stance, as their very existence is largely interdependent on the environment in which they exist and to which they cater. Organizations have a moral obligation to ensure that innovation is given a larger mandate to be the engine that enables economic growth, thereby driv- ing societal changes and laying the foundations of an empowered and competitive nation. The Global Innovation Index is an inspiration for those of us striving to be instruments of change and sets a precedent for those of us looking to make a difference. This year’s theme, ‘The Local Dynamics of Innovation’, is more pertinent than ever; it articulates the need for a collaborative and defining effort from all concerned in shaping the future. We are in the midst of an evolution. This is the communication era, in which connectivity has become a basic human right. Connectivity is making the world a smaller place by fuelling interaction and opening up access to information and knowledge in myriad ways. This, in turn, spurs economic activity through a process of empowerment. The socioeconomic momentum cre- ated in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in the last few decades makes the country very well positioned to con- tinue to attract a flow of intellectual capital, establishing itself as a hub for innovation in this part of the world. The democratization of innovation in a reliable and sustainable manner is key to unlocking the true poten- tial of value creation in a tangible manner; it will lay the groundwork for societal change and develop a frame- work for cohesion through collaboration. At du, we have established several knowledge plat- forms through which we are able to mentor the future generation of leaders, aspiring young talent, and entre- preneurs, giving them the tools they need to succeed. Being environmentally conscientious, we have adopted a green business philosophy of energy con- servation to reduce our carbon footprint, contribut- ing to the protection of our natural resources and the environment. As an economic enabler, we provide a climate that encourages communities to build and grow their businesses—not just in the UAE, but regionally and internationally. As part of our moral obligation to the communi- ties we serve, we have created a proactive and informa- tive intelligent ecosystem to address healthcare issues in the UAE. In every aspect of these endeavours there is an underlying theme: connectivity. Connectivity lays the groundwork for empowerment and the framework for innovation. Innovation itself is more than just a process. It is a belief, a philosophy that embeds itself in the fundamen- tal elements of governance, sustainability, efficiency, and the competitive agility needed to deliver value. Understanding the benefits of value through inno- vation is what will define us now and into the future. Achieving this is the responsibility not of one, but of many; a collaborative approach will drive innovation for the benefit of our future generations, our community, and the environment—as the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Osman Sultan Chief Executive Officer du ConnectivityastheDriverof Innovation
- 15. xiii THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Foreword foreword OpenInnovationwithaGlobalView Innovation creates social progress and improves the economic well-being of people. The invention of the wheel shortened the distance between locations; the telephone reduced our dependence on the wheel. Today the Internet, over fixed and mobile networks, connects people from around the world, changing the way we communicate, work, learn, and innovate. Designed as an open, global platform, the Internet enables people to share thoughts and ideas, eliminating the boundaries of geography and providing the abil- ity for people to engage in collaborative innovation. Experts in different locations and from diverse back- grounds can collaborate in real time. As a result, innova- tion cycles are shortened and the barriers to innovation are lowered, opening up opportunities for all. Open innovation—the principle that companies offer their own innovation to third parties and use the innovation of others in their own products—cre- ates win-win opportunities. Wherever there are open markets, free-trade policies, and favourable investment environments, capital investment will follow to fos- ter innovation. Within this environment, assets such as talent, capital, and knowledge can be aligned and the impact of innovation in one location can spread to help improve the world as a whole. Open innovation provides opportunities for pub- lic and private enterprises and research institutions, as well as industry chains, to cooperate on multiple levels. Businesses engage customers and partners in new prod- uct development. Competitors work together to address common challenges. Duplication is eliminated to enable the creation of better products, faster. Cross-industry and cross-cluster collaboration also creates exciting pos- sibilities. For example, the energy and ICT sectors have joined forces to create smart energy grids that provide significant environmental benefits. Participation in open innovation is reciprocal: all parties benefit and contribute. This commitment to open, customer-centric innovation has helped Huawei grow from a small, local business to a global ICT leader. Our customers and partners have benefited through their direct participation in the open innovation process. In open and collaborative innovation, respecting and protecting intellectual property rights (IPRs) is essen- tial. IPRs should not be used to inhibit competition but instead should be used to nurture continuous innova- tion. We must explore and optimize IPR protection to encourage and promote open innovation. Most innovation-rich regions are endowed with the ideas, policies, and infrastructure that advocate innova- tion. In such environments, innovators gravitate towards other innovators and innovation clusters are more eas- ily established. Regardless of location, however, open innovation offers everyone the opportunity to participate in bring- ing new ideas to life, whether they reside in an estab- lished cluster or not. Openness will help those outside established clusters to engage with those within. This, we believe, will begin to address the geographic imbal- ances between innovation-rich and innovation-devel- oping regions, enhancing industry competitiveness and thus boosting overall economic development. Huawei is proud to be a Global Innovation Index Knowledge Partner. We hope to contribute to the global innovation debate, to share our knowledge, and to learn from others through our participation. We hope our work with the Global Innovation Index report will help us to open discussions with telecommunication compa- nies, governments, and private organizations around the world so that we can learn from one another and jointly create an open and effective innovation environment around the globe. Ken Hu Deputy Chairman and Rotating Chief Executive Officer Huawei Technologies
- 17. xvcontributors THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Contributors The Global Innovation Index 2013: The Local Dynamics of Innovation was developed under the general direction of Francis GURRY (Director General, World Intellectual Property Organization), and the editors of the report, Soumitra DUTTA and Bruno LANVIN. The report was prepared and coordinated by a core team comprising: CORE TEAM Daniela BENAVENTE, GII Lead Researcher and Project Manager, INSEAD Soumitra DUTTA, Anne and Elmer Lindseth Dean, Professor of Management, Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management, Cornell University Bruno LANVIN, Executive Director, INSEAD European Competitiveness Initiative Sacha WUNSCH-VINCENT, Senior Economist, Economics and Statistics Division, WIPO The following persons and institutions have supported the production of the GII: CO-PUBLISHERS Cornell University Carolyn P. O’KEEFE, Chief Marketing Officer, Charles and Janet Jarvie Executive Director of Marketing, Johnson at Cornell University Shannon DORTCH, Communications Specialist, Social Media Manager, Johnson at Cornell University INSEAD Sophie BADRE, Media Relations Director, Europe and Asia Shellie KARABELL, Director, Editor in Chief, INSEAD Knowledge Chris HOWELLS, Deputy Editor, INSEAD Knowledge World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Carsten FINK, Chief Economist, Economics and Statistics Division Mosahid KHAN, Head, IP Statistics Section Ryan LAMB, Senior Statistical Analyst, IP Statistics Section Soeren Simon PETERSEN, Doctoral student, Economics Section WIPO Communications Division WIPO Department of External Relations WIPO Printing & Publication Production Section KNOWLEDGE PARTNERS Booz & Company Barry JARUZELSKI, Senior Vice President Karim M. SABBAGH, Senior Vice President Richard SHEDIAC, Senior Vice President Rasheed ELTAYEB, Principal Tamer M. OBIED, Senior Associate Hatem A. SAMMAN, Director, The Ideation Center Confederation of Indian Industry Anjan DAS, Executive Director, Technology Seema GUPTA, Director Jibak DASGUPTA, Deputy Director du Luma BOURISLY, Vice President, Corporate Communications Marwan KAYSSAR, Senior Manager Media Balqees ZAINAL, Senior Manager Social Media, Commercial Izzideen KHALIFEH, Manager, Business to Consumer Public Relations and Media Relations Laila GANADI, Personal Assistant, External Relations and Conferences Specialist, Chief Executive Officer’s Office Huawei Technologies QIAN Xiangjiang, Deputy Director, 2012 Labs James PENG, Director, International Media Affairs Joe KELLY, Vice President, International Media Affairs Suzana WANG, Public Relations Manager ContributorstotheReport (Continued on next page)
- 18. xvi THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Contributors DIRECT COLLABORATORS Michaela SAISANA, Senior Researcher, Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission Hope STEELE, Principal and Editor, Steele Editorial Services Neil WEINBERG, Principal, Neil Weinberg Design DATA COLLABORATORS We are also grateful to the following persons/institutions for their collaboration with specific data requests: Mohsen BONAKDARPOUR, Managing Director, Consulting, Economic and Country Risk, IHS Global Insight Alex CHISHOLM, Director, Statistical Analysis; and Hillary CHAN, Research Analysis Associate Manager, Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) Teemu HENRIKSSON, Coordinator World Press Trends; and David NEWALL, Customer Relations Manager, World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA) Derek HILL, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Science Foundation, United States of America Janis KARKLINS, Assistant Director-General for UNESCO’s Communication and Information Sector; Alison KENNEDY and Élise LEGAULT, Programme Specialists, and Hélène TRAN, Statistical Assistant, Education Indicators and Data Analysis Section; Lydia DELOUMEAUX, Assistant Programme Specialist, Culture Unit; Martin SCHAAPER, Programme Specialist, and Luciana MARINS, Assistant Programme Specialist, Science, Technology and Innovation Unit; Brian BUFFETT, Head of Data Processing, Standards, and IT Services; all from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics (UIS) Sean MAC CURTAIN, Head, Conformity Assessment, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Andreas MAURER, Chief, International Trade Statistics Section; Adelina MENDOZA, Senior Statistical Officer, Integrated Database Section; and Joscelyn MAGDELEINE, Statistical Officer, Trade in Services Section; all from the Economic Research and Statistics Division, World Trade Organization (WTO) Angus McCRONE, Chief Editor; and Nicole ASPINALL, Analyst, Data Services, Bloomberg New Energy Finance Ulf MOSLENER, Head of Research, Frankfurt School UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate and Sustainable Energy Finance; and Eric USHER, Project Manager, Seed Capital Programmes, Energy Branch, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Ifigenia POULKA, Data and Applications Specialist, Thomson Reuters Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Directorate for Education, Indicators and Analysis Division; Main Science and Technology Indicators, Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry; and Development Centre, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Sergiy PROTSIV, Research Fellow, Stockholm School of Economics, and Acting Director of the Cluster Observatory Derek SLATER, Policy Manager; and Alex KOZAK, Policy Analyst, Google Ben SOWTER, Head of Division, QS Intelligence Unit, QS Quacquarelli Symonds Ltd Susan TELTSCHER, Head; and Esperanza MAGPANTAY, Statistician at the Market Information and Statistics Division, Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Karen TREANTON, Head of Energy Balances, Prices and Emissions Section, Energy Statistics Division, International Energy Agency Shyam UPADHYAYA, Chief Statistician; Valentin TODOROV, Information Management Officer; and Dong GUO, Statistician, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Erik ZACHTE, Data Analyst, Wikimedia Foundation Matthew ZOOK, Associate Professor at the University of Kentucky and Chief Executive Officer, ZookNIC Inc.
- 19. xviiforeword THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 AdvisoryBoard advisory board In 2011, an Advisory Board was set up to provide advice on the research underlying the Global Innovation Index (GII), generate synergies at its stages of development, and assist with the dissemination of its messages and results. The Advisory Board is a select group of leading inter- national practitioners and experts with unique knowl- edge and skills in the realm of innovation. Its mem- bers, while coming from diverse geographical and insti- tutional backgrounds (international organizations, the public sector, non-governmental organizations, busi- ness, and academia), participate in their personal capac- ity. We are grateful for the time and support provided by the Advisory Board members. In 2013, we welcomed four new members to the Advisory Board: Robert D. Atkinson, Robert Bell, Dongmin Chen, and Diego Molano Vega. We would like to express our gratitude to Rolf Lehming, former Program Director at the National Science Foundation of the United States of America, for his thoughtful contributions to the 2011 and 2012 editions of the GII as a member of the Advisory Board. AdvisoryBoardtotheGlobalInnovationIndex ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS Khalid S. AL-SULTAN Rector, King Fahad University for Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia Daniele ARCHIBUGI Research Director, Italian National Research Council (CNR), affiliated with the Institute on Population and Social Policy (IRPPS); and Professor of Innovation, Governance and Public Policy, Department of Management, Birkbeck College, University of London Robert D. ATKINSON President, The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF), United States of America Robert BELL Program Director, National Science Foundation (NSF), United States of America Irina BOKOVA Director General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Dongmin CHEN Professor/Dean, School of Innovation and Entrepreneurship and Director, Office of Business Development for Science and Technology, Peking University, China Leonid GOKHBERG First Vice-Rector, Higher School of Economics (HSE), and Director, HSE Institute for Statistical Studies and Economics of Knowledge, Russian Federation Rolf-Dieter HEUER Director General, European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) Raghunath Anant MASHELKAR Bhatnagar Fellow, National Chemical Laboratory, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR); Chairperson, National Innovation Foundation; and President, Global Research Alliance, India Diego MOLANO VEGA Minister, Information Technologies and Communications, Colombia Sibusiso SIBISI President and Chief Executive Officer, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa Lynn ST. AMOUR President and Chief Executive Officer, Internet Society Rob STEELE Secretary-General, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Hamadoun TOURÉ Secretary-General, International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
- 21. Rankings
- 22. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Rankings xx Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Efficiency Ratio Rank Median: 0.78 Switzerland 66.59 1 HI 1 EUR 1 1.00 12 Sweden 61.36 2 HI 2 EUR 2 0.81 55 United Kingdom 61.25 3 HI 3 EUR 3 0.80 60 Netherlands 61.14 4 HI 4 EUR 4 0.91 26 United States of America 60.31 5 HI 5 NAC 1 0.74 86 Finland 59.51 6 HI 6 EUR 5 0.79 67 Hong Kong (China) 59.43 7 HI 7 SEAO 1 0.68 109 Singapore 59.41 8 HI 8 SEAO 2 0.64 121 Denmark 58.34 9 HI 9 EUR 6 0.76 78 Ireland 57.91 10 HI 10 EUR 7 0.81 57 Canada 57.60 11 HI 11 NAC 2 0.78 68 Luxembourg 56.57 12 HI 12 EUR 8 0.89 33 Iceland 56.40 13 HI 13 EUR 9 0.89 30 Israel 55.98 14 HI 14 NAWA 1 0.87 38 Germany 55.83 15 HI 15 EUR 10 0.87 40 Norway 55.64 16 HI 16 EUR 11 0.76 81 New Zealand 54.46 17 HI 17 SEAO 3 0.74 90 Korea, Rep. 53.31 18 HI 18 SEAO 4 0.72 95 Australia 53.07 19 HI 19 SEAO 5 0.65 116 France 52.83 20 HI 20 EUR 12 0.79 63 Belgium 52.49 21 HI 21 EUR 13 0.76 75 Japan 52.23 22 HI 22 SEAO 6 0.66 112 Austria 51.87 23 HI 23 EUR 14 0.71 98 Malta 51.79 24 HI 24 EUR 15 1.06 4 Estonia 50.60 25 HI 25 EUR 16 0.82 51 Spain 49.41 26 HI 26 EUR 17 0.71 101 Cyprus 49.32 27 HI 27 NAWA 2 0.86 43 Czech Republic 48.36 28 HI 28 EUR 18 0.81 53 Italy 47.85 29 HI 29 EUR 19 0.79 62 Slovenia 47.32 30 HI 30 EUR 20 0.78 70 Hungary 46.93 31 HI 31 EUR 21 0.94 23 Malaysia 46.92 32 UM 1 SEAO 7 0.81 52 Latvia 45.24 33 UM 2 EUR 22 0.77 74 Portugal 45.10 34 HI 32 EUR 23 0.73 92 China 44.66 35 UM 3 SEAO 8 0.98 14 Slovakia 42.25 36 HI 33 EUR 24 0.75 84 Croatia 41.95 37 HI 34 EUR 25 0.82 50 United Arab Emirates 41.87 38 HI 35 NAWA 3 0.55 133 Costa Rica 41.54 39 UM 4 LCN 1 1.02 9 Lithuania 41.39 40 UM 5 EUR 26 0.69 105 Bulgaria 41.33 41 UM 6 EUR 27 0.88 35 Saudi Arabia 41.21 42 HI 36 NAWA 4 0.80 61 Qatar 41.00 43 HI 37 NAWA 5 0.71 97 Montenegro 40.95 44 UM 7 EUR 28 0.72 94 Moldova, Rep. 40.94 45 LM 1 EUR 29 1.08 2 Chile 40.58 46 UM 8 LCN 2 0.74 88 Barbados 40.48 47 HI 38 LCN 3 0.73 91 Romania 40.33 48 UM 9 EUR 30 0.88 34 Poland 40.12 49 HI 39 EUR 31 0.68 110 Kuwait 40.02 50 HI 40 NAWA 6 1.03 8 Macedonia, FYR 38.18 51 UM 10 EUR 32 0.72 96 Uruguay 38.08 52 UM 11 LCN 4 0.85 45 Mauritius 38.00 53 UM 12 SSF 1 0.80 59 Serbia 37.87 54 UM 13 EUR 33 0.82 49 Greece 37.71 55 HI 41 EUR 34 0.65 118 Argentina 37.66 56 UM 14 LCN 5 0.94 20 Thailand 37.63 57 UM 15 SEAO 9 0.76 76 South Africa 37.60 58 UM 16 SSF 2 0.71 99 Armenia 37.59 59 LM 2 NAWA 7 0.86 42 Colombia 37.38 60 UM 17 LCN 6 0.76 79 Jordan 37.30 61 UM 18 NAWA 8 0.77 73 Russian Federation 37.20 62 UM 19 EUR 35 0.70 104 Mexico 36.82 63 UM 20 LCN 7 0.81 56 Brazil 36.33 64 UM 21 LCN 8 0.78 69 Bosnia and Herzegovina 36.24 65 UM 22 EUR 36 0.70 103 India 36.17 66 LM 3 CSA 1 1.02 11 Bahrain 36.13 67 HI 42 NAWA 9 0.62 123 Turkey 36.03 68 UM 23 NAWA 10 0.90 29 Peru 35.96 69 UM 24 LCN 9 0.77 72 Tunisia 35.82 70 UM 25 NAWA 11 0.88 36 Ukraine 35.78 71 LM 4 EUR 37 0.89 31 Global Innovation Index rankings
- 23. xxi THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 Rankings Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Efficiency Ratio Rank Median: 0.78 Mongolia 35.77 72 LM 5 SEAO 10 0.62 122 Georgia 35.56 73 LM 6 NAWA 12 0.71 100 Brunei Darussalam 35.53 74 HI 43 SEAO 11 0.65 119 Lebanon 35.47 75 UM 26 NAWA 13 0.66 114 Viet Nam 34.82 76 LM 7 SEAO 12 0.96 17 Belarus 34.62 77 UM 27 EUR 38 0.75 82 Guyana 34.36 78 LM 8 LCN 10 0.97 15 Dominican Republic 33.28 79 UM 28 LCN 11 0.90 28 Oman 33.25 80 HI 44 NAWA 14 0.54 134 Trinidad andTobago 33.17 81 HI 45 LCN 12 0.75 85 Jamaica 32.89 82 UM 29 LCN 13 0.79 65 Ecuador 32.83 83 UM 30 LCN 14 0.94 21 Kazakhstan 32.73 84 UM 31 CSA 2 0.61 126 Indonesia 31.95 85 LM 9 SEAO 13 1.04 6 Panama 31.82 86 UM 32 LCN 15 0.61 127 Guatemala 31.46 87 LM 10 LCN 16 0.79 66 El Salvador 31.32 88 LM 11 LCN 17 0.76 80 Uganda 31.21 89 LI 1 SSF 3 0.95 19 Philippines 31.18 90 LM 12 SEAO 14 0.93 24 Botswana 31.14 91 UM 33 SSF 4 0.51 136 Morocco 30.89 92 LM 13 NAWA 15 0.75 83 Albania 30.85 93 LM 14 EUR 39 0.58 129 Ghana 30.60 94 LM 15 SSF 5 0.80 58 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 30.48 95 LM 16 LCN 18 0.88 37 Senegal 30.48 96 LM 17 SSF 6 0.95 18 Fiji 30.46 97 LM 18 SEAO 15 0.51 137 Sri Lanka 30.45 98 LM 19 CSA 3 0.99 13 Kenya 30.28 99 LI 2 SSF 7 0.78 71 Paraguay 30.28 100 LM 20 LCN 19 0.82 48 Tajikistan 30.00 101 LI 3 CSA 4 0.90 27 Belize 29.98 102 LM 21 LCN 20 0.73 93 CapeVerde 29.69 103 LM 22 SSF 8 0.57 130 Swaziland 29.60 104 LM 23 SSF 9 1.06 5 Azerbaijan 28.99 105 UM 34 NAWA 16 0.65 117 Mali 28.84 106 LI 4 SSF 10 1.13 1 Honduras 28.80 107 LM 24 LCN 21 0.66 115 Egypt 28.48 108 LM 25 NAWA 17 0.68 108 Namibia 28.36 109 UM 35 SSF 11 0.48 139 Cambodia 28.07 110 LI 5 SEAO 16 0.87 39 Gabon 28.04 111 UM 36 SSF 12 0.81 54 Rwanda 27.64 112 LI 6 SSF 13 0.64 120 Iran, Islamic Rep. 27.30 113 UM 37 CSA 5 0.68 107 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 27.25 114 UM 38 LCN 22 1.02 10 Nicaragua 27.10 115 LM 26 LCN 23 0.62 125 Burkina Faso 27.03 116 LI 7 SSF 14 0.79 64 Kyrgyzstan 26.98 117 LI 8 CSA 6 0.56 131 Zambia 26.79 118 LM 27 SSF 15 0.89 32 Malawi 26.73 119 LI 9 SSF 16 0.87 41 Nigeria 26.57 120 LM 28 SSF 17 1.03 7 Mozambique 26.50 121 LI 10 SSF 18 0.67 111 Gambia 26.39 122 LI 11 SSF 19 0.86 44 Tanzania, United Rep. 26.35 123 LI 12 SSF 20 0.66 113 Lesotho 26.29 124 LM 29 SSF 21 0.47 140 Cameroon 25.71 125 LM 30 SSF 22 0.84 47 Guinea 25.70 126 LI 13 SSF 23 1.07 3 Benin 25.10 127 LI 14 SSF 24 0.69 106 Nepal 24.97 128 LI 15 CSA 7 0.76 77 Ethiopia 24.80 129 LI 16 SSF 25 0.74 87 Bangladesh 24.52 130 LI 17 CSA 8 0.84 46 Niger 24.03 131 LI 18 SSF 26 0.71 102 Zimbabwe 23.98 132 LI 19 SSF 27 0.91 25 Uzbekistan 23.87 133 LM 31 CSA 9 0.52 135 Syrian Arab Republic 23.73 134 LM 32 NAWA 18 0.45 142 Angola 23.46 135 UM 39 SSF 28 0.94 22 Côte d'Ivoire 23.42 136 LM 33 SSF 29 0.74 89 Pakistan 23.33 137 LM 34 CSA 10 0.97 16 Algeria 23.11 138 UM 40 NAWA 19 0.46 141 Togo 23.04 139 LI 20 SSF 30 0.56 132 Madagascar 22.95 140 LI 21 SSF 31 0.59 128 Sudan 19.81 141 LM 35 SSF 32 0.49 138 Yemen 19.32 142 LM 36 NAWA 20 0.62 124 Note: World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012): LI = low income; LM = lower-middle income; UM = upper-middle income; and HI = high income. Regions are based on the United Nations Classification (11 February 2013): EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Innovation Index rankings (continued)
- 25. Chapters
- 27. 3 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013:LocalDynamicsKeepInnovation StrongintheFaceofCrisis Soumitra Dutta, Cornell University Daniela Benavente and Bruno Lanvin, INSEAD Sacha Wunsch-Vincent, World Intellectual Property Organization chapter 1 Last year, we introduced the Global Innovation Index (GII) by stating that the global economic recov- ery was fragile and uneven across regions. This still holds in 2013. After the downturn of 2009, high- income countries have seen the sprouting of many green shoots of economic recovery. Most of them, however, vanished before generating a lasting growth momentum. Facing a fragile economic recovery The first half of 2013 witnessed an economic uptick, but its scope and strength have been less than anticipated last year.1 Overall, eco- nomic growth has been and remains uneven between emerging markets and high-income economies. On the one hand, growth prospects for many low- and middle-income economies continue to be encour- aging; large middle-income econo- mies such as China exhibit solid eco- nomic performance, although they too have seen smaller growth rates by recent historical standards. On the other hand, many high-income economies continue to struggle on their way to recovery; while growth in the United States of America (USA) and Japan is improving, the growth forecasts for the euro area have been revised downward. Althougheconomicpolicyaction continues to be largely focused on finding the right balance between reducing debt and supporting demand via economic stimulus, the key questions remain: Where will future growth come from to drive the global economy? Where and how will future jobs be created? In this context, the importance of innova- tion cannot be emphasized enough. Policies to promote innovation lay the foundation for future growth, productivity improvements, and better jobs. Indeed, opportunities for new sources of innovation-based growth abound in fields such as edu- cation, the environment, energy, food, health, information technolo- gies, and transport. The challenge is to prioritize areas that will yield sus- tainable growth addressing the key economic, environmental, and soci- etal issues we are facing. Innovation is alive and well Last year, this report noted that the effects of the recent economic crisis on innovation are complex.2 Reduced innovation expenditures today might lead to reduced inno- vation expenditures and output in the future, a phenomenon dubbed ‘innovation hysteresis’. At the same time, the crisis has presented many forward-looking firms and countries with new opportunities to innovate and move forward. After a significant drop in 2009, countries and firms have resumed investing in R&D and innovation (see Box 1). Furthermore, accord- ing to private data sources, gross expenditures on R&D in many top- spending developed and emerging nations have been characterized by a continuously positive upward trend since 2010; these countries are exhib- itinghealthygrowth in 2012and2013 as well, with countries such as China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia lead- ing with double-digit growth.3 As measured by the global use of intellectual property (IP), recov- ery thus far has also been swift and broad-based. After 2009, we wit- nessed strong growth of patent appli- cations worldwide—by 7.5% in 2010 and 7.8% in 2011, rates that are sig- nificantly higher than those coun- tries experienced before the crisis. International patent applications filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty also grew by 11% in 2011 and by 6.6% in 2012.4 However, innovation cannot be reduced to investments in R&D and patents. The vision offered by the GII is more complex and offers a different view about the dynamics that shape innovation globally. The spiky dispersion of innovation One of the important motivations behind the creation of the GII was the realization that innovation has become more global, more dispersed than it used to be. The results of the GII this year and over the last years provide testimony to the evolv- ing global nature of innovation today. And although high-income
- 28. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 4 Table 1.1: Business enterprise expenditure on R&D (BERD) Continued positive trends of business R&D throughout the crisis and until 2011 Pre-crisis Crisis Recovery 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Estonia 96 100 99 131 259p Slovenia 78 100 103 124 160p Hungary 93 100 118 125 137 Poland 88 100 105 111 136 Slovak Republic 85 100 93 130 127 Czech Republic 102 100 97 108 127 Netherlands 107 100 93 98 119p Ireland 92 100 116 117 118p Business R&D is below pre-crisis (2008) levels in 2011 Pre-crisis Crisis Recovery 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Norway 94 100 98 95 99p Romania 117 100 102 94 98 United Kingdom 101 100 97 97 97p United States of America 95 100 96 94 94p Finland 91 100 94 93 94 Sweden 91 100 88 86 90 Spain 95 100 94 93 90 Portugal 79 100 100 96 89p Canada 105 100 95 90 88p Luxembourg 103 100 97 77 76p Source: OECD MSTI, updated 30 April 2013; Business enterprise expenditure on R&D (BERD) at constant 2005 PPP$, Index = 2008. Updated from OECD, 2012. Note: p = provisional data. Table 1.2: Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) Continued positive trends of business R&D throughout the crisis and until 2011 Pre-crisis Crisis Recovery 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Estonia 88 100 96 113 178p Slovak Republic 92 100 97 132 147 China 87 100 126 144 n/a Slovenia 84 100 103 118 140p Poland 89 100 113 128 140 Czech Republic 102 100 100 108 131 Argentina 91 100 114 130 n/a Turkey 99 100 111 121 n/a Republic of Korea 93 100 106 119 n/a Chile 80 100 108 117 n/a Hungary 97 100 108 110 115 GERD is below pre-crisis (2008) levels in 2010 Pre-crisis Crisis Recovery 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Finland 94 100 97 100 99 United States of America 96 100 99 98 98p United Kingdom 100 100 100 99 98p Portugal 78 100 106 105 97p Sweden 93 100 92 93 96 Spain 93 100 99 99 95 Canada 102 100 98 97 93p Japan 101 100 91 93 n/a Singapore 88 100 84 90 n/a Luxembourg 96 100 100 88 86p Romania 84 100 76 73 82 Source: OECD MSTI, updated 30 April 2013; Business enterprise expenditure on R&D (BERD) at constant 2005 PPP$, Index = 2008. Note: p = provisional data. Box 1: From an R&D crisis to recovery, but diverse outcomes so far Research and development (R&D) expen- ditures of firms in high-income economies dropped from the annual increase in R&D spending of about 4% in 2008 to a decline of 5% in 2009. 1 Worldwide, the effects of the crisis led to a decline of business R&D in 2009 by close to 1%, down from the 5% growth seen in 2008. 2 This impact on business R&D in 2009 had been cushioned by government policies that increased the R&D paid by pub- lic funds. 3 Still, in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, private and public R&D combined declined by 1.4% in 2009. 4 Although many non-OECD countries—such as Argentina, China, and the Russian Federation—contin- ued with robust R&D spending despite the crisis, 5 global R&D expenditures decreased from an annual growth of 4.7% in 2008 to 1.8% in 2009. 6 Recovery has been taking place since 2009. At the firm level, the top 1,000 R&D spenders across the world have increased their R&D investment—in nominal terms— significantly, with expenditures since 2010 exceeding pre-crisis levels. 7 These top spenders increased their R&D expenditures by 9% in 2010 and by 10% in 2011. Although the data are incomplete, it appears that in the aggregate, and beyond the top 1,000 alone, firms increased their R&D expenditures by 2.3% in 2010, 8 and by 1.2% in mostly high-income countries. 9 Total R&D expenditures in OECD countries grew in real terms by 1.3% in 2010 and an estimated 1.8% in 2011. 10 The situation is not uniform between countries, however. In some countries, business and total R&D are significantly above pre-crisis levels, whereas in others they are still below crisis levels (see Tables 1.1 and 1.2). It is mostly non- OECD economies and economies in Eastern Europe that see higher R&D spending today than they did in the past. According to pri- vate sources, the total R&D expenditure in many top-spending high- and middle- income economies has indeed been char- acterized by a continuously positive upward trend since 2010, with healthy growth in 2012 and 2013, and with countries such as Indonesia, India, Malaysia, and China leading in terms of increased R&D efforts. 11 Note Notes and references for this box appear at the end of the chapter.
- 29. 5 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 economies dominate the list, sev- eral new players have increased their innovation capabilities and outputs. The dispersion of innovation is expectedtocontinuebecauseemerg- ing markets have not experienced the same R&D declines during the peak of the crisis, and in fact they have actually increased their R&D since the recovery began by significantly wider margins than high-income countries. Countries such as China, Argentina, Brazil, Poland, India, the Russian Federation, Turkey, and South Africa (in order of R&D spending growth) have shown a very high compound annual growth rate in their R&D spending from 2008 to 2013.5 The same is true for pat- ent filings. Emerging markets, and notably China, are now driving the growth in filings to a significant extent and making up an increasing share of global patents. The chang- ing geography of innovation has truly been reinforced by the crisis.6 A recent article in Nature anal- ysed the citation patterns of articles published in key physics journals and found that, although the USA accounted for 85.6% of the published papers in the 1960s, this proportion has declined to 36.7% in the past decade.7 New centres of knowledge creation have arisen in Europe and Asia. However, this study also found that, although scientific research has become more globally distributed, its production remains highly con- centrated and uneven or spiky. The world’s leading cities for the produc- tion of scientific papers at the high- est levels have remained essentially the same for the past three decades. The local dynamics of innovation Examples of innovation systems or entities at the local (sub-national) level typically include clusters;8 they also include innovation-driven enterprises, regions, cities, or univer- sities that are not linked to each other in a sufficiently structured way to be described as clusters. Several research- ers have emphasized the importance of local innovation systems.9 Recent field work and local research enriches the debate by bringing to light rele- vant information, data, and case stud- ies about local innovation in devel- oping countries. For example, aim- ing to identify challenges and con- crete opportunities for fostering local development, RedeSist (Research Network on Local Productive and Innovative Systems) in Brazil high- lights the local dimension of innova- tive and productive processes.10 Until the 1990s, the linear model of innovation policy was dominant. This model led to a focus on provid- ing R&D infrastructure, financial support for innovation in companies, and technology transfer. Resulting analyses and policies emphasized the supply of innovation inputs and support instruments, often neglect- ing the absorption capacity of firms and the specific demand for innova- tion support in less-favoured regions. Moreover, issues such as management and organizational deficits (in partic- ular within small and medium-sized enterprises) were often overlooked.11 More recently, innovative regions and spaces have garnered increased attention. These studies concentrate on the analysis of well-perform- ing regions, dealing with the ques- tions of why such industries concen- trate in particular locations, which kinds of linkages and networks exist among and around them, and to what extent knowledge spillovers can be observed. Based on this literature, a broader vision of ‘local’ innova- tion has emerged, one that generally includes the following areas of focus: (1) encouraging high-tech, knowl- edge-based, or ‘creative’ industries; (2) building up research excellence; (3) attracting global companies; and (4) stimulating spin-offs. This shift in emphasis should not come as a surprise, since the renewed approach to local innovation is actu- ally at the confluence of two main streams of analysis: the ‘new growth theory’, which is centred on knowl- edge intensity,12 and the cluster approach mentioned earlier. The significant work done since the mid-1990s around regional inno- vation systems contributes to this debate, highlighting the various defi- ciencies that can prevent local inno- vation from reaching sustainable mar- ket success. For real progress to occur at local levels of innovation, critical elements need to be explored, identified, and measured. These elements include the specific strengths and weaknesses of local industries and knowledge insti- tutions as well as access to finance and to markets within and outside national borders.13 They also include the ability to move from ideas to mar- ketable innovations. Together, these aspects are specific to every single local environment and need to be considered as such. Not all attempts to create inno- vation clusters or ‘innovation spaces’ at the local level have been success- ful. Several key questions and criti- cal issues arise concerning the local dynamics of innovation, including: Do clusters and local innovation spaces need critical mass to succeed? Can the dynamics of innovation suf- fer from an overabundance of clus- ters? Can one define complementari- ties among clusters within a particular national space? These issues are at the forefront of current research of innovation. Several chapters in this report—from UNU-MERIT, the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Universidad de la
- 30. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 6 República in Uruguay—attempt to consider them in the light of new data, examples, and approaches. In particular, the chapter by Annalisa Primi (OECD) shows that (1) the ‘spikiness’ of innovation tends to per- sist and few places (regions, cities, or local systems) concentrate innovation assets, capabilities, and financing; (2) new innovation hotspots are emerg- ing in China and in other developing economies; and (3) local innovation systems are increasingly ‘internation- alized’, meaning that their interac- tion with other regions and cities is growing, with respect to both collab- oration for innovation and business organization. The spiky dispersion of innova- tion around the globe presents impor- tant challenges for policy makers and deserves further study. Success in innovation requires excellence across a range of input conditions, an objec- tive that is difficult to reach for many less-developed economies. As stated in a recent article by Richard Florida, Great scientific centres not only require eminent universities and laboratories, they also require a broader environment of meritocracy and openness to diversity that can attract top talent from around the world. For this reason, it is unlikely that the world’s leading science cities will change significantly in coming decades. . . . The presence of major scientific centres has itself become a key source of innovation and economic growth. This is likely to lead to more concentrated innovation and economic development in the future, increasing the gaps between the world’s scientific ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. 14 This holistic view of innovation is aligned with the principles underly- ing the design of the GII framework, which is constructed on the newest research and data on the measure- ment of innovation. The GII sub- scribes to a broad view of innovation that includes traditional scientific out- put indicators and also a wide range of new indicators for creative outputs. A holistic view of innovation: The GII conceptual framework The GII relies on two sub-indices— the Innovation Input Sub-Index and the Innovation Output Sub- Index—each built around pillars. Four overall measures are calculated (Figure 1): Figure 1: Framework of the Global Innovation Index 2013 Global Innovation Index (average) Innovation Efficiency Ratio (ratio) Innovation Input Sub-Index Institutions Human capital and research Infrastructure Market sophistication Business sophistication Creative outputs Knowledge creation Knowledge impact Knowledge diffusion Innovation Output Sub-Index Political environment Regulatory environment Business environment Education Tertiary education Research & development ICT General infrastructure Ecological sustainability Credit Investment Trade & competition Knowledge workers Innovation linkages Knowledge absorption Intangible assets Creative goods and services Knowledge and technology outputs Online creativity
- 31. 7 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 1. The Innovation Input Sub- Index: Five input pillars cap- ture elements of the nation- al economy that enables inno- vative activities: (1) Institutions, (2) Human capital and research, (3) Infrastructure, (4) Market sophistication, and (5) Business sophistication. 2. The Innovation Output Sub- Index: Innovation outputs are the results of innovative ac- tivities within the economy. There are two output pillars: (6) Knowledge and technology out- puts and (7) Creative outputs. 3. The overall GII score is the simple average of the Input and Output Sub-Indices. 4. The Innovation Efficiency Ratio is the ratio of the Output Sub-Index over the Input Sub- Index. It shows how much inno- vation output a given country is getting for its inputs. Each pillar is divided into three sub-pillars and each sub-pillar is composed of individual indicators, for a total of 84 indicators.15 Further details on the GII framework and the indicators used are provided in Annex 1. This year the GII model includes 142 economies, represent- ing 94.9% of the world’s population and 98.7% of the world’s GDP (in current US dollars). Global Innovation Index 2013: Main findings The GII presents a rich trove of data to analyse innovation trends. The GII model has evolved over its last editions, and each year the vari- ables included in its computation are reviewed and updated to provide the best possible snapshot of global inno- vation. Thus, year-on-year compar- isons are not always easily possible and care needs to be exercised when analysing specific trends. Innovative countries (with the exception of a few small economies or city states, such as Switzerland and Singapore) are rarely able to achieve uniformly high levels of achievement along all the differ- ent input dimensions of the GII model. Rather, many of the inno- vation capabilities are developed in local ecosystems that revolve around particular cities, clusters, or regions. Hence it is only appropriate that this year’s GII focuses on the local dynamics of innovation. Some of the key findings of this year’s report are summarized below. Innovation is a global game: The top-ranked countries in the GII come from different parts of the globe, confirming the global disper- sion of innovation. The top 10 this year are ranked as follows: 1. Switzerland (1st in 2012) 2. Sweden (2nd) 3. United Kingdom (5th) 4. Netherlands (6th) 5. United States of America (10th) 6. Finland (4th) 7. Hong Kong (China) (8th) 8. Singapore (3rd) 9. Denmark (7th), and 10. Ireland (9th). The USA rejoined the five most- innovative nations and the UK moved up to the 3rd spot, while Switzerland and Sweden retained the first two places in the rankings this year. The top 25 ranked coun- tries in the GII represent a mixture of nations from across the world: they are from North America, Europe, Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. An innovation divide per- sists: The GII 2013 results show a striking pattern of stability among the most innovative nations, which demonstrates both a persistent innovation divide across time and the spiky dispersion of innovation (Box 2). Whether we look at the top 10 or top 25 innovators in the world, the GII rankings show that that, although individual countries swap their respective rankings within these groups, not a single country moved in or out of these groups this year. Even as innovators are thriving in local and regional hubs around the world, rankings remain strongly correlated with income lev- els: on average, high-income coun- tries outpace developing countries by a wide margin across the board in terms of scores; other high- and middle-income countries are not yet breaking into the highest ranks of the GII 2013. Innovation divides also appear within regions. Last year, the GII 2012 identified the presence of a multi-speed Europe, with inno- vation leaders in northern Europe and countries performing less well in southern and eastern Europe, a trend confirmed this year.16 This year a box comparing performances of best-ranked countries in Sub- Saharan Africa is included (Box 4). Some nations are learning and rapidly improving their innovation capabilities: The GII results this year confirm the trend observed last year that a select group of emerging and middle-income countries are faring very well in innovation and moving up in the GII rankings. Eighteen emerging economies are outperforming others in their respective income groups: Armenia, China, Costa Rica, Georgia, Hungary, India, Jordan, Kenya, Latvia, Malaysia, Mali, the Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Senegal, Tajikistan, Uganda, and Viet Nam. All of them demonstrate above-par levels of innovation compared with other countries with similar income levels. Their progress, even if not uniform, is mostly a result of a good policy
- 32. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 8 mix on multiple fronts: institutions, skills, infrastructures, integration with global markets, and linkages to the business community. Mixed performance in middle- income countries; BRICs falling behind in GII rankings: The GII 2012 posited that a holistic, knowl- edge-based growth strategy for innovation was desirable: a strat- egy in which innovation improve- ments resulted from continuous improvements across all of the mul- tiple input and output dimensions of the GII and in which these improve- ments were integrated across large segments of society and the econ- omy. Achieving these broad-based and continuous improvements seems to be a challenge for many middle- income economies, as evidenced by their overall GII ranks (none have yet been able to break into the top 25).17 The BRICs have experienced a relative stagnation or mostly a drop in innovation ranks in 2013 as com- pared to 2012, repeating the expe- rience of last year (2011 to 2012): China (35th; a decrease of one spot from 2012 and six from 2011), the Russian Federation (62nd; a decrease of 11 positions from 2012 and six from 2011), Brazil (64th; a decrease of six spots from 2012 and 17 from 2011), and India (66th; a decrease of two positions from 2012 and four from 2011). In this context, other emerging middle-income nations are increasing their innovation ranks rapidly: Mexico (63rd; an increase of 16 positions from 2012 and 18 from 2011), Indonesia (85th; an increase of 15 from 2012 and 14 from 2011), and others (the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Uganda, and Uruguay) all increased their rankings by more than 15 positions this year (see Box 2). That said, BRICs and other middle-income countries perform particularly well in three indicators, aimed at capturing the quality of innovations, introduced this year (see Box 3). Discussion of results: The world’s top innovators The following analysis describes and analyses the salient features of the GII 2013 results. It does so for the global leaders in each index and for innovation performances in light of income levels.18 A short discussion of the rankings at the regional level follows.19 Tables 1 through 3 report the overall GII and the Input and Output Sub-Indices, with regional and income group rankings.20 The top 10 in the Global Innovation Index The top 10 countries in the GII 2013 edition are Switzerland, Sweden, the United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, the United States of America (USA), Finland, Hong Kong (China), Singapore, Denmark, and Ireland. The same 10 countries were in the top 10 in 2012. Switzerland maintains its 2011 and 2012 position as number 1 in the GII, as well as its 2012 1st posi- tion in the Innovation Output Sub- Index and in Knowledge and tech- nology outputs and its 2nd place in Creative outputs. It achieves a spot among the top 25 in all pil- lars and sub-pillars with only four exceptions: sub-pillars Education (where it ranks 56th); Knowledge absorption (34th), Tertiary educa- tion (32nd), and Business environ- ment (31st). A knowledge-based economy of 8.1 million people with one of the highest GDP per capita in the world (PPP$45,285.8), its high innovation efficiency ratio (12th highest, 1st among the GII top 10) allows Switzerland to translate its robust innovation capabilities into high-level innovation outputs. In addition, Switzerland is one of the four economies at the efficient fron- tier (see Annex 3). The runner-up, Sweden, retains the position it held in 2011 and 2012 and leads among Nordic and European Union (EU) coun- tries. It ranks 5th on inputs and 3rd on outputs, with strengths in all seven pillars (its lowest rank is 12th in Creative outputs), and is one of the four economies at the efficient frontier (see Annex 3). Its major weaknesses at the sub-pillar level are in Trade and competition and Intangible assets, but even these are within the top 40 (ranking 32nd and 39th, respectively). Sweden does particularly well in key indicators introduced this year: GERD per- formed by business enterprise over GDP (5th), patent families filed in at least three offices (6th), the citable documents H index (10th), royalties and license fees receipts over total services exports (10th), logistics per- formance (12th), the QS university ranking average score of top 3 uni- versities (14th); and high-tech and medium-high-tech output (21st). The United Kingdom (UK) occupies 3rd place in 2013 (up from 5th in 2012 and 10th in 2011), and comes in 4th in both inputs and out- puts. The UK places within the top 25 in 15 of the 20 indicators that have been adjusted or introduced this year, coming in 1st in the cit- able documents H index, the QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities, and ease of get- ting credit. With roughly six times the population of Sweden and eight times that of Switzerland, these results are commendable. Relative weaknesses are in the growth of its labour productivity (102nd, year 2011), the market access conditions to foreign markets for non-agricul- tural exports (rank 102nd, common
- 33. 9 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 to all EU economies, year 2010), the level of foreign direct investment net inflows (117th, year 2011), and the level of gross capital formation over GDP (127th, year 2012)—all indi- cators strongly correlated with eco- nomic and business cycles, and all of which are expected to improve with the economic recovery. The Netherlands is ranked 4th, up from 6th in 2012 and 9th in 2011, with a clear relative advantage again this year on outputs, where it is ranked 2nd (3rd in 2012). In comparison, it holds 10th position in inputs, coming in at 26th place in innovation efficiency (2nd after Switzerland among the GII top 10). The country achieves leader posi- tions (within the top 25) on all pil- lars, 16 of 21 sub-pillars, and 54 out of 80 indicators with data, includ- ing 1st place in royalty and license fees payments and receipts (over total services imports/exports), online e-participation, and intensity of local competition. Its major weak- ness again this year is in Tertiary education (61st, up from 66th in 2012), although progress was made across the board. The United States of America (USA) is ranked 5th, up from 10th in 2012, and leads the rankings in Northern America. This remarkable jump reflects the relative strength of the country in the 20 indicators introduced this year, with leading positions (within top 25) in 13 of them, including the citable docu- ments H index (ranked 1st), the QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities (ranked 2nd after the UK), royalties and license fees receipts over total services exports (5th), logistics performance (8th), GERD performed by business enter- prise over GDP (9th), patent families filed in at least three offices (13th), and high-tech and medium-high- tech output (15th). More generally, the USA is within the top 25 in all pillars, 17 sub-pillars (out of 21), and 49 out of 77 indicators with data, and places 1st in seven indicators and the R&D sub-pillar. Some areas of con- cern prevail, however. In Tertiary education, where it ranks 52nd, the USA is the victim of its own suc- cess: the high level of its academic institutions leads to a 2nd position in tertiary enrolment (91.9% in 2010), but to relatively low levels of stu- dent exchange with the rest of the world (the USA ranks 46th in ter- tiary inbound mobility and 122nd in gross tertiary outbound enrolment). The level of tertiary graduates in science and engineering is also low (ranked 77th, with 25.4% in 2007). Other areas in which improvements could be made are Ecological sus- tainability (74th) and Intangible assets (86th). Finland is ranked 6th in the GII this year (4th in 2012), 6th in the Input Sub-Index, and 8th in the Output Sub-Index. It achieves posi- tions among the top 25 in all pillars, 16 out of 21 sub-pillars, and 56 out of 82 indicators with data. It places 1st in Human capital and research and 2nd in Institutions, after Denmark. Its weakest showing is in Market sophistication, which is a still- respectable 19th position. At the indicator level, Finland achieves 1st place in political stability, govern- ment effectiveness, press freedom, rule of law, state of cluster develop- ment, and ICTs and business model creation. Some of its major weak- nesses (measured in percent ranks to take account of missing values) are in foreign direct investment net inflow, market access for non-agricultural exports, audiovisual and related services exports, GDP per unit of energy use, printing and publish- ing output, gross capital formation, GERD financed by abroad, inten- sity of local competition, growth rate of GDP per person engaged, and ease of protecting investors. Hong Kong (China) is ranked 7th this year, up one position from 8th in 2012 and taking the lead from Singapore among Asian economies. With a population of 7.5 million and a GDP per capita of PPP$50,708.9, its major leverage comes from the Input Sub-Index, where it ranks 2nd after Singapore. The economy takes 1st place in Infrastructure and Market sophistication (includ- ing top positions in the Credit and Investment sub-pillars), and 3rd position in Business sophistication after Singapore and the USA. On the input side, its relative weakness is in Human capital and research (still a very good 21st position). Its less good showing in the Output Sub-Index, where it ranks 15th, is the result of a pale 36th position in the key Knowledge and technol- ogy outputs pillar; this is, however, compensated for by a 5th place in Creative outputs. Yet Hong Kong (China) is one of the four economies at the efficient frontier (see Annex 3). At the indicator level, Hong Kong (China) achieves 1st place in 11 indicators. Its major weaknesses are in the Knowledge diffusion sub- pillar (80th), where adjustments to two indicators affected its ranking (see Annex 2), in addition to a sharp drop in the percentage of high-tech exports over total exports, which fell from 44.8% in 2010 (ranked 14th in the GII 2012) to 13.1% in 2012 (41st). In terms of percent ranks, areas of concern are Patent Cooperation Treaty and national office resi- dent patent applications and royal- ties and license fees receipts, as well as expenditure on education, pupil- teacher ratio in secondary education, and public expenditure on education per pupil. Singapore is ranked 8th, down five positions from its 3rd
- 34. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 10 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Efficiency Ratio Rank Median: 0.78 Switzerland 66.59 1 HI 1 EUR 1 1.00 12 Sweden 61.36 2 HI 2 EUR 2 0.81 55 United Kingdom 61.25 3 HI 3 EUR 3 0.80 60 Netherlands 61.14 4 HI 4 EUR 4 0.91 26 United States of America 60.31 5 HI 5 NAC 1 0.74 86 Finland 59.51 6 HI 6 EUR 5 0.79 67 Hong Kong (China) 59.43 7 HI 7 SEAO 1 0.68 109 Singapore 59.41 8 HI 8 SEAO 2 0.64 121 Denmark 58.34 9 HI 9 EUR 6 0.76 78 Ireland 57.91 10 HI 10 EUR 7 0.81 57 Canada 57.60 11 HI 11 NAC 2 0.78 68 Luxembourg 56.57 12 HI 12 EUR 8 0.89 33 Iceland 56.40 13 HI 13 EUR 9 0.89 30 Israel 55.98 14 HI 14 NAWA 1 0.87 38 Germany 55.83 15 HI 15 EUR 10 0.87 40 Norway 55.64 16 HI 16 EUR 11 0.76 81 New Zealand 54.46 17 HI 17 SEAO 3 0.74 90 Korea, Rep. 53.31 18 HI 18 SEAO 4 0.72 95 Australia 53.07 19 HI 19 SEAO 5 0.65 116 France 52.83 20 HI 20 EUR 12 0.79 63 Belgium 52.49 21 HI 21 EUR 13 0.76 75 Japan 52.23 22 HI 22 SEAO 6 0.66 112 Austria 51.87 23 HI 23 EUR 14 0.71 98 Malta 51.79 24 HI 24 EUR 15 1.06 4 Estonia 50.60 25 HI 25 EUR 16 0.82 51 Spain 49.41 26 HI 26 EUR 17 0.71 101 Cyprus 49.32 27 HI 27 NAWA 2 0.86 43 Czech Republic 48.36 28 HI 28 EUR 18 0.81 53 Italy 47.85 29 HI 29 EUR 19 0.79 62 Slovenia 47.32 30 HI 30 EUR 20 0.78 70 Hungary 46.93 31 HI 31 EUR 21 0.94 23 Malaysia 46.92 32 UM 1 SEAO 7 0.81 52 Latvia 45.24 33 UM 2 EUR 22 0.77 74 Portugal 45.10 34 HI 32 EUR 23 0.73 92 China 44.66 35 UM 3 SEAO 8 0.98 14 Slovakia 42.25 36 HI 33 EUR 24 0.75 84 Croatia 41.95 37 HI 34 EUR 25 0.82 50 United Arab Emirates 41.87 38 HI 35 NAWA 3 0.55 133 Costa Rica 41.54 39 UM 4 LCN 1 1.02 9 Lithuania 41.39 40 UM 5 EUR 26 0.69 105 Bulgaria 41.33 41 UM 6 EUR 27 0.88 35 Saudi Arabia 41.21 42 HI 36 NAWA 4 0.80 61 Qatar 41.00 43 HI 37 NAWA 5 0.71 97 Montenegro 40.95 44 UM 7 EUR 28 0.72 94 Moldova, Rep. 40.94 45 LM 1 EUR 29 1.08 2 Chile 40.58 46 UM 8 LCN 2 0.74 88 Barbados 40.48 47 HI 38 LCN 3 0.73 91 Romania 40.33 48 UM 9 EUR 30 0.88 34 Poland 40.12 49 HI 39 EUR 31 0.68 110 Kuwait 40.02 50 HI 40 NAWA 6 1.03 8 Macedonia, FYR 38.18 51 UM 10 EUR 32 0.72 96 Uruguay 38.08 52 UM 11 LCN 4 0.85 45 Mauritius 38.00 53 UM 12 SSF 1 0.80 59 Serbia 37.87 54 UM 13 EUR 33 0.82 49 Greece 37.71 55 HI 41 EUR 34 0.65 118 Argentina 37.66 56 UM 14 LCN 5 0.94 20 Thailand 37.63 57 UM 15 SEAO 9 0.76 76 South Africa 37.60 58 UM 16 SSF 2 0.71 99 Armenia 37.59 59 LM 2 NAWA 7 0.86 42 Colombia 37.38 60 UM 17 LCN 6 0.76 79 Jordan 37.30 61 UM 18 NAWA 8 0.77 73 Russian Federation 37.20 62 UM 19 EUR 35 0.70 104 Mexico 36.82 63 UM 20 LCN 7 0.81 56 Brazil 36.33 64 UM 21 LCN 8 0.78 69 Bosnia and Herzegovina 36.24 65 UM 22 EUR 36 0.70 103 India 36.17 66 LM 3 CSA 1 1.02 11 Bahrain 36.13 67 HI 42 NAWA 9 0.62 123 Turkey 36.03 68 UM 23 NAWA 10 0.90 29 Peru 35.96 69 UM 24 LCN 9 0.77 72 Tunisia 35.82 70 UM 25 NAWA 11 0.88 36 Ukraine 35.78 71 LM 4 EUR 37 0.89 31 Table 1: Global Innovation Index rankings
- 35. 11 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Efficiency Ratio Rank Median: 0.78 Mongolia 35.77 72 LM 5 SEAO 10 0.62 122 Georgia 35.56 73 LM 6 NAWA 12 0.71 100 Brunei Darussalam 35.53 74 HI 43 SEAO 11 0.65 119 Lebanon 35.47 75 UM 26 NAWA 13 0.66 114 Viet Nam 34.82 76 LM 7 SEAO 12 0.96 17 Belarus 34.62 77 UM 27 EUR 38 0.75 82 Guyana 34.36 78 LM 8 LCN 10 0.97 15 Dominican Republic 33.28 79 UM 28 LCN 11 0.90 28 Oman 33.25 80 HI 44 NAWA 14 0.54 134 Trinidad andTobago 33.17 81 HI 45 LCN 12 0.75 85 Jamaica 32.89 82 UM 29 LCN 13 0.79 65 Ecuador 32.83 83 UM 30 LCN 14 0.94 21 Kazakhstan 32.73 84 UM 31 CSA 2 0.61 126 Indonesia 31.95 85 LM 9 SEAO 13 1.04 6 Panama 31.82 86 UM 32 LCN 15 0.61 127 Guatemala 31.46 87 LM 10 LCN 16 0.79 66 El Salvador 31.32 88 LM 11 LCN 17 0.76 80 Uganda 31.21 89 LI 1 SSF 3 0.95 19 Philippines 31.18 90 LM 12 SEAO 14 0.93 24 Botswana 31.14 91 UM 33 SSF 4 0.51 136 Morocco 30.89 92 LM 13 NAWA 15 0.75 83 Albania 30.85 93 LM 14 EUR 39 0.58 129 Ghana 30.60 94 LM 15 SSF 5 0.80 58 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 30.48 95 LM 16 LCN 18 0.88 37 Senegal 30.48 96 LM 17 SSF 6 0.95 18 Fiji 30.46 97 LM 18 SEAO 15 0.51 137 Sri Lanka 30.45 98 LM 19 CSA 3 0.99 13 Kenya 30.28 99 LI 2 SSF 7 0.78 71 Paraguay 30.28 100 LM 20 LCN 19 0.82 48 Tajikistan 30.00 101 LI 3 CSA 4 0.90 27 Belize 29.98 102 LM 21 LCN 20 0.73 93 CapeVerde 29.69 103 LM 22 SSF 8 0.57 130 Swaziland 29.60 104 LM 23 SSF 9 1.06 5 Azerbaijan 28.99 105 UM 34 NAWA 16 0.65 117 Mali 28.84 106 LI 4 SSF 10 1.13 1 Honduras 28.80 107 LM 24 LCN 21 0.66 115 Egypt 28.48 108 LM 25 NAWA 17 0.68 108 Namibia 28.36 109 UM 35 SSF 11 0.48 139 Cambodia 28.07 110 LI 5 SEAO 16 0.87 39 Gabon 28.04 111 UM 36 SSF 12 0.81 54 Rwanda 27.64 112 LI 6 SSF 13 0.64 120 Iran, Islamic Rep. 27.30 113 UM 37 CSA 5 0.68 107 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 27.25 114 UM 38 LCN 22 1.02 10 Nicaragua 27.10 115 LM 26 LCN 23 0.62 125 Burkina Faso 27.03 116 LI 7 SSF 14 0.79 64 Kyrgyzstan 26.98 117 LI 8 CSA 6 0.56 131 Zambia 26.79 118 LM 27 SSF 15 0.89 32 Malawi 26.73 119 LI 9 SSF 16 0.87 41 Nigeria 26.57 120 LM 28 SSF 17 1.03 7 Mozambique 26.50 121 LI 10 SSF 18 0.67 111 Gambia 26.39 122 LI 11 SSF 19 0.86 44 Tanzania, United Rep. 26.35 123 LI 12 SSF 20 0.66 113 Lesotho 26.29 124 LM 29 SSF 21 0.47 140 Cameroon 25.71 125 LM 30 SSF 22 0.84 47 Guinea 25.70 126 LI 13 SSF 23 1.07 3 Benin 25.10 127 LI 14 SSF 24 0.69 106 Nepal 24.97 128 LI 15 CSA 7 0.76 77 Ethiopia 24.80 129 LI 16 SSF 25 0.74 87 Bangladesh 24.52 130 LI 17 CSA 8 0.84 46 Niger 24.03 131 LI 18 SSF 26 0.71 102 Zimbabwe 23.98 132 LI 19 SSF 27 0.91 25 Uzbekistan 23.87 133 LM 31 CSA 9 0.52 135 Syrian Arab Republic 23.73 134 LM 32 NAWA 18 0.45 142 Angola 23.46 135 UM 39 SSF 28 0.94 22 Côte d'Ivoire 23.42 136 LM 33 SSF 29 0.74 89 Pakistan 23.33 137 LM 34 CSA 10 0.97 16 Algeria 23.11 138 UM 40 NAWA 19 0.46 141 Togo 23.04 139 LI 20 SSF 30 0.56 132 Madagascar 22.95 140 LI 21 SSF 31 0.59 128 Sudan 19.81 141 LM 35 SSF 32 0.49 138 Yemen 19.32 142 LM 36 NAWA 20 0.62 124 Note: World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012): LI = low income; LM = lower-middle income; UM = upper-middle income; and HI = high income. Regions are based on the United Nations Classification (11 February 2013): EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa. Table 1: Global Innovation Index rankings (continued)
- 36. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 12 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Singapore 72.27 1 HI 1 SEAO 1 Hong Kong (China) 70.65 2 HI 2 SEAO 2 United States of America 69.19 3 HI 3 NAC 1 United Kingdom 68.20 4 HI 4 EUR 1 Sweden 67.86 5 HI 5 EUR 2 Finland 66.67 6 HI 6 EUR 3 Switzerland 66.52 7 HI 7 EUR 4 Denmark 66.34 8 HI 8 EUR 5 Canada 64.76 9 HI 9 NAC 2 Netherlands 64.18 10 HI 10 EUR 6 Australia 64.15 11 HI 11 SEAO 3 Ireland 64.09 12 HI 12 EUR 7 Norway 63.39 13 HI 13 EUR 8 Japan 62.81 14 HI 14 SEAO 4 New Zealand 62.76 15 HI 15 SEAO 5 Korea, Rep. 62.10 16 HI 16 SEAO 6 Austria 60.56 17 HI 17 EUR 9 Luxembourg 59.95 18 HI 18 EUR 10 Israel 59.82 19 HI 19 NAWA 1 Germany 59.78 20 HI 20 EUR 11 Iceland 59.65 21 HI 21 EUR 12 Belgium 59.49 22 HI 22 EUR 13 France 59.03 23 HI 23 EUR 14 Spain 57.85 24 HI 24 EUR 15 Estonia 55.68 25 HI 25 EUR 16 United Arab Emirates 53.99 26 HI 26 NAWA 2 Czech Republic 53.43 27 HI 27 EUR 17 Italy 53.33 28 HI 28 EUR 18 Slovenia 53.22 29 HI 29 EUR 19 Cyprus 53.07 30 HI 30 NAWA 3 Portugal 52.10 31 HI 31 EUR 20 Malaysia 51.71 32 UM 1 SEAO 7 Latvia 51.10 33 UM 2 EUR 21 Malta 50.16 34 HI 32 EUR 22 Lithuania 48.95 35 UM 3 EUR 23 Hungary 48.48 36 HI 33 EUR 24 Slovakia 48.33 37 HI 34 EUR 25 Qatar 47.84 38 HI 35 NAWA 4 Poland 47.82 39 HI 36 EUR 26 Montenegro 47.65 40 UM 4 EUR 27 Chile 46.73 41 UM 5 LCN 1 Barbados 46.68 42 HI 37 LCN 2 Croatia 46.12 43 HI 38 EUR 28 Saudi Arabia 45.89 44 HI 39 NAWA 5 Greece 45.70 45 HI 40 EUR 29 China 45.19 46 UM 6 SEAO 8 Bahrain 44.53 47 HI 41 NAWA 6 Macedonia, FYR 44.49 48 UM 7 EUR 30 Mongolia 44.05 49 LM 1 SEAO 9 Bulgaria 43.96 50 UM 8 EUR 31 South Africa 43.93 51 UM 9 SSF 1 Russian Federation 43.77 52 UM 10 EUR 32 Oman 43.28 53 HI 42 NAWA 7 Brunei Darussalam 43.08 54 HI 43 SEAO 10 Romania 42.82 55 UM 11 EUR 33 Lebanon 42.71 56 UM 12 NAWA 8 Thailand 42.67 57 UM 13 SEAO 11 Bosnia and Herzegovina 42.54 58 UM 14 EUR 34 Colombia 42.51 59 UM 15 LCN 3 Mauritius 42.28 60 UM 16 SSF 2 Jordan 42.06 61 UM 17 NAWA 9 Georgia 41.62 62 LM 2 NAWA 10 Serbia 41.55 63 UM 18 EUR 35 Uruguay 41.21 64 UM 19 LCN 4 Botswana 41.18 65 UM 20 SSF 3 Costa Rica 41.08 66 UM 21 LCN 5 Brazil 40.84 67 UM 22 LCN 6 Mexico 40.73 68 UM 23 LCN 7 Kazakhstan 40.72 69 UM 24 CSA 1 Peru 40.53 70 UM 25 LCN 8 Armenia 40.41 71 LM 3 NAWA 11 Table 2: Innovation Input Sub-Index rankings
- 37. 13 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Fiji 40.29 72 LM 4 SEAO 12 Panama 39.61 73 UM 26 LCN 9 Kuwait 39.48 74 HI 44 NAWA 12 Belarus 39.47 75 UM 27 EUR 36 Moldova, Rep. 39.29 76 LM 5 EUR 37 Albania 39.05 77 LM 6 EUR 38 Argentina 38.77 78 UM 28 LCN 10 Namibia 38.23 79 UM 29 SSF 4 Tunisia 38.12 80 UM 30 NAWA 13 Turkey 38.00 81 UM 31 NAWA 14 Trinidad andTobago 37.99 82 HI 45 LCN 11 Ukraine 37.91 83 LM 7 EUR 39 CapeVerde 37.77 84 LM 8 SSF 5 Jamaica 36.78 85 UM 32 LCN 12 Lesotho 35.81 86 LM 9 SSF 6 India 35.77 87 LM 10 CSA 2 El Salvador 35.63 88 LM 11 LCN 13 Viet Nam 35.59 89 LM 12 SEAO 13 Morocco 35.34 90 LM 13 NAWA 15 Guatemala 35.24 91 LM 14 LCN 14 Azerbaijan 35.07 92 UM 33 NAWA 16 Dominican Republic 34.98 93 UM 34 LCN 15 Guyana 34.85 94 LM 15 LCN 16 Belize 34.73 95 LM 16 LCN 17 Honduras 34.68 96 LM 17 LCN 18 Kyrgyzstan 34.58 97 LI 1 CSA 3 Kenya 34.12 98 LI 2 SSF 7 Ghana 33.93 99 LM 18 SSF 8 Ecuador 33.83 100 UM 35 LCN 19 Egypt 33.81 101 LM 19 NAWA 17 Rwanda 33.62 102 LI 3 SSF 9 Nicaragua 33.49 103 LM 20 LCN 20 Paraguay 33.22 104 LM 21 LCN 21 Syrian Arab Republic 32.84 105 LM 22 NAWA 18 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 32.50 106 LM 23 LCN 22 Iran, Islamic Rep. 32.41 107 UM 36 CSA 4 Philippines 32.32 108 LM 24 SEAO 14 Uganda 31.97 109 LI 4 SSF 10 Tanzania, United Rep. 31.72 110 LI 5 SSF 11 Mozambique 31.71 111 LI 6 SSF 12 Algeria 31.62 112 UM 37 NAWA 19 Tajikistan 31.51 113 LI 7 CSA 5 Uzbekistan 31.50 114 LM 25 CSA 6 Indonesia 31.34 115 LM 26 SEAO 15 Senegal 31.20 116 LM 27 SSF 13 Gabon 30.99 117 UM 38 SSF 14 Sri Lanka 30.60 118 LM 28 CSA 7 Burkina Faso 30.22 119 LI 8 SSF 15 Cambodia 30.02 120 LI 9 SEAO 16 Benin 29.78 121 LI 10 SSF 16 Togo 29.55 122 LI 11 SSF 17 Madagascar 28.83 123 LI 12 SSF 18 Swaziland 28.67 124 LM 29 SSF 19 Malawi 28.63 125 LI 13 SSF 20 Ethiopia 28.50 126 LI 14 SSF 21 Gambia 28.44 127 LI 15 SSF 22 Zambia 28.38 128 LM 30 SSF 23 Nepal 28.34 129 LI 16 CSA 8 Niger 28.17 130 LI 17 SSF 24 Cameroon 27.99 131 LM 31 SSF 25 Mali 27.09 132 LI 18 SSF 26 Côte d'Ivoire 26.97 133 LM 32 SSF 27 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 26.95 134 UM 39 LCN 23 Bangladesh 26.60 135 LI 19 CSA 9 Sudan 26.51 136 LM 33 SSF 28 Nigeria 26.21 137 LM 34 SSF 29 Zimbabwe 25.13 138 LI 20 SSF 30 Guinea 24.78 139 LI 21 SSF 31 Angola 24.21 140 UM 40 SSF 32 Yemen 23.86 141 LM 35 NAWA 20 Pakistan 23.68 142 LM 36 CSA 10 Note: World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012): LI = low income; LM = lower-middle income; UM = upper-middle income; and HI = high income. Regions are based on the United Nations Classification (11 February 2013): EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa. Table 2: Innovation Input Sub-Index rankings (continued)
- 38. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 14 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Switzerland 66.65 1 HI 1 EUR 1 Netherlands 58.09 2 HI 2 EUR 2 Sweden 54.86 3 HI 3 EUR 3 United Kingdom 54.30 4 HI 4 EUR 4 Malta 53.42 5 HI 5 EUR 5 Luxembourg 53.20 6 HI 6 EUR 6 Iceland 53.14 7 HI 7 EUR 7 Finland 52.35 8 HI 8 EUR 8 Israel 52.14 9 HI 9 NAWA 1 Germany 51.88 10 HI 10 EUR 9 Ireland 51.73 11 HI 11 EUR 10 United States of America 51.42 12 HI 12 NAC 1 Canada 50.45 13 HI 13 NAC 2 Denmark 50.35 14 HI 14 EUR 11 Hong Kong (China) 48.21 15 HI 15 SEAO 1 Norway 47.88 16 HI 16 EUR 12 France 46.64 17 HI 17 EUR 13 Singapore 46.56 18 HI 18 SEAO 2 New Zealand 46.15 19 HI 19 SEAO 3 Cyprus 45.58 20 HI 20 NAWA 2 Estonia 45.52 21 HI 21 EUR 14 Belgium 45.48 22 HI 22 EUR 15 Hungary 45.37 23 HI 23 EUR 16 Korea, Rep. 44.53 24 HI 24 SEAO 4 China 44.12 25 UM 1 SEAO 5 Czech Republic 43.28 26 HI 25 EUR 17 Austria 43.18 27 HI 26 EUR 18 Moldova, Rep. 42.59 28 LM 1 EUR 19 Italy 42.37 29 HI 27 EUR 20 Malaysia 42.13 30 UM 2 SEAO 6 Costa Rica 42.00 31 UM 3 LCN 1 Australia 41.99 32 HI 28 SEAO 7 Japan 41.64 33 HI 29 SEAO 8 Slovenia 41.41 34 HI 30 EUR 21 Spain 40.97 35 HI 31 EUR 22 Kuwait 40.56 36 HI 32 NAWA 3 Latvia 39.37 37 UM 4 EUR 23 Bulgaria 38.71 38 UM 5 EUR 24 Portugal 38.10 39 HI 33 EUR 25 Romania 37.84 40 UM 6 EUR 26 Croatia 37.77 41 HI 34 EUR 27 India 36.56 42 LM 2 CSA 1 Argentina 36.55 43 UM 7 LCN 2 Saudi Arabia 36.52 44 HI 35 NAWA 4 Slovakia 36.17 45 HI 36 EUR 28 Uruguay 34.95 46 UM 8 LCN 3 Armenia 34.78 47 LM 3 NAWA 5 Chile 34.43 48 UM 9 LCN 4 Barbados 34.28 49 HI 37 LCN 5 Montenegro 34.26 50 UM 10 EUR 29 Serbia 34.20 51 UM 11 EUR 30 Qatar 34.17 52 HI 38 NAWA 6 Turkey 34.07 53 UM 12 NAWA 7 Viet Nam 34.04 54 LM 4 SEAO 9 Guyana 33.87 55 LM 5 LCN 6 Lithuania 33.84 56 UM 13 EUR 31 Mauritius 33.72 57 UM 14 SSF 1 Ukraine 33.65 58 LM 6 EUR 32 Tunisia 33.51 59 UM 15 NAWA 8 Mexico 32.90 60 UM 16 LCN 7 Thailand 32.58 61 UM 17 SEAO 10 Indonesia 32.57 62 LM 7 SEAO 11 Jordan 32.54 63 UM 18 NAWA 9 Poland 32.42 64 HI 39 EUR 33 Colombia 32.26 65 UM 19 LCN 8 Macedonia, FYR 31.86 66 UM 20 EUR 34 Ecuador 31.83 67 UM 21 LCN 9 Brazil 31.81 68 UM 22 LCN 10 Dominican Republic 31.58 69 UM 23 LCN 11 Peru 31.39 70 UM 24 LCN 12 South Africa 31.26 71 UM 25 SSF 2 Table 3: Innovation Output Sub-Index rankings
- 39. 15 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Country/Economy Score (0–100) Rank Income Rank Region Rank Russian Federation 30.62 72 UM 26 EUR 35 Mali 30.58 73 LI 1 SSF 3 Swaziland 30.52 74 LM 8 SSF 4 Uganda 30.45 75 LI 2 SSF 5 Sri Lanka 30.29 76 LM 9 CSA 2 Philippines 30.03 77 LM 10 SEAO 12 Bosnia and Herzegovina 29.94 78 UM 27 EUR 36 Belarus 29.77 79 UM 28 EUR 37 Senegal 29.77 80 LM 11 SSF 6 United Arab Emirates 29.76 81 HI 40 NAWA 10 Greece 29.72 82 HI 41 EUR 38 Georgia 29.49 83 LM 12 NAWA 11 Jamaica 29.00 84 UM 29 LCN 13 Tajikistan 28.50 85 LI 3 CSA 3 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 28.47 86 LM 13 LCN 14 Trinidad andTobago 28.35 87 HI 42 LCN 15 Lebanon 28.23 88 UM 30 NAWA 12 Brunei Darussalam 27.99 89 HI 43 SEAO 13 Bahrain 27.74 90 HI 44 NAWA 13 Guatemala 27.68 91 LM 14 LCN 16 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 27.55 92 UM 31 LCN 17 Mongolia 27.49 93 LM 15 SEAO 14 Paraguay 27.35 94 LM 16 LCN 18 Ghana 27.26 95 LM 17 SSF 7 El Salvador 27.01 96 LM 18 LCN 19 Nigeria 26.93 97 LM 19 SSF 8 Guinea 26.62 98 LI 4 SSF 9 Morocco 26.45 99 LM 20 NAWA 14 Kenya 26.45 100 LI 5 SSF 10 Cambodia 26.13 101 LI 6 SEAO 15 Belize 25.23 102 LM 21 LCN 20 Zambia 25.19 103 LM 22 SSF 11 Gabon 25.09 104 UM 32 SSF 12 Malawi 24.84 105 LI 7 SSF 13 Kazakhstan 24.73 106 UM 33 CSA 4 Gambia 24.34 107 LI 8 SSF 14 Panama 24.03 108 UM 34 LCN 21 Burkina Faso 23.84 109 LI 9 SSF 15 Cameroon 23.42 110 LM 23 SSF 16 Oman 23.22 111 HI 45 NAWA 15 Egypt 23.15 112 LM 24 NAWA 16 Pakistan 22.99 113 LM 25 CSA 5 Azerbaijan 22.91 114 UM 35 NAWA 17 Honduras 22.91 115 LM 26 LCN 22 Zimbabwe 22.83 116 LI 10 SSF 17 Angola 22.71 117 UM 36 SSF 18 Albania 22.66 118 LM 27 EUR 39 Bangladesh 22.45 119 LI 11 CSA 6 Iran, Islamic Rep. 22.20 120 UM 37 CSA 7 Rwanda 21.66 121 LI 12 SSF 19 CapeVerde 21.61 122 LM 28 SSF 20 Nepal 21.59 123 LI 13 CSA 8 Mozambique 21.28 124 LI 14 SSF 21 Botswana 21.11 125 UM 38 SSF 22 Ethiopia 21.09 126 LI 15 SSF 23 Tanzania, United Rep. 20.99 127 LI 16 SSF 24 Nicaragua 20.72 128 LM 29 LCN 23 Fiji 20.62 129 LM 30 SEAO 16 Benin 20.42 130 LI 17 SSF 25 Niger 19.89 131 LI 18 SSF 26 Côte d'Ivoire 19.86 132 LM 31 SSF 27 Kyrgyzstan 19.38 133 LI 19 CSA 9 Namibia 18.50 134 UM 39 SSF 28 Madagascar 17.06 135 LI 20 SSF 29 Lesotho 16.77 136 LM 32 SSF 30 Togo 16.52 137 LI 21 SSF 31 Uzbekistan 16.23 138 LM 33 CSA 10 Yemen 14.79 139 LM 34 NAWA 18 Syrian Arab Republic 14.63 140 LM 35 NAWA 19 Algeria 14.61 141 UM 40 NAWA 20 Sudan 13.11 142 LM 36 SSF 32 Note: World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012): LI = low income; LM = lower-middle income; UM = upper-middle income; and HI = high income. Regions are based on the United Nations Classification (11 February 2013): EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa. Table 3: Innovation Output Sub-Index rankings (continued)
- 40. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 16 place in 2012. Singapore is one of the four economies at the efficient frontier (see Annex 3). It shows strengths across the board in the Input Sub-Index, where it ranks 1st: Institutions (7th), Human capital and research (3rd, after Finland and the Republic of Korea), Infrastructure (6th), Market sophistication (5th), and Business sophistication (1st). It ranks only 18th in the Output Sub- Index, however, reaching the low- est efficiency ratio among the top 10 (121st): Knowledge and technology outputs (11th) and Creative outputs (40th). The adjustments made to the GII framework reveals Singapore’s important relative weaknesses; had the 2012 GII framework been kept intact in 2013, Singapore would have kept its 3rd position in the GII rankings (see Annex 2 for details). A total of 20 indicators are new or were adjusted this year; Singapore has good showings in 12 of them, including 1st place in logistics per- formance, royalties and license fees payments, and high-tech and medium-high-tech output; and it ranks among the top 20 in the ease of resolving insolvency (2nd), pro- tecting investors (2nd), paying taxes (5th), starting a business (8th), and getting credit (12th) as well as for cre- ative goods exports (10th), GERD performed by business enterprise (18th), patent families filed in at least three offices (18th), and the QS uni- versity ranking average score of top 3 universities (19th). The areas in which Singapore performs less well are scientific and technical publica- tions (27th), royalties and license fees receipts (27th), the citable documents H index (29th), the Madrid system trademark registrations by country of origin (35th), printing and pub- lishing output (71st), and communi- cations, computer and information services imports (90th, with 16.5%) and exports (108th, with 6.5%). Denmark is ranked 9th, down two positions from 7th place in 2012. The strength of this coun- try of 5.8 million people is in the Input Sub-Index (8th), with a 14th position in the Output Sub-Index. Its best showing is its 1st place in Institutions (1st); its other rankings are all at leader positions (within the top 25): Human capital and research (7th), Infrastructure (13th), Market sophistication (7th), Business sophis- tication (19th), Knowledge and tech- nology outputs (19th), and Creative outputs (8th). Although Denmark achieves spots within the top 25 in 56 out of 81 indicators with data, recent developments in three indica- tors are of particular concern: with a school life expectancy that dropped from 16.8 to 13.2 years (from 2009 to 2010), Denmark plunged 57 posi- tions in that indicator. This descent may be linked to the 15 position decline in employment in knowl- edge-intensive services, from 45.1% in 2008 to 34.0% in 2010, and to the drop of 41 positions in the growth rate of labour productivity, which fell from 4.0% in 2010 to 1.5% in 2011. Ireland is ranked 10th, down from 9th in 2012; it is 12th in the Input Sub-Index and 11th in the Output Sub-Index. Ireland has good showings in five pillars: Institutions (8th), Human capital and research (9th), Market sophistication (8th), Business sophistication (6th), and Knowledge and technology outputs (a key pillar where it comes in at a strong 4th position after Switzerland, China, and Israel). Its relative weak- nesses are in Creative outputs (26th this year, although this is up from 38th in 2012), and Infrastructure (37th, down from 35th in 2012), where its rankings in Information and communication technologies (41st) and General infrastructure (68th) are particularly disappointing. Among indicators for which year- on-year comparisons are valid, the major jumps are in joint venture/ strategic alliance deals, graduates in science and engineering (from 21.6% in 2009 to 23.2% in 2010), GDP per unit of energy use (from PPP$9.4 per kg of oil equivalent in 2010 to PPP$12.0 in 2011), intensity of local competition, expenditure on edu- cation (from 5.2% of GNI in 2009 used in GII 2012, to a revised fig- ure of 7.1%, same year), and ICTs and organizational models creation. Ireland’s major drops are in foreign direct investment net outflows, national office resident trademark registrations, foreign direct invest- ment net inflows, employment in knowledge-intensive services, and market access to foreign markets for non-agricultural exports. The top 10 in the Innovation Input Sub-Index The top 10 economies on the Innovation Input Sub-Index are Singapore, Hong Kong (China), the USA, the UK, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland, Denmark, Canada, and the Netherlands. Nine of these countries had reached the top 10 in 2012, and the Netherlands enters the list this year, while Ireland drops from 9th position in 2012 to 12th. In 2012 and again this year, Canada is the only country in this group that is not also in the GII top 10. Canada is ranked 11th, up from 12th in 2012. It ranks 9th overall in the Input Sub-Index and 13th in the Output Sub-Index, with strong positions across the board, including spots within the top 10 in Institutions (5th), and Market sophistication (4th, with a 1st place in the Trade and competition sub- pillar), and within the top 25 in the remaining pillars: Human capital and research (25th), Infrastructure (15th), Business sophistication (16th),
- 41. 17 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Knowledge and technology outputs (17th), and Creative outputs (11th). It has leader positions in 16 out of 21 sub-pillars and in 48 out of 74 indicators with data, including 14 of the indicators that are new or were adjusted this year. The top 10 in the Innovation Output Sub-Index The Innovation Output Sub-Index variables provide information on ele- ments that are the result of innova- tion within an economy. Although scores on the Input and Output Sub-Indices might differ substan- tially, leading to important shifts in rankings from one sub-index to the other for particular countries, the data confirm that efforts made to improve enabling environments are rewarded with increased innovation outputs (Figure 2). The top 10 countries in the Innovation Output Sub-Index are Switzerland, the Netherlands, Sweden,theUK,Malta,Luxembourg, Iceland,Finland,Israel,andGermany. Eight of these had reached the top 10 in 2011; Iceland and Israel enter the list this year (they were ranked 12th and 13th, respectively, in 2012), while Estonia and Denmark (among the top 10 in 2012) drop to 21st and 14th place, respectively. Five of these countries are in the GII top 10, and their profiles are discussed there. Luxembourg is ranked 12th in the GII, down from 11th in 2012. With a population of 0.5 million and a GDP per capita of PPP$80,679.1, it achieves 18th position in the Input Sub-Index, with leader positions in all pillars except Market sophistica- tion (31st), where rankings above 100 in ease of getting credit, ease of protecting investors, and market access to foreign markets have not stopped the flow of credit, invest- ments, and trade. Its strength in the Output Sub-Index (6th) comes from its 1st place in Creative outputs, driven by positions in the top 25 in all indicators and sub-pillars with only two exceptions: printing and publishing output (58th) and cre- ative goods exports (52nd). Its posi- tion in Knowledge and technology outputs pillar is weaker (43rd). Iceland is ranked 13th, up five positions from 18th in 2012. This Nordic country of 0.3 million peo- ple ranks 21st in the Input Sub-Index and 7th in the Output Sub-Index. On the input side, its main leverage comes from sound institutions (12th, with strong marks across the board), a skilled workforce and research capabilities (12th)—with, among others, a 1st place in gross outbound mobility for tertiary education and in the number of researchers per million population—and one of the best ICT infrastructures worldwide (4th in ICT access and use). Ranked 36th in Market sophistication and 24th in Business sophistication, progress is needed in Investment Figure 2: Innovation Output Sub-Index vs. Innovation Input Sub-Index 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 R2 = 0.7334 InnovationOutputSub-Index(score) Innovation Input Sub-Index (score) High income Upper-middle income Lower-middle income Low income
- 42. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 18 (109th), Innovation linkages (41st), and Knowledge absorption (51st). On the output side, a 28th position in Knowledge and technology out- puts is explained by some difficulty in translating good levels of patent- ing and scientific publications into increases in labour productivity (62nd), high- and medium-high tech output (86th), and knowledge dif- fusion (38th). The main leverage in the output side comes from Creative outputs (3rd), where Iceland shows strengths in all pillars and indica- tors, achieving the 1st place world- wide in Online creativity, with only the exports of creative goods found wanting (102nd). Israel is ranked 14th, up three positions from 17th in 2012. It has leader positions across the board, ranking 19th in the Input Sub- Index and 9th in the Output Sub- Index, and 1st in its region. Israel’s excellent scores in Human capital and research, where it ranks 8th; ICT infrastructure (10th); Business sophistication (5th); and specifi- cally innovation linkages (2nd) translate into a 3rd global posi- tion in Knowledge and technol- ogy outputs, after Switzerland and China. Israel performs particularly well in a series of indicators intro- duced this year: the QS university ranking average score of top 3 uni- versities (21st), GERD performed by business enterprise over GDP (1st), patent families filed in at least three offices (9th), the citable docu- ments H index (15th), high-tech and medium-high-tech output over total manufactures output (4th), and roy- alties and license fees receipts over services exports (17th). Israel’s weak- est position is in Institutions (56th). Germany is ranked 15th, main- taining its 2012 position. As has been the case for the past three years, Germany’s relative strength is in the Output Sub-Index (10th), although it ranks a respectable 20th in the Input Sub-Index and has a balanced profile, with pillar rankings ranging from 10th to 26th and all sub-pil- lars rankings among the top 40, with the exception of Tertiary education (50th)—although again this year that ranking is only partially reliable because of missing data. Germany’s 12th position in the R&D sub-pillar, however, corresponds with its 6th rank in Knowledge creation and its leader positions in seven key indica- tors introduced only this year: the citable documents H index (1st), logistics performance (4th), high- tech and medium-high-tech out- put (5th), the QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities (8th), GERD performed by busi- ness enterprise (8th), patent families filed in at least three offices (8th), and royalties and license fees receipts (11th). Malta is ranked 24th this year, down from 16th in 2012, but it reaches 5th place in the Output Sub-Index (4th in 2012). With a rank of 34th in the Input Sub-Index, explained in great measure by rela- tive weakness in Human capital and research (62nd, dropping from 47th in 2012) and Market sophistication (61st), it achieves one of the highest efficiency ratios (ranked 4th). Malta ranks 14th in Knowledge and tech- nology outputs and 6th in Creative outputs, getting important lever- age from four indicators: new busi- ness density (8th), ISO 9001 qual- ity certificates (5th), high-tech and medium-high-tech output (6th), and high-tech exports (4th). Learning to innovate: Top performers by income group Identifying the underlying condi- tions of a country and comparing performances among peers is the key to a good understanding of the implications of a country’s rank- ing in the GII. This report attempts to abide by this underlying princi- ple by assessing results on the basis of the development stages of coun- tries (captured by the World Bank income classifications). Table 4 shows the 10 best per- formers on each index by income group. The top 31 positions in the GII are taken by high-income economies. The top 10 are the same countries as in 2012 (see Box 2). Switzerland, Sweden, the UK, the Netherlands, and Finland are among the high-income top 10 on the three main indices, while Switzerland and the Netherlands are the only econo- mies also in the high-income top 10 in the efficiency ratio. Among the upper-middle- income 10 best performers in the GII, Costa Rica, Lithuania, and Romania enter the list this year, displacing Serbia, Mauritius, and the Russian Federation. Malaysia, Latvia, China, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Chile are among the 10 best performers in the three indices; of these, China and Bulgaria also make it to the upper-middle-income top 10 in the efficiency ratio. The same analysis for lower-mid- dle-income countries shows that, in 2013, Indonesia and Guatemala dis- place Belize (101st) and Swaziland (103rd). The Republic of Moldova, Armenia, India, and Ukraine are among the top 10 in the three indices; of these, the Republic of Moldova and India are the only countries with top 10 positions in the efficiency ratio as well. Among low-income coun- tries, those showing above-par performances in the three indi- ces are Uganda, Kenya, Tajikistan, Cambodia, and Burkina Faso; all of them, with the exception of Kenya, are in the low-income top 10 on efficiency.
- 43. 19 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Table 4: Ten best-ranked economies by income group (rank) Global Innovation Index Innovation Input Sub-index Innovation Output Sub-index Innovation Efficiency Ratio High-income economies (45 in total) 1 Switzerland (1) Singapore (1) Switzerland (1) Malta (4) 2 Sweden (2) Hong Kong (China) (2) Netherlands (2) Kuwait (8) 3 United Kingdom (3) United States of America (3) Sweden (3) Switzerland (12) 4 Netherlands (4) United Kingdom (4) United Kingdom (4) Hungary (23) 5 United States of America (5) Sweden (5) Malta (5) Netherlands (26) 6 Finland (6) Finland (6) Luxembourg (6) Iceland (30) 7 Hong Kong (China) (7) Switzerland (7) Iceland (7) Luxembourg (33) 8 Singapore (8) Denmark (8) Finland (8) Israel (38) 9 Denmark (9) Canada (9) Israel (9) Germany (40) 10 Ireland (10) Netherlands (10) Germany (10) Cyprus (43) Upper-middle-income economies (40 in total) 1 Malaysia (32) Malaysia (32) China (25) Costa Rica (9) 2 Latvia (33) Latvia (33) Malaysia (30) Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. (10) 3 China (35) Lithuania (35) Costa Rica (31) China (14) 4 Costa Rica (39) Montenegro (40) Latvia (37) Argentina (20) 5 Lithuania (40) Chile (41) Bulgaria (38) Ecuador (21) 6 Bulgaria (41) China (46) Romania (40) Angola (22) 7 Montenegro (44) Macedonia, FYR (48) Argentina (43) Dominican Republic (28) 8 Chile (46) Bulgaria (50) Uruguay (46) Turkey (29) 9 Romania (48) South Africa (51) Chile (48) Romania (34) 10 Macedonia, FYR (51) Russian Federation (52) Montenegro (50) Bulgaria (35) Lower-middle-income economies (36 in total) 1 Moldova, Rep. (45) Mongolia (49) Moldova, Rep. (28) Moldova, Rep.(2) 2 Armenia (59) Georgia (62) India (42) Swaziland (5) 3 India (66) Armenia (71) Armenia (47) Indonesia (6) 4 Ukraine (71) Fiji (72) Viet Nam (54) Nigeria (7) 5 Mongolia (72) Moldova, Rep. (76) Guyana (55) India (11) 6 Georgia (73) Albania (77) Ukraine (58) Sri Lanka (13) 7 Viet Nam (76) Ukraine (83) Indonesia (62) Guyana (15) 8 Guyana (78) Cape Verde (84) Swaziland (74) Pakistan (16) 9 Indonesia (85) Lesotho (86) Sri Lanka (76) Viet Nam (17) 10 Guatemala (87) India (87) Philippines (77) Senegal (18) Low-income economies (21 in total) 1 Uganda (89) Kyrgyzstan (97) Mali (73) Mali (1) 2 Kenya (99) Kenya (98) Uganda (75) Guinea (3) 3 Tajikistan (101) Rwanda (102) Tajikistan (85) Uganda (19) 4 Mali (106) Uganda (109) Guinea (98) Zimbabwe (25) 5 Cambodia (110) Tanzania, United Rep. (110) Kenya (100) Tajikistan (27) 6 Rwanda (112) Mozambique (111) Cambodia (101) Cambodia (39) 7 Burkina Faso (116) Tajikistan (113) Malawi (105) Malawi (41) 8 Kyrgyzstan (117) Burkina Faso (119) Gambia (107) Gambia (44) 9 Malawi (119) Cambodia (120) Burkina Faso (109) Bangladesh (46) 10 Mozambique (121) Benin (121) Zimbabwe (116) Burkina Faso (64) Note: Economies with top 10 positions in the GII, the Input Sub-Index, and the Output Sub-Index are highlighted.
- 44. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 20 Box 2: The persistent innovation divide: Innovation leaders uncontested; major moves in lower tiers only One prominent feature of this year’s report is the stability at the top of the GII rankings. The top two countries are the same as they were in 2011 and 2012: Switzerland and Sweden. Among the top 10 and top 25, rankings have been swapped but the membership remains the same. In 2013, the innovation leaders are—without exception—the same as they were last year, and they are all high- income economies. Although not too far behind, other high-income countries and a group of dynamic middle-income countries outpacing their peers were unable to break into this group of GII leaders in 2013. There is a clear distance between top- ranked countries on the one hand and their followers on the other. Figure 2.1 shows average scores for three tiers of high-income economies (the top 10, the next 15 that makeupthetop25,andtherest),upper-and lower-middle-income economies, and low- income economies. The top 10 countries have clear strengths compared with the second tier; they perform significantly bet- ter in Market sophistication (with indicators on access to and depth of the credit, invest- ment, and trade markets); Business sophisti- cation (with indicators on knowledge work- ers, innovation linkages, and knowledge absorption); and Knowledge and Scientific outputs (with indicators on creation of knowledge, impact in domestic markets, and diffusion to global markets). The top 10 are Switzerland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the United States of America, Finland, Hong Kong (China), Singapore, Denmark, and Ireland. They are followed in the top 25 by Canada, Luxembourg, Iceland, Israel, Germany, Norway, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Australia, France, Belgium, Japan, Austria, Malta, and Estonia. Interestingly, the divide is not only between high-income economies and less affluent ones. The same divide also holds between the second tier and the third tier of high-income economies: Spain (GII rank 26), Cyprus (27), the Czech Republic (28), Italy (29), Slovenia (30), Hungary (31), Portugal (34), Slovakia (36), Croatia (37), the United Arab Emirates (38), Saudi Arabia (42), Qatar (43), Barbados (47), Poland (49), Kuwait (50), Greece (55), Bahrain (67), Brunei Darussalam (74),Oman(80),andTrinidadandTobago(81). One interpretation could be that inno- vation success leads to the emergence of a virtuous circle once a critical thresh- old has been passed. Hence, determining whether that threshold is one that most countries (especially developing countries) can hope to reach and pass with additional investment, resources, and time, or whether instead a more fundamental transformation is needed that requires shifts in policies and mindsets, is a strategic issue that must be addressed. Figure 2.1: The persistent innovation divide: Stability among the top 10 and top 25 Note: Countries/economies are classified according to the World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012). Creative outputs Knowledge and technology outputs Business sophistication Market sophistication Infrastructure Human capital and research Institutions 20 40 60 80 Top 10 (high income) 11 to 25 (high income) High-income others Upper-middle income Lower-middle income Low income (Continued)
- 45. 21 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Box 2: The persistent innovation divide: Innovation leaders uncontested; major moves in lower tiers only (continued) In fact, the third tier of high-income economies have scores that are, on aver- age, closer to those of upper-middle- income countries, even if profiles and lev- els of achievement differ. Although the former present clear advantages in Institutions, Human capital and research, and Infrastructure, the latter have caught up significantly in Market and Business sophistication and Creative and Knowledge and technology outputs. All this does not mean that middle- and low-income countries are unable to make significant moves in the rankings. Indeed, their scores are often remarkably close to one another, particularly for the countries in positions 51 to 75 (a span of 2.7 points) and those in positions 76 to 100 (4.5 points), implying that small relative changes among countries can have significant impacts on their respective rankings. Table 2.1 shows the eight countries whose rankings underwent the biggest changes from 2012 to 2013: Uganda and Costa Rica had the most significant moves, bringing them, incidentally, into the cate- gory of innovation learners. Table 2.1: Biggest jumps in the GII rankings from 2012 to 2013 Country GII 2012 rank GII 2013 rank Jump Uganda 117 89 +28 Costa Rica 60 39 +21 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 114 95 +19 Cambodia 129 110 +19 Mexico 79 63 +16 Uruguay 67 52 +15 Indonesia 100 85 +15 Ecuador 98 83 +15 Note: Part of these changes in rankings can also be attributed to improvements in data collection, as well as adjustments to the GII framework (details in Annex 2). Doing more with less: The Innovation Efficiency Ratio While the GII is calculated as the average of the Input and Output Sub- Indices, the Innovation Efficiency Ratio is calculated as the ratio of the Output over the Input Sub-Index. The relationship between the GII rankings and the efficiency ratios is slightly positive, as expected, implying that more efficient coun- tries achieve, on average, better GII scores (Figure 3). The efficiency ratio is designed to be neutral to countries’ stages of development, and the data indeed reflect this neutrality. That said, the analysis by income group for effi- ciency ratios is particularly crucial, because economies might reach a relatively high efficiency ratio as a result of particularly low input scores. Efficiency ratios must be analysed jointly with GII, Input, and Output scores, and with the development stages of the economies in mind. Efficiency ratios are reported this year next to the GII scores for this reason (Table 1). The 10 countries with the high- est Innovation Efficiency Ratios are countries particularly good at sur- mounting relative weaknesses on their Input Sub-Indices with rela- tively robust output results, with GII rankings ranging from 24th to 126th: Mali (ranked 106th in the GII), the Republic of Moldova (45th), Guinea (126th), Malta (24th), Swaziland (104th), Indonesia (85th), Nigeria (120th), Kuwait (50th), Costa Rica (39th), and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (114th). Among high-income econo- mies, Malta and Kuwait are in the global top 10. European coun- tries take up the first 20 positions, with the exception of Kuwait (2nd), Israel (8th), Cyprus (10th), and Saudi Arabia (17th). Canada and the USA are ranked 21st and 28th, respec- tively. In this income group, 35.6% have better rankings on outputs than they do on inputs. The Middle Eastern countries Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman have the lowest ratios among high- income economies (between 0.62 and 0.54). Among upper-middle-income countries, Costa Rica and Venezuela are in the top 10. Bulgaria, China, Costa Rica, Latvia, Malaysia, and Romania make it to the top 40 glob- ally on outputs, surmounting lower capabilities (except for Latvia, which ranks 33rd on inputs and 37th on outputs). In this income group, 45.0 % of countries have better rankings in outputs than in inputs. Among lower-middle-income countries, the Republic of Moldova,
- 46. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 22 Swaziland, Indonesia, and Nigeria are among the global top 10. The Republic of Moldova, India, and Armenia are in the global top 50 on outputs, with lower positions in inputs. Within this income group, 55.6% of countries have better rank- ings in outputs than in inputs. Among low-income countries, Mali and Guinea are in the top 10, and 52.4% have better showings in outputs than in inputs. Leaders and learners: The reward of leveraging strengths and rectifying weaknesses Figure 4 illustrates the above find- ings by presenting the GII scores plotted against GDP per capita in PPP$ (in natural logs). When coun- tries’ stages of development are con- sidered, the GII results can be inter- preted in a new light. The economies that appear close to the trend line show results that are in accordance with what is expected from their level of development.21 A majority of economies are in this category. The farther up and above the trend line a country appears, the better its innovation performance compares with that of its peers at the same stage of development. Light- coloured bubbles in the figure cor- respond to the efficient innovators (in a majority situated above the trend line), while the dark-coloured bubbles represent those countries in the lower half of the Innovation Efficiency Ratio. • Among the innovation leaders we find the top 25 countries already discussed above and in Box 2. These economies are the same as in 2012, all with GII scores above 50. They have succeeded in cre- ating well-linked innovation ecosystems where investments in human capital thrive in fertile and stable innovation infrastruc- tures to create impressive levels of innovation outputs. • The group of innovation learners includes 18 high- and middle- income countries: the Republic of Moldova, China, India, Uganda, Armenia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, Jordan, Mongolia, Mali, Kenya, Senegal, Hungary, Georgia, Mon- tenegro, Costa Rica, Tajikistan, and Latvia (these countries appear 10% or more above the trend line, in order of distance). They dem- onstrate rising levels of innovation results because of improvements made to institutional frame- works, a skilled labour force with expanded tertiary education, bet- ter innovation infrastructures, a deeper integration with global credit investment and trade mar- kets, and a sophisticated business community—even if progress on these dimensions is not uniform across all segments of the country. Among low-income countries, Uganda, Mali, Kenya, and Tajiki- stan have above-par performances. Figure 3: Global Innovation Index vs. Innovation Efficiency Ratio 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 R2 = 0.0255 GlobalInnovationIndex(score) Innovation Efficiency Ratio High income Upper-middle income Lower-middle income Low income
- 47. 23 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 The paradox of plenty: High GII rankings might conceal below-par performances Eight high-income economies and 20 middle-income economies have relative weaknesses in their inno- vation ecosystems when compared with countries of similar income levels (scores that are 10% or more below the trend line); although low- income economies could potentially be affected as well, no low-income economy performs below par in 2013. In the Middle East, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, the resource-rich economies of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are in this group: Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain. Other high-income economies included here are Brunei Darussalam, Trinidad and Tobago, and Greece. Although the scaling by GDP of a few indicators (required for com- parability across countries) penalizes these relatively wealthy countries, these countries often exhibit relative shortcomings in important areas in which this effect does not prevail, such as Institutions, Market sophis- tication, and Business sophistication. These countries, however, are uniquely positioned to do better in the years to come because of their natural endowments. Many of them have been diversifying towards innovation-rich sectors already. But several of these countries are resource-rich in oil, gas, or some other natural resource, and their resource-extracting activities crowd out investment in other produc- tive sectors and hinder innovation. This phenomenon—reminiscent of what has been called the ‘resource curse’ or ‘paradox of plenty’—has been well documented historically and across regions, and is captured by the GII. The middle-income innovation challenge: The need for a knowledge-based growth strategy Middle-income countries with below-par performances, begin- ning with the farthest from the trend line, include Gabon, Algeria, Venezuela, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Angola, Botswana, Yemen, Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Panama, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Namibia, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Belize, Egypt, Lebanon, and Côte d’Ivoire. The GII 2012 posited that coun- tries might develop their innovation capabilities and results following an innovation transition model in four stages, briefly sketched here: • Stage 1: A critical level must be reached in all input areas for innovation activities to take off with a multiplier effect in terms of innovation outputs. • Stage 2: Innovation results increase from marginal but per- sistent improvements in institu- tional frameworks, the expansion of tertiary education, better infra- structures, a deeper integration to global markets, and a sophisti- cated business community. Some sub-national regions, clusters, and niche markets might prevail and pull the rest of the territory; inno- vation linkages are crucial. • Stage 3: Input rankings improve with the integration of all seg- ments of society into the econ- omy: productivity and wages increase, cities develop, education expands, corruption regresses, and markets play a greater role in parallel to societal progress, with an innovation hysteresis effect that explains the steepness of the trend line. Innovation learners are found in stages 2 and 3. • Stage 4: For innovation lead- ers, innovation capabilities and results stabilize at a high level in an equilibrium that is more the result of demographics, market size, and comparative advantages than it is the cause of failed poli- cies or planned strategies.22 A knowledge-based growth strategy is required to encourage innovation and creativity through a supportive ecosystem. To reach that goal, middle-income economies must closely monitor the quality of their innovation inputs and outputs. A special effort was made this year to capture this dimension by including three indicators focusing on innovation quality, and it was found that a few middle-income countries perform particularly well on these (Box 3). Other adjustments made to the GII framework point in the same direction (Annex 2 includes a table summarizing adjustments made this year). Regional rankings Best-ranked economies in their respective regions in the GII are Switzerland in Europe (1st, with Sweden, 2nd in the GII, coming first in the EU); the USA in Northern America (5th); Hong Kong (China) in South East Asia and Oceania (7th, displacing Singapore, which is now 8th and 2nd in the region); Israel in Northern Africa and Western Asia (14th), Costa Rica in Latin America and the Caribbean (39th, displac- ing Chile, now 46th and 2nd in the region), Mauritius in Sub-Saharan Africa (53rd), and India in Central and Southern Asia (66th). Table 5 presents a heatmap with the scores for the top 10, and average scores by income and regional groups.
- 48. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 24 Figure 4: GII scores and GDP per capita in PPP$ (bubbles sized by population) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 400 1,600 6,400 25,600 102,400 Leaders Learners Underperformers relativetoGDP CN IN PK NG BD MX BO VN DE TR FR GB IT UA KE AR CA UG PE MY SA GH RO LK CM AO BF NL ML MW PH EC KH ZM SN TJ ZW CZ TN GN HU DO GT ID BR RS SE CH IL BG PY JO FI CR IE HR MD UY AM KW JM SI GA EE MU SZ CY GY LU MT IS US RU JP ET EG VE TH ZA KR ES CO TZ SD PL DZ MA NP UZ YE MZ AU MG SYCI CL NE KZ GR BE RW PT BY AZ IR BJ AT AE HN HK GM SV TG NI DK SK KG SG NO NZ GE LBBA PA LT AL OM MN NA LV LS MK BW QA TT BH FJ ME CV BN BZ BB GDP per capita in PPP$ (ln scale) GIIscore Efficient innovators Inefficient innovators Note: ‘Efficient innovators’ are countries/economies with Innovation Efficiency ratios ≥ 0.78; ‘Inefficient innovators’ have ratios < 0.78; the trend line is a polynomial of degree three with intercept (R2 = 0.7178).
- 49. 25 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Figure 4: GII scores and GDP per capita in PPP$ (bubbles sized by population): ISO-2 Country Codes Code Country AE........................................................United Arab Emirates AL.............................................................................Albania AM...........................................................................Armenia AO..............................................................................Angola AR..........................................................................Argentina AT...............................................................................Austria AU...........................................................................Australia AZ........................................................................ Azerbaijan BA...................................................Bosnia and Herzegovina BB...........................................................................Barbados BD.......................................................................Bangladesh BE............................................................................Belgium BF.....................................................................Burkina Faso BG............................................................................Bulgaria BH.............................................................................Bahrain BJ.................................................................................Benin BN............................................................Brunei Darussalam BO...................................................Bolivia, Plurinational St. BR................................................................................ Brazil BW.........................................................................Botswana BY..............................................................................Belarus BZ................................................................................Belize CA..............................................................................Canada CH.......................................................................Switzerland CI.......................................................................Côte d’Ivoire CL.................................................................................. Chile CM........................................................................Cameroon CN................................................................................ China CO.......................................................................... Colombia CR......................................................................... Costa Rica CV........................................................................CapeVerde CY...............................................................................Cyprus CZ...................................................................Czech Republic DE...........................................................................Germany DK...........................................................................Denmark DO..........................................................Dominican Republic DZ..............................................................................Algeria EC..............................................................................Ecuador EE...............................................................................Estonia EG................................................................................Egypt ES................................................................................. Spain ET.............................................................................Ethiopia FI...............................................................................Finland FJ......................................................................................Fiji FR...............................................................................France GA...............................................................................Gabon GB............................................................... United Kingdom GE.............................................................................Georgia Code Country GH...............................................................................Ghana GM............................................................................Gambia GN..............................................................................Guinea GR...............................................................................Greece GT........................................................................Guatemala GY............................................................................. Guyana HK........................................................... Hong Kong (China) HN..........................................................................Honduras HR..............................................................................Croatia HU............................................................................Hungary ID...........................................................................Indonesia IE...............................................................................Ireland IL..................................................................................Israel IN..................................................................................India IR............................................................... Iran, Islamic Rep. IS...............................................................................Iceland IT...................................................................................Italy JM.............................................................................Jamaica JO................................................................................Jordan JP.................................................................................Japan KE................................................................................Kenya KG........................................................................Kyrgyzstan KH......................................................................... Cambodia KR........................................................................Korea, Rep. KW.............................................................................Kuwait KZ.......................................................................Kazakhstan LB............................................................................Lebanon LK...........................................................................Sri Lanka LS..............................................................................Lesotho LT...........................................................................Lithuania LU..................................................................... Luxembourg LV.................................................................................Latvia MA...........................................................................Morocco MD..................................................................Moldova, Rep. ME.....................................................................Montenegro MG.....................................................................Madagascar MK...............................................................Macedonia, FYR ML................................................................................. Mali MN.........................................................................Mongolia MT................................................................................Malta MU.........................................................................Mauritius MW............................................................................Malawi MX.............................................................................Mexico MY.......................................................................... Malaysia MZ....................................................................Mozambique NA............................................................................Namibia NE.................................................................................Niger NG..............................................................................Nigeria Code Country NI.......................................................................... Nicaragua NL......................................................................Netherlands NO.............................................................................Norway NP................................................................................Nepal NZ.....................................................................New Zealand OM...............................................................................Oman PA............................................................................ Panama PE..................................................................................Peru PH........................................................................Philippines PK............................................................................Pakistan PL.............................................................................. Poland PT............................................................................Portugal PY...........................................................................Paraguay QA.................................................................................Qatar RO...........................................................................Romania RS............................................................................... Serbia RU........................................................... Russian Federation RW........................................................................... Rwanda SA.....................................................................Saudi Arabia SD............................................................................... Sudan SE..............................................................................Sweden SG......................................................................... Singapore SI.............................................................................Slovenia SK............................................................................Slovakia SN.............................................................................Senegal SV........................................................................El Salvador SY.........................................................Syrian Arab Republic SZ..........................................................................Swaziland TG..................................................................................Togo TH............................................................................Thailand TJ........................................................................... Tajikistan TN.............................................................................. Tunisia TR...............................................................................Turkey TT.......................................................... Trinidad andTobago TZ........................................................Tanzania, United Rep. UA.............................................................................Ukraine UG.............................................................................Uganda US..................................................United States of America UY............................................................................Uruguay UZ........................................................................Uzbekistan VE................................................Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. VN...........................................................................Viet Nam YE...............................................................................Yemen ZA......................................................................South Africa ZM.............................................................................Zambia ZW........................................................................Zimbabwe
- 50. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 26 Box 3: New indicators in GII 2013 focused on the quality of innovation inputs and outputs Not all innovation inputs and outputs are of equal quality, and hence not all of them have the same impact. For example, a count of the number of universities a country runs and the value of expenditure in tertiary edu- cation are not always good proxies for the quality and impact of its higher education. Equally, the number of patent applications filed is not always a good proxy for how good and commercially valuable the inven- tions underlying the patents really are. It makes sense to move beyond quantity in the few areas where this is possible, and to introduce some metrics on the quality of innovation inputs and outputs. The GII 2013 builds on this idea and introduces three indicators that aim to address the shortcomings of traditional innovation metrics. They are included in pillar 2, Human capital and research; pillar 5, Business sophistication; and pillar 6, Knowledge and technology outputs. • 2.3.3 The average score of the top 3 universities in the QS World University Ranking of 2012: By design, this indica- tor is aimed at assessing the availability of higher education institutions of qual- ity, and not the average level of all uni- versities within a particular economy. The QS World University Ranking in- cludes six indicators drawn together to form an international ranking of univer- sities: 40% academic reputation (from a global survey), 10% employer repu- tation (from global a survey), 20% cita- tions per faculty (from SciVerse Scopus), 20% faculty student ratio, 5% propor- tion of international students, and 5% proportion of international faculty. • 5.2.5 Patent families filed in at least three offices: This indicator measures the number of patents residents in a given country have filed in a mini- mum of three patent offices world- wide. Patents filed in several countries/ jurisdictions to protect the same inven- tion are potentially more inventive and more commercially valuable than pat- ents filed in just one country. This indi- cator complements the data used to measure the number of resident filings under the Patent Cooperation Treaty by nationals of a given country (6.1.2), and is equally a metric hinting at the poten- tial commercial value or the interna- tional scope of an invention. 1 • 6.1.5 Citable documents H index: The number of scientific journal articles (Continued) Figure 3.1: Quality of innovation new metrics: Top 10 high-income and top 10 middle-income countries Note: Economies classified by income according to the World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012). Upper- and lower-middle income categories were grouped together as middle-income economies. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Average (76 economies) 45Turkey 40 Chile 39 Malaysia 36 South Africa 35 Mexico 34 Argentina 31 India 26 Russian Federation 25 Brazil 19 China Average (45 economies) 10 Korea, Rep. 9 Netherlands 8 Sweden 7 Canada 6 France 5 Switzerland 4 Japan 3 Germany 2 United Kingdom 1 United States of America n 2.3.3 QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities n 5.2.5 Patent families filed in at least three offices n 6.1.5 Citable documents H index High-incomecountriesMiddle-incomecountries Sum of scores
- 51. 27 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 This section discusses regional and sub-regional trends, with snap- shots for some of the economies leading in the rankings. To put the discussion of rankings further into perspective, Figure 5 presents, for each region, bars representing the median pillar scores (second quar- tile) as well as the range of scores determined by the first and second quartile; regions are presented in decreasing order of their average GII rankings (except for the EU, which is placed at the end). Some observa- tions are noteworthy. For example, the great dispersion seen in South East Asia and Oceania in the first four pillars is greatly reduced in the last three; even if it places behind in the overall GII, the median Sub- Saharan African country achieves a better score than the median Central and Southern Asian coun- try in three pillars; the median score in South East Asia and Oceania is above that of Europe in Market and Business sophistication. Although Human capital and research and Infrastructure present the expected shape, the last three pillars—Business sophistication, Knowledge and tech- nology outputs, and Creative out- puts—present the greatest disper- sion in median scores compared to the GII. Sub-Saharan Africa (32 countries) Since the first edition of this report, only two Sub-Saharan African countries have reached positions in the upper half of the GII rankings: Mauritius has been in the top half since 2011 and is 53rd in 2013; and South Africa, which has been in the top half of the rankings in all edi- tions, is 58th in 2013. In addition, five countries are ranked among the top 100 (refer to Box 4 for details). The remaining 25 countries are placed at the bottom of the rank- ings (100 or lower); Cape Verde and Guinea, in particular, entered the rankings this year at positions 102 and 126, respectively. Uganda, Mali, Kenya, and Senegal are among innovation learners this year, while middle-income countries Gabon, Angola, Botswana, Sudan, Namibia, and Côte d’Ivoire have below-par performances. With the first- and second-highest PPP$ GDP per cap- ita in the region, the performances of Gabon and Botswana are particu- larly disappointing. Central and Southern Asia (10 economies) Since the first editions of the GII, only India (66th), Kazakhstan (84th), and Sri Lanka (98th) have consis- tently achieved positions among the first 100; they prevail again in the region this year. The remaining seven countries place at the bottom of the rankings: Tajikistan (101st), the Islamic Republic of Iran (113th), Kyrgyzstan (117th), Nepal (128th), Bangladesh (130th), Uzbekistan (133rd), and Pakistan (137th). India Box 3: New indicators in GII 2013 focused on the quality of innovation inputs and outputs (continued) published in a given country is a good quantitative indicator of scientific out- put. To shed light on the quality of the output, the number of citations these publications receive provides a measure of scientific productivity and impact. To obtain such an assessment, the GII includes the H index, which ranks all publications of a given country by the number of citations they receive and expresses the number of articles (H) that have received at least H citations in the period 1996 to 2011. As shown in Figure 3.1, the following 10 high-income economies do particularly well on these three indicators: the United States of America (USA), the United Kingdom (UK), Germany, Japan, Switzerland, France, Canada, Sweden, the Netherlands, and the Republic of Korea. 2 Indeed, this year, coun- tries such as the UK and the USA perform better in the overall GII rankings, boosted to a certain extent by the inclusion of these new indicators. Among middle-income countries, the 10 countries that achieve the highest sum of scores include the four BRICs: China (ranks 19th on the sum of scores on these three variables and 35th in the overall GII 2013), Brazil (25th/64th), the Russian Federation (26th/62nd), India (31st/66th), Argentina (34th/56th), Mexico (35th/63rd), South Africa (36th/58th), Malaysia (39th/32nd), Chile (40th/46th), and Turkey (45th/68th). With the exception of Malaysia and Chile, all of these top 10 middle-income countries achieve better ranks in these three indica- tors than they do in the overall GII 2013 rankings. 3 Notes 1 Measuring the quality of a patent remains inher- ently difficult, however. The data on patents filed in at least three offices is not a perfect proxy. First, it does not account for the size of the coun- tries in question. A patent filed in three small countries is, for example, not necessarily of better quality than a patent filed in the USA and Japan. Second, filings under the European Patent Office (EPO) introduce a bias in this dataset; an EPO pat- ent filing counts as one, but it potentially covers a large number of countries. 2 The same 10 countries remain in the top 10 regardless of the criteria used: average rank, aver- age percent rank, average score, or sum of scores. 3 The positions in between are all taken by high- income economies: Australia, Finland, Israel, Denmark, Belgium, Italy, Austria, Norway, Hong Kong (China), Ireland, Spain, Singapore, New Zealand, Luxembourg, Barbados, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland, Portugal, Greece, Slovenia, Saudi Arabia, Iceland, Cyprus, and Malta.
- 52. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 28 Table 5: Heatmap for GII top 10 economies and regional and income group averages (1–100) Country/Economy GII Institutions Humancapital andresearch Infrastructure Marketsophistication Businesssophistication Input Knowldegeand technologyoutputs Creativeoutputs Output Efficiency Switzerland 66.59 87.31 55.45 57.03 77.47 55.33 66.52 61.46 71.84 66.65 1.00 Sweden 61.36 89.92 62.45 63.14 71.82 51.97 67.86 54.12 55.60 54.86 0.81 United Kingdom 61.25 88.44 56.18 59.45 84.60 52.32 68.20 51.07 57.52 54.30 0.80 Netherlands 61.14 92.76 50.64 55.48 69.18 52.85 64.18 53.89 62.30 58.09 0.91 United States of America 60.31 86.05 61.06 52.54 87.09 59.24 69.19 53.62 49.22 51.42 0.74 Finland 59.51 95.31 67.39 57.51 63.19 49.95 66.67 50.81 53.90 52.35 0.79 Hong Kong (China) 59.43 90.80 52.29 63.43 88.58 58.17 70.65 34.21 62.20 48.21 0.68 Singapore 59.41 92.24 63.18 59.19 77.60 69.16 72.27 48.53 44.58 46.56 0.64 Denmark 58.34 95.33 60.36 53.87 74.60 47.53 66.34 41.93 58.77 50.35 0.76 Ireland 57.91 91.95 59.28 42.19 73.22 53.83 64.09 55.58 47.88 51.73 0.81 Average 37.41 62.52 32.69 33.54 48.26 33.70 42.15 27.62 37.73 32.67 0.78 Regions Northern America 58.96 89.65 55.26 52.79 82.94 54.26 66.98 48.99 52.87 50.93 0.76 Europe 47.64 75.66 46.31 44.91 56.12 41.17 52.83 37.77 47.13 42.45 0.80 South East Asia and Oceania 43.06 66.91 40.23 40.98 57.88 41.19 49.44 32.07 41.28 36.67 0.76 Northern Africa andWestern Asia 35.55 61.23 33.88 33.28 47.06 30.38 41.17 24.09 35.79 29.94 0.72 Latin America and the Caribbean 33.91 55.99 26.28 29.45 42.81 33.20 37.55 21.31 39.22 30.27 0.81 Central and Southern Asia 28.03 47.23 21.55 25.11 40.32 23.65 31.57 24.30 24.68 24.49 0.79 Sub-Saharan Africa 27.38 52.91 18.26 20.52 38.87 25.16 31.14 19.44 27.79 23.62 0.77 Income levels High income 50.11 80.54 49.05 47.79 60.39 44.71 56.50 38.26 49.18 43.72 0.77 Upper-middle income 35.71 59.53 31.55 33.17 45.59 31.66 40.30 25.61 36.63 31.12 0.77 Lower-middle income 29.83 50.82 23.84 24.49 41.66 26.83 33.53 21.25 31.01 26.13 0.78 Low income 26.43 49.69 14.99 19.25 38.68 25.81 29.68 19.54 26.84 23.19 0.79 Note: Darker shadings indicate better performances. Countries/economies are classified according to the World Bank Income Group and the United Nations Regional Classifications (July 2012 and 11 February 2013, respectively). Worst Average Best
- 53. 29 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 Figure 5: Median scores by regional group and by pillar 0 20 40 60 80 100 Creative outputs Knowledge and technology outputs Business sophistication Market sophistication Infrastructure Human capital and research Institutions n Northern America n Europe n Southeast Asia and Oceania n Northern Africa andWest Asia n Latin America and the Caribbean n Central and Southern Asia n Sub-Saharan Africa n European Union Score Note: The bars show median scores (second quartiles); the lines show the range of scores between the first and third quartiles.
- 54. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 30 Box 4: Sub-Saharan Africa: Best-ranked countries compared In Sub-Saharan Africa, of a total of 32 countries, Mauritius (GII 53rd) and South Africa (GII 58th) make it to the upper half of the GII rankings, while five other coun- tries achieve scores within the top 100: Uganda (89th), Botswana (91st), Ghana (94th), Senegal (96th), and Kenya (99th). In addition, Uganda, Mali (GII 106th), Kenya, and Senegal show above-par performances, placing them among innovation learners— a commendable achievement for countries that have GDP per capita incomes below PPP$2,000. Figure 4.1 shows the scores of these seven countries along with the average scores for the region and for upper-middle- income and high-income countries for all pillars and indices. The low-income country grouping includes half of the countries in the region; the scores of these two group- ings are therefore very close, which is why that income grouping is not drawn. Mauritius, an island of 1.3 million peo- ple in the Indian Ocean, has the 3rd largest GDP per capita after Gabon and Botswana, at PPP$15,621.6. It scores above the upper- middle-income countries’ average in the GII (53rd, down from 49th in 2012); the Input Sub-Index (60th); the Output Sub- Index (57th); and the Institutions (30th), Market sophistication (30th), and Creative outputs (31st) pillars. However, important weaknesses are evident in Human cap- ital and research (95th), Infrastructure (101st), Business sophistication (101st), and Knowledge and technology outputs (100th). South Africa comes in 4th in the region in terms of GDP per capita, at PPP$11,302.2. This upper-middle-income country also places above its income group average in the three indices: GII (58th), Input (51st), and Output (71st). Its relatively strong pillars are Institutions (44th), Market sophistication (ranked 16th globally, with a score above the average performance of high-income economies), and Creative outputs (68th). Its performance in the following three pillars is below par, however: Business sophistication (71st), Knowledge and technology outputs (79th), and Infrastructure (83rd). The ranking in Human capital and research (102nd) is not reliable, as six data points are missing in the first two sub-pillars; only the third ranking, of 38th in the R&D sub-pillar, can be taken at face value. Aside from Mauritius and South Africa, the remaining five countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that score within the top 100 in the GII perform close to or better than the regional average, with only a few exceptions (Botswana in the Output Sub-Index, Kenya and Senegal in Human capital and research, Ghana and Uganda in Infrastructure, Senegal in Market sophistication, Uganda in Business sophistication, and Ghana and Botswana on Creative outputs). In some key variables, the relative performance advantage is indeed significant: for example, Botswana in the Input Sub-Index, Institutions, and Human capital and research; Kenya in Market sophis- tication; and Ghana in Knowledge and tech- nology outputs all achieve scores above the (Continued) Creative outputs Knowledge and technology outputs Business sophistication Market sophistication InfrastructureHuman capital and research InstitutionsInnovation Output Sub-index Innovation Input Sub-index Global Innovation Index 0 20 40 60 80 Mauritius South Africa Uganda Botswana Ghana Senegal Kenya nnn High income nnn Upper-middle income nnn Sub-Saharan Africa mean Score Figure 4.1: Sub-Saharan Africa: Best-ranked countries compared
- 55. 31 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 and Tajikistan are among the inno- vation learners, while the Islamic Republic of Iran, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and Kazakhstan have below-par performances (Figure 4). India comes in 1st in the region, ranked 66th (3rd among lower-mid- dle-income countries) and down two positions since 2012; one of these positions was lost because of the inclusion of Barbados, which enters the rankings at 47th place. With more than 1.2 billion inhab- itants and a robust economy (GDP per capita of PPP$3,851.3 in 2012, up from PPP$3,703.5), this low- income country is again among the innovation learners. In fact, India performs remarkably well in six out of seven key indicators introduced for the first time this year: the cit- able documents H index (23rd), the QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities (27th), high- tech and medium-high-tech output (31st), GERD performed by business enterprise over GDP (42nd), logis- tics performance (46th), and pat- ent families filed in at least three offices (59th), with a single weak- ness in royalties and license fees receipts over services exports, where it is ranked 83rd. India has relative strength in the Output Sub-Index (ranked 42nd, down from 40th in 2012, and 1st in the region) over the Input Sub-Index (ranked 87th, up from 96th in 2012). This led to a fall in the efficiency ratio (to 11th this year, down from 2nd in 2012). Weak positions in Institutions (102nd) and Human capital and research (105th) remain, although rankings improved compared to 2012 (125th and 131st, respectively). The ranking in pillar 6, Knowledge and technology out- puts, also improved (from 47th to 37th), with a 1st place in communi- cations, computer and information services exports over total services exports providing the leverage for a 22nd world place in Knowledge diffusion. Latin America and the Caribbean (23 economies) Latin America and the Caribbean includes only upper- and middle- income economies, except for high- income Barbados (which re-entered the rankings this year at 47th posi- tion after two years of being excluded because of low indicator coverage) and Trinidad and Tobago (at a dis- appointing 81st). This year, Costa Rica (39th) dis- placed Chile (46th) to reach 1st place in the regional rankings. They are followed by Barbados (47th) and by upper-middle-income countries Uruguay (52nd), Argentina (56th), Colombia (60th), Mexico (63rd), Brazil (64th), and Peru (69th), all in the first half of the rankings. In the lower half we find Guyana (78th), followed by the three Caribbean countries Dominican Republic (79th), Trinidad and Tobago (81st), and Jamaica (82nd), as well as Ecuador (83rd), Panama (86th), Guatemala (87th), El Salvador (88th), and the Plurinational State of Bolivia (95th). With the exception of Guyana and Ecuador, the first 17 countries in the region have con- sistently achieved positions among the top 100 since the first edition of the GII. The Plurinational State of Bolivia broke that barrier for the first time this year. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, at 114th, is the only upper-middle-income economy among the five at the bot- tom of the regional rankings: the other four are Paraguay (100th), Belize (102nd), Honduras (107th), and Nicaragua (115th). Costa Rica is the only country in the region to be placed among innovation learners this year. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Panama, and Belize have below-par performances when considered in the context of their GDP per capita data. Box 4: Sub-Saharan Africa: Best-ranked countries compared (continued) average for upper-middle-income countries. Senegal also exhibits an above-par perfor- mance in Creative outputs, but missing data in the registration of trademarks, coupled with relatively high scores in two survey questions included in the Intangible assets sub-pillar, explain this performance. Missing data are an issue when attempting to determine a proper assess- ment of performance. While the average for all countries worldwide this year is 12.8%, it reaches a peak of 22.0% in Sub-Saharan Africa.1 Because no imputation of missing data is performed, the reliability of rankings is affected, as shown by the statistical audit performed by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, which provides a 90% confidence interval for the GII, Input, and Output rankings. For the past three years, all countries with indicator coverage above 63% have been included, but that threshold might need to increase in future editions. Note 1 Missing data are 14.9% in Northern Africa and Western Asia, 14.4% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 10.1% in Northern America, 9.7% in South East Asia and Oceania, and merely 4.4% in Europe.
- 56. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 32 Costa Rica is ranked 39th, up 21 positions from 60th place in 2012. With a population of 4.9 million and a GDP per capita of PPP$12,558.6, Costa Rica ranks 66th in the Input Sub-Index (up from 71st in 2012). It comes in at 31st in the Output Sub-Index (up from 53rd), which is where its strengths are, leading to a 9th position in efficiency. The leverage on the input side comes from improvements in Institutions (from 67th to 60th) and Market sophistication (from 117th to 94th) and a stable position in Business sophistication (44th), which helps to compensate for worrisome dete- riorating positions in Human capi- tal and research (from 78th to 89th) and Infrastructure (56th to 61st). The boost in the rankings comes from the output side, however, with the country’s 22nd place in Knowledge and technology outputs (56th in 2012) and its 44th position in Creative outputs (up from 55th), which together account for half of each country’s score. Costa Rica ranks 9th in Knowledge absorption and 8th in Knowledge diffusion, its two best sub-pillar rankings, dem- onstrating a very good connection to foreign markets of knowledge. Brazil is ranked 64th (down from 58th in 2012 and 47th in 2011), 21st among upper-middle-income countries, and 8th in the region. Brazil is one of the five countries in the region that fell in the rank- ings this year. With a population of 201.5 million and a GDP per capita of PPP$12,038.5 (up from PPP$11,845.8 in 2012), Brazil ranks 67th in the Input Sub-Index, 68th in the Output Sub-Index, and 69th in the efficiency ratio; it also shows relative strengths in Business sophis- tication (42nd), Infrastructure (51st), and Knowledge and technology out- puts (67th). Brazil’s excellent rela- tive performance in key indicators introduced this year revealed strengths that had not been cap- tured in past editions: the citable documents H index (22nd), high- tech and medium-high-tech out- put (22nd), the QS university rank- ing average score of top 3 universi- ties (24th), royalties and license fees receipts over total service exports (29th), GERD performed by busi- ness enterprise as a percentage of GDP (36th), patent families filed in at least three offices (42nd), and logistics performance (45th). As in 2012, Brazil benefits from the adjustments made to the GII frame- work (by five positions; see Annex 2). The lower ranking in the GII has its origin in Brazil’s relatively poor performance in the 63 indicators for which year-on-year comparisons are valid and data are not missing. These concern primarily the Institutions (95th), Market sophistication (76th), Human capital and research (75th), and Creative outputs (72) pillars. Northern Africa and Western Asia (20 economies) Israel (14th) and Cyprus (27th) achieved the top positions in the region for the second year running. Four of the six countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) come next: the United Arab Emirates (38th) and Saudi Arabia (42nd) both surpass Qatar (43rd), which came 1st in the region in 2012, while Kuwait (50th) surpasses both Bahrain (67th) and Oman (80th, down from 47th in 2012). With per capita incomes rang- ing from PPP$25,722 (Saudi Arabia) to PPP$102,768 (Qatar), most GCC economies achieve rankings that are below those of their peers in GDP per capita (Saudi Arabia to a minor extent), a feature common to most resource-rich economies. Although GCC countries appeared all together in a block right after Israel and Cyprus in 2012, the regional rankings are now more dispersed: Bahrain comes behind Armenia (59th) and Jordan (61st). Oman comes behind Turkey (68th), Tunisia (70th), Georgia (73rd), and Lebanon (75th). At the bottom of the regional rankings we find Morocco (92nd), Azerbaijan (105th), Egypt (108th), the Syrian Arab Republic (134th),23 Algeria (138th), and Yemen (142nd). Although Israel is the only inno- vation leader in the region (its pro- file is discussed in the section on the Output Sub-Index top 10), Armenia, Jordan, and Georgia joined the group of innovation learners this year. Oman, Algeria, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Yemen, the Syrian Arab Republic, Azerbaijan, Egypt, and Lebanon show below- par performances compared to their income levels (Figure 4). South East Asia and Oceania (16 economies) This region includes 16 economies that are very dissimilar in level of development. The first four rank among the top 25 in the three indi- ces (GII, input, and output): Hong Kong (China) (7th), which displaced Singapore at the top of the regional rankings; Singapore, which is now 8th globally and 2nd regionally; New Zealand (17th); and the Republic of Korea (18th). These four economies, as well as Australia (19th) and Japan (22nd), are innovation leaders, all placing within the top 25. High- income Brunei Darussalam ranks a disappointing 74th place (11th in the region). Among upper-middle-income economies, Malaysia (32nd) and China (35th) rank high, while Thailand ranks 57th (same posi- tion as in 2012). Lower-middle- income Mongolia (72nd), Viet Nam (76th), Indonesia (85th), Philippines (90th), and Fiji (97th) are among the
- 57. 33 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 top 100. Low-income Cambodia is ranked 110th. China, Viet Nam, Malaysia, and Mongolia are among the innovation learners this year, whereas Brunei Darussalam shows below-par per- formance (Figure 4). For the third year in a row, China shows several strengths. China is ranked 35th, down from 34th in 2012, 3rd among upper-middle- income countries (after Malaysia and Latvia) and 8th in the region. Similar to BRIC countries India and Brazil, China shows relatively strong posi- tions (within the top 30) in six new indicators: the QS university rank- ing average score of top 3 universi- ties (9th), high-tech and medium- high-tech output (16th), GERD performed by business enterprise (17th), the citable documents H index (17th), logistics performance (24th), and patent families filed in at least three offices (30th), and a rela- tive weakness in royalties and license fees receipts (55th). Ranking a healthy 14th in efficiency (although down from 1st place in 2012), China made a commendable leap forward in the Input Sub-Index (from 55th to 46th), although it lost six positions in the Output Sub-Index (25th). Europe (39 countries) As last year, a total of 16 European countries are among the top 25, 13 of them from the EU: Switzerland (1st), Sweden (2nd, leader among the EU15),theUK(3rd),theNetherlands (4th), Finland (6th), Denmark (9th), Ireland (10th), Luxembourg (12th), Iceland (13th), Germany (15th), Norway (16th), France (20th), Belgium (21st), Austria (23rd), Malta (24th, leader among the EU12), and Estonia (25th). All of them achieve positions in the top 25 in the Output and Input Sub-Indices, with the exception of Austria (27th in out- puts) and Malta (34th in inputs). Fifteen countries follow among the top 50, including all remain- ing EU countries, with the excep- tion of Greece (55th): Spain (26th), the Czech Republic (28th), Italy (29th), Slovenia (30th), Hungary (31st), Latvia (33rd), Portugal (34th), Slovakia (36th), Croatia (37th, leader among non-EU tran- sition economies), Lithuania (40th), Bulgaria (41st), Montenegro (44th), the Republic of Moldova (45th), Romania (48th), and Poland (49th). The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (51st), Serbia (54th), Greece (55th), the Russian Federation (62nd), Bosnia and Herzegovina (65th), and Ukraine (71st) come next in the upper half of the rankings, followed by Belarus (77th) and Albania (93rd). In addition, the Republic of Moldova, Hungary, Montenegro, and Latvia are positioned among the innovation learners, while Greece and Belarus show below-par perfor- mances (Figure 4). Ranked 62nd, down 11 posi- tions from its 51st place in 2012, the Russian Federation is ranked 19th among upper-middle-income coun- tries, 35th in Europe, and 2nd among the BRICs. It must be noted, how- ever, that the Joint Research Centre audit provided a 90% confidence interval of [43, 62] for Russia’s GII ranking (see Annex 3). This year, the country makes significant prog- ress in the Input Sub-Index (from 60th in 2012 to 52nd) closing gaps in Institutions (from 93rd in 2012 to 87th), Human capital and research (from 43rd to 33rd), Infrastructure (from 54th to 49th), and Market sophistication (from 87th to 74th), although nine positions were lost in Business sophistication (from 43rd to 52nd). Its relatively strong posi- tion in Knowledge and technology outputs is maintained this year, even though it fell slightly, from 46th to 48th place. In fact, the Russian Federation places better in new key indicators than in its GII ranking this year, something shared with the other three BRIC countries: the cit- able documents H index (20th), the QS university ranking average score of top 3 universities (25th), royalties and license fees receipts over total services exports (28th), GERD per- formed by business enterprise over GDP (30th), high-tech and medium- high-tech output (46th), and patent families filed in at least three offices (47th). Conclusion This year’s report provides a cau- tiously optimistic and yet highly contrasted view of innovation: on the one hand, spending and invest- ment in R&D and innovation has been sustained in spite of the cri- sis. On the other hand, innovation remains a spikily dispersed phenom- enon, where many obstacles remain in the path of poorer economies. In these countries, as in other parts of the world, a better understanding and appreciation of the local dynam- ics of innovation can clearly con- tribute to unleashing new sources of growth, competitiveness, and job creation. As stated at the start of this chap- ter, policies to promote innovation lay the foundation for future growth, productivity improvements, and better jobs. Opportunities for new sources of innovation-based growth abound in fields such as education, the environment, energy, food, health, information technologies, and transport, among others. The challenge from a policy perspective is for nations to optimize the inter- play of institutions and the interac- tive processes in the creation, appli- cation, and diffusion of knowledge, human capital, and technology.
- 58. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 34 Success in innovation requires a holistic approach to progress along all dimensions of the GII framework. Innovation leaders show the benefits of a virtuous cycle in which the dif- ferent facets of innovation inputs and outputs reinforce each other and lead to sustained progress. The GII model is revised every year in a transparent exercise to improve the way innovation is mea- sured. This year, for example, indi- cators focusing on the quality of innovation inputs and outputs were introduced. Such evolution will con- tinue over the years as new metrics that provide better and more accu- rate measures of innovation, capabil- ities, and impact become available. The GII is not meant to be the definitive ranking of economies with respect to innovation. The GII is more concerned with improv- ing the ‘journey’ to better measur- ing and understanding innovation, and with identifying targeted poli- cies and good practices. The GII also recognizes that there are important qualitative aspects of innovation policies and processes that are not captured adequately within the GII model. Hence the GII report also includes special analytical chapters and case studies focused on country and company experiences. Notes and References for Box 1 Notes 1 UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center (updated 30 April 2013): gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) performed by business enterprise (constant 2005 PPP$). High-income countries include: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. Data from the OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators (MSTI) (updated 30 April 2013) on business enterprise expenditure on R&D (BERD) (constant 2005 PPP$) leads to similar results: in 2008, R&D spending increased by 4% while in 2009 it dropped by 4.6% (query including the same countries except Croatia, Cyprus, Malta, and Trinidad and Tobago, for which data were not available). 2 UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center (updated 30 April 2013): GERD performed by business enterprise (constant 2005 PPP$). Countries include: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong (China), Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, the Republic of Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao (China), Malta, Mexico, the Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. 3 OECD, 2009, 2012; WIPO, 2010. 4 OECD MSTI (updated 30 April 2013): GERD (constant 2005 PPP$). OECD countries are represented by the MSTI grouping ‘OECD- total’. 5 OECD MSTI (updated 30 April 2013): GERD (constant 2005 PPP$). Countries include: Argentina, China, Romania, the Russian Federation, and Singapore. 6 UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center (updated 30 April 2013): GERD (constant 2005 PPP$). Countries include: Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Guatemala, Hong Kong (China), Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao (China), Madagascar, Malta, Mexico, Mongolia, the Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Poland, Portugal, the Republic of Korea, the Republic of Moldova, Romania, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Tajikistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Uruguay. 7 Booz & Company, 2009, 2012. This growth is based on a changing sample of firms, namely always the top 1,000 R&D spenders of a given year. Hence the numbers are upward biased compared with a stable sample of top R&D firms. That said, the composition of the top 1,000 spender list is quite stable over time. 8 UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center (updated 30 April 2013): GERD performed by business enterprise (constant 2005 PPP$). Countries include: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, the Republic of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. 9 OECD MSTI (updated 30 April 2013): BERD (constant 2005 PPP$). Countries include: Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. 10 OECD MSTI (updated 30 April 2013) available at http://www.oecd.org/sti/inno/. 11 Battelle and R&D Magazine, 2012. References Battelle and R&D Magazine. 2012. 2013 Global R&D Funding Forecast, December. Available at http://www.rdmag.com/topics/global-r-d- funding-forecast. Booz & Company. 2009. Profits Down, Spending Steady: The 2009 Global Innovation 1000. Booz & Company, Inc. Available at http:// www.booz.com/media/file/2009_ Innovation_1000_webinar.pdf. ———. 2012. Making Ideas Work: The 2012 Global Innovation 1000 Study. Booz & Company, Inc. Available at http://www.booz.com/media/ file/BoozCo_The-2012-Global-Innovation- 1000-Results-Summary.pdf.
- 59. 35 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2009. Policy Responses to the Economic Crisis: Investing in Innovation for Long-Term Growth. Paris: OECD. Available at http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/59/45/42983414.pdf. ———. 2012. ‘Innovation in the Crisis and Beyond’. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook. Paris: OECD, Chapter 1. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2010. ‘The Impact of the Economic Crisis and Recovery on Innovation’, Special Theme. In World Intellectual Property Indicators 2010, Economics and Statistics Division. Geneva: WIPO. Notes and References for Chapter 1 Notes 1 IMF, 2013a, 2013b, 2013c; OECD, 2013. 2 Benavente, Dutta, and Wunsch-Vincent, 2012. See also WIPO, 2010. 3 See UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center; OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators database; and Battelle, 2012. 4 WIPO, 2012, 2013. 5 See UNESCO-UIS Science & Technology Data Center; OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators database; and Battelle, 2012. 6 WIPO, 2011. 7 Zhang et al., 2013. 8 The first known analysis of clusters goes back to Alfred Marshall (1842–1924), who discussed the origins of British industries such as cutlery, ceramics, and textiles in Book Four, Chapter 10 of his Principles of Economics in 1890. 9 The phrase ‘business cluster’ was first used by Michael Porter in the 1980s and described in his seminal book The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990). Porter’s definition of a cluster as ‘a geographic concentration of interconnected businesses, suppliers, and associated institutions in a particular field’ remains the basis on which innovation clusters are also defined. See Porter, 2000. 10 See http://www.redesist.ie.ufrj.br/Ev/home. php (last accessed May 2013) and WIPO, 2013b. 11 Lagendijk, 2011. 12 See in particular Krugman, 1991; Lucas, 1988; Romer, 1986. 13 In this context, the importance of diasporas cannot be underestimated. Similarly, alumni networks and other professional groups play a significant role in the dissemination of innovative ideas and practices. 14 Florida, 2013. 15 The GII pays special attention to providing data sources and definitions (Appendix III), technical notes (Appendix IV), and improving and making accessible metrics (Appendix II, Data Tables). 16 See INSEAD and WIPO, 2012, Chapter 1, Box 4, p. 36. 17 The top-ranked upper-middle-income nations include Malaysia (32), Latvia (33), and China (35); the top-ranked lower-middle- income nations include the Republic of Moldova (45), Armenia (59), and India (66). 18 Countries are classified according to the World Bank classification. Economies are divided according to 2011 gross national income (GNI) per capita, calculated using the World Bank Atlas method. The groups are: low-income, US$1,025 or less; lower-middle- income, US$1,026 to US$4,035; upper- middle-income, US$4,036 to US$12,475; and high-income, US$12,476 or more. 19 Since 2012, the regional groups have been based on the United Nations Classification: EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa. 20 Caution should be exercised in comparing ranks across years with previous editions of the GII report because the indicators and the conceptual framework are adjusted every year (details in Annexes 1 and 2), so ranks are not always directly comparable. 21 Polynomial of degree 3 with intercept. 22 For the first time this year, the Joint Research Centre audit includes a measure of distance to the efficient frontier of innovation by using data envelopment analysis (DEA). Several innovation-related policy issues entail an intricate balance between global priorities and country-specific strategies. Subjecting countries to a fixed and common set of weights for pillars, as the GII does, may be unfair to some countries with specific strategies that favour one dimension (say market sophistication) over another. Annex 3 presents the DEA scores for the top countries in the GII rankings and shows that, the economies at the efficient frontier are Switzerland, Sweden, Hong Kong (China), and Singapore. 23 The Syrian Arab Republic dropped two positions this year. However, the current situation has not been necessarily captured by the data (17 data points are from 2012, 17 from 2011, 23 from 2010, and 6 from previous years, for a total of 69). References Battelle and R&D Magazine. 2012. 2013 Global R&D Funding Forecast, December. Available at http://www.rdmag.com/topics/global-r-d- funding-forecast. Benavente, D., S. Dutta, and S. Wunsch-Vincent. 2012. ‘The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth’. In The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth, ed. S. Dutta, Chapter 1. Fontainebleau and Geneva: INSEAD and WIPO. Booz & Company. 2012. Making Ideas Work: The 2012 Global Innovation 1000 Study. Booz & Company, Inc. Available at http://www.booz. com/media/file/BoozCo_The-2012-Global- Innovation-1000-Results-Summary.pdf. Conference Board. 2013. Total Economy Database, update from January 2013. Available at http://www.conference-board.org/data/ economydatabase/. de Beer, J., K. Fu, and S. Wunsch-Vincent. 2013. ‘Conceptual Study on Innovation, Intellectual Property and the Informal Economy’. Committee on Development and Intellectual Property (CDIP), Eleventh Session. Geneva, 13–17 May 2013. Geneva: WIPO. Available at http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/mdocs/ en/cdip_11/cdip_11_inf_5.pdf EC (European Commission). 2012a. The 2012 European Union Industrial R&D Scoreboard, Sevilla: Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS), European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC). European Commission. ———. 2012b. The 2012 Survey on R&D Investment Business Trends, August 2012, Sevilla: Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS), European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC). European Commission. Eurostat and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2005. Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data. 3rd edition. Paris: OECD. Florida, R. 2013, ‘The World’s Leading Science Cities’. The Atlantic, posted 1 May. Available at http://www.theatlanticcities.com/jobs-and- economy/2013/05/worlds-leading-centers- physics/5403/. IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2013a. World Economic Outlook (WEO) Update: Gradual Upturn in Global Growth During 2013. January 2013, Washington, DC: IMF. ———. 2013b. Fiscal Monitor, April 16. Washington, DC: IMF. ———. 2013c. World Economic Outlook (WEO): Hopes, Realities, and Risks. April 2013. Washington, DC: IMF. INSEAD and WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2012. The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth, ed. S. Dutta. Fontainebleau and Geneva: INSEAD and WIPO. Krugman, P. 1991. ‘Increasing Returns and Economic Geography’. Journal of Political Economy 99: 483–99.
- 60. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGlobalInnovationIndex2013 36 Lagendijk, A.2011. ‘Regional Innovation Policy between Theory and Practice’. In Handbook of Regional Innovation and Growth, eds. P. Cooke, B. Asheim, R. Boschma, R. Martin, D. Schwartz, and F. Tödtling, Chapter 44. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Lerner, J. 2009. Boulevard of Broken Dreams: Why Public Efforts to Boost Entrepreneurship and Venture Capital Have Failed—and What to Do about It. Kauffman Foundation series on innovation and entrepreneurship. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Lucas, R. E. 1988. ‘On the Mechanics of Economic Development’. Journal of Monetary Economics 22 (1988): 3–42. Marshall, A. 1890. Principles of Economics. London: MacMillan & Company. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2009. Policy Responses to the Economic Crisis: Investing in Innovation for Long-Term Growth. Paris: OECD. Available at http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/59/45/42983414.pdf. ———. 2012. ‘Innovation in the Crisis and Beyond’. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook. Paris: OECD, Chapter 1. ———. 2013. Economic Outlook 93, June 2013. Paris: OECD. Porter, M. 1990. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. New York: The Free Press. ———. 2000. ‘Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy’. Journal of Economic Development Quarterly 14 (1): 15–34. Romer, P. M. 1986. ‘Increasing Returns and Long- Run Growth’. Journal of Political Economy 94 (5): 1002–37. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2010. ‘The Impact of the Economic Crisis and Recovery on Innovation’, Special Theme. In World Intellectual Property Indicators 2010, Economics and Statistics Division. Geneva: WIPO. ———. 2011.‘The Changing Nature of Innovation and Intellectual Property’. World Intellectual Property Report 2011: The Changing Face of Innovation, Chapter 1. Economics and Statistics Division, Geneva: WIPO. http:// www.wio.int/econ_stat/en/economics/ publications.html. ———. 2012. World Intellectual Property Indicators 2012. Economics and Statistics Division. Geneva: WIPO. ———. 2013a. PCT Yearly Review: The International Patent System in 2012. Economics and Statistics Division. Geneva: WIPO. ———. 2013b. ‘Who Filed the Most PCT Patent Applications in 2012?’ Press Release. Available at http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/ pressroom/en/documents/pr_2013_732_1. pdf. Zhang, Q., N. Perra, B. Gonçalves, F. Ciulla, and A. Vespignani. 2013. ‘Characterizing Scientific Production and Consumption in Physics’. Scientific Reports 3 (article 1640). April. doi:10.1038/srep01640.
- 61. 37 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework TheGlobalInnovationIndexConceptualFramework Annex 1 The rationale for the Global Innovation Index The Global Innovation Index (GII) project was launched by INSEAD in 2007 with the simple goal of deter- mining how to find metrics and approaches to better capture the rich- ness of innovation in society and go beyond such traditional measures of innovation as the number of research articles and the level of research and development (R&D) expenditures.1 There were several motivations for setting this goal. First, innovation is important for driving economic progress and competitiveness—for both developed and developing economies. Many governments are putting innovation at the centre of their growth strategies. Second, there is awareness that the definition of innovation has broadened—it is no longer restricted to R&D labo- ratories and to published scientific papers. Innovation could be and is more general and horizontal in nature, and includes social innova- tions and business model innova- tions as well. Last but not least, rec- ognizing and celebrating innovation in emerging markets is seen as criti- cal for inspiring people—especially the next generation of entrepreneurs and innovators. The GII helps to create an envi- ronment in which innovation factors are under continual evaluation, and it provides a key tool and a rich data- base of detailed metrics for refining innovation policies. The GII is not meant to be the ultimate and definitive ranking of nations with respect to innovation. Measuring innovation outputs and impacts remains difficult; hence great emphasis is placed on mea- suring the climate and infrastruc- ture for innovation and on assessing related outcomes. Although the end results take the shape of several rankings, the GII is more concerned with improv- ing ‘the journey’ to better measure and understand innovation and with identifying targeted policies, good practices, and other levers to foster innovation. The rich metrics can be used—on the level of the index, the sub-indices, or the actual raw data of individual variables—to moni- tor performance over time and to benchmark developments against countries in the same region or of the same income class. Drawing on the expertise of the GII’s Knowledge Partners and the prominent Advisory Board, the GII model is continually updated to reflect the improved availabil- ity of statistics and our understand- ing of innovation. For the past two years, particular emphasis has been placed on avoiding flawed year-on- year comparisons by estimating the impact in the rankings of updating the database, adjustments to the GII framework, and/or the inclusion of additional economies in the rank- ings (refer to Annex 2). An inclusive perspective on innovation The GII adopts a broad notion of innovation, originally developed in the Oslo Manual developed by the European Communities and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD):2 An innovation is the implementation of a new or significantly improved product (good or service), a new process, a new marketing method, or a new organizational method in business practices, workplace organization, or external relations. This definition reflects the evolu- tion of the way innovation has been perceived and understood over the last two decades.3 Previously, economists and policy makers focused on R&D- based technological product inno- vation, largely produced in-house and mostly in manufacturing indus- tries. This type of innovation was performed by a highly educated labour force in R&D-intensive companies. The process leading to such innovation was conceptualized as closed, internal, and localized. Technological breakthroughs were necessarily ‘radical’ and took place at the ‘global knowledge frontier’. This characterization implied the exis- tence of leading and lagging coun- tries, with low- or middle-income economies only catching up. Today, innovation capability is seen more as the ability to exploit new technological combinations and embraces the notion of incremental innovation and ‘innovation without
- 62. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 38 research’. Non-R&D-innovative expenditure is an important com- ponent of reaping the rewards of technological innovation. Interest in understanding how innovation takes place in low- and middle-income countries is increasing, along with an awareness that incremental forms of innovation can impact development. Furthermore, the process of innovation itself has undergone sig- nificant change. Investment in inno- vation-related activity has consis- tently intensified at the firm, coun- try, and global levels, adding both new innovation actors from out- side high-income economies and also nonprofit actors. The structure of knowledge production activity is more complex and geographically dispersed than ever. A key challenge is to find metrics that capture innovation as it happens Box 1: Towards a global database of firm-level innovation statistics As described in previous editions of the Global Innovation Index (GII), direct offi- cial measures to quantify innovation out- puts are frequently not available. 1 In recent years, however, building on frameworks and guidelines for the study of innovation devel- oped over the last decades, firm-level data originating in national innovation surveys has improved this situation. 2 These surveys are a rich source of data for analytical work on innovation, and their findings support the design and implementation of adequate innovation policies and strategies. To date, national innovation surveys have been carried out by 95 countries, 15 of them in Africa (Table 1.1). 3 Innovation data typically describe the most innovative indus- trial sectors in a country, the portion of firms’ revenue that comes from new products launched in the market, and how important industry-university linkages are. Surveys in developing countries also reveal informa- tion on other subjects, such as the forms and actors of collaboration, the difficulties faced by firms in making use of intellectual property to protect their innovations, and the importance of public policies for inno- vation activities. To lay the groundwork for a global data collection, the UIS launched a pilot data col- lection of innovation statistics in 2011. 4 A total of 12 (out of 19) countries completed the questionnaire,5 which was itself based on the UIS Global Catalogue of Innovation Surveys, a database with the most frequent questions included in innovation surveys. Overall, the results of the pilot show that innovation is a pervasive phenomenon that is not restricted to wealthy countries or their firms; that is correlated with the size of firms, and that often occurs without engagement in formal research and development (R&D). Product or process innovators, for instance, are found in all countries, regardless of their level of development (Figure 1.1). Pilot coun- tries also show higher percentages of large manufacturing firms implementing innova- tions than medium-sized and small firms: in China, for example, these percentages are 72%, 47%, and 20%, respectively. The existence of diverse methodologi- cal procedures hampers the collection of data that are comparable across countries: industrial coverage, size of firms, cut-off points, sample selection, and observation periods differ across surveys. Furthermore, cultural differences and country-specific approaches play a role in the way respon- dents interpret and reply to identical ques- tions. An increased degree of alignment of surveys and a stronger reliance on the Oslo Manual guidelines would facilitate the use of survey data for international comparisons and the construction of composite indica- tors such as the GII. The UIS global database will reveal these dissimilarities and facili- tate the convergence of surveys in future iterations. Table 1.1: Number of countries with national innovation surveys Asia and Latin America Region Africa Arab States the Pacific Europe and the Caribbean North America Total Number of countries with innovation surveys 15 6 19 36 17 2 95 Source: The UIS Global Catalogue of Innovation Surveys database. Note: The innovation survey of Abu Dhabi is included in the Arab States; Mexico is included in Latin America and the Caribbean.The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) is now in the process of developing a database compiling the results from all these surveys in order to increase the availability of timely, accurate, and policy-relevant firm-level statistics in the fields of science, technology, and innovation. The results of the UIS 2013 Global Data Collection of Innovation Statistics, the first in a biannual series, will be released in June 2014. For this activity, the UIS also relies on its partnership with the New Partnership for Africa’s Development–African Union (AU/NEPAD), Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Commission), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the Network for Science and Technology Indicators–Ibero-American and Inter-American (RICYT). All countries with an official innovation survey are targeted, and topics covered include product innovation, process innovation, innovation activities, sources of information, cooperation, hampering factors, marketing innovation, and organizational innovation. (Continued)
- 63. 39 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework in the world today.4 Direct official measures that quantify innovation outputs remain extremely scarce.5 For example, there are no official statistics on the amount of innovative activ- ity—defined as the number of new products, processes, or other inno- vations—for any given innovation actor, let alone for any given country (see Box 1). Most measures also strug- gle to appropriately capture the inno- vation outputs of a wider spectrum of innovation actors, such as the services sector or public entities. The GII aims to move beyond the mere measurement of such simple innovation metrics. To do so will require the integration of new variables, with a trade-off between the quality of the variable on the one hand and achieving good country coverage on the other hand. The timeliest possible indicators are used for the GII: 38.2% of data Source UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). Notes 1 See INSEAD, 2011, Chapter 1, Box 3; INSEAD and WIPO, 2012, Chapter 5. 2 The standardizing of innovation surveys started with the publication of the first edition of the Oslo Manual by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992. The Manual pushed the measurement of inno- vation as a process, fostering the collection of comparable innovation indicators. 3 These national innovation surveys are often inspired by the Community Innovation Survey (CIS) harmonized questionnaire, although they differ across countries in terms of scope and subjects covered. The first round of the CIS was carried out in 1992, in parallel to the publication of the Oslo Manual, now available in its 3rd edi- tion at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ ITY_PUBLIC/OSLO/EN/OSLO-EN.PDF. 4 The results are available at http://www.uis. unesco.org/ScienceTechnology/Documents/ Innovation-statistics-en%20%282%29.pdf. 5 The following countries participated in the pilot data collection: Brazil, China, Colombia, Egypt, Ghana, Indonesia, Israel, Malaysia, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, and Uruguay. References INSEAD. 2011. The Global Innovation Index 2011: Accelerating Growth and Development. Fontainebleau: INSEAD. INSEAD and WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2012. The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth. Fontainebleau: INSEAD. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 1992. Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Technological Innovation Data, 1st edition. Paris: OECD. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) and Eurostat. 2005. Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data, 3rd edition. Paris: OECD. Available at http:// epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/ OSLO/EN/OSLO-EN.PDF. 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 EU27 averageUruguaySouth AfricaRussian Federation PhilippinesMalaysiaIsraelEgyptChinaBrazil Figure 1.1: Manufacturing firms that implemented product or process innovation, % Source: 2011 UIS pilot data collection of innovation statistics; Community Innovation Survey 2006 (CIS 2006) database (Eurostat, 2012). Notes: Three-year observation period, except for the Russian Federation (1 year), the Philippines (1.5 years), and Malaysia (4 years). For China: Product innovation covers only new or significantly improved goods and excludes services; logistics, delivery, or distribution methods are not explicitly mentioned in process innovation. For the Philippines: Information technology services are also included; results are not representative of the target population. For the EU27/Eurostat: Data cover firms with abandoned or ongoing activities. Box 1: Towards a global database of firm-level innovation statistics (continued) Eurostat maximum Eurostat minimum Percent
- 64. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 40 obtained are from 2012, 34.5% are from 2011, 13.9% from 2010, and the small remainder (13.4%) from ear- lier years.6 The GII conceptual framework The GII is an evolving project that builds on its previous editions while incorporating newly available data and that is inspired by the lat- est research on the measurement of innovation. This year the GII model includes 142 countries/economies that represent 94.9% of the world’s population and 98.7% of the world’s GDP (in current US dollars). The GII relies on two sub-indi- ces—the Innovation Input Sub- Index and the Innovation Output Sub-Index—each built around pil- lars. Four measures are calculated (Figure 1): 1. Innovation Input Sub-Index: Five input pillars capture ele- ments of the national economy that enable innovative activities. 2. Innovation Output Sub-Index: Innovation outputs are the results of innovative activities within the economy. Although the Output Sub-Index includes only two pillars, it has the same weight in calculating the overall GII scores as the Input Sub-Index. 3. The overall GII score is the simple average of the Input and Output Sub-Indices. 4. The Innovation Efficiency Ratio is the ratio of the Output Sub-Index to the Input Sub- Index. It shows how much innovation output a given coun- try is getting for its inputs. Each pillar is divided into three sub-pillars, each of which is com- posed of individual indicators, for a total of 84 indicators. The GII pays special attention to presenting a scoreboard for each economy that includes strengths and weaknesses (Appendix I Country/Economy Profiles), making accessible the data series (Appendix II Data Tables), and providing data sources and defini- tions (Appendix III) and detailed technical notes (Appendix IV). First in 2012 and again this year, adjust- ments to the GII framework, includ- ing a detailed analysis of the factors influencing year-on-year changes, are detailed in Annex 2. In addition, since 2011 the GII has been submit- ted to an independent statistical audit Figure 1: Framework of the Global Innovation Index 2013 Global Innovation Index (average) Innovation Efficiency Ratio (ratio) Innovation Input Sub-Index Institutions Human capital and research Infrastructure Market sophistication Business sophistication Creative outputs Knowledge creation Knowledge impact Knowledge diffusion Innovation Output Sub-Index Political environment Regulatory environment Business environment Education Tertiary education Research & development ICT General infrastructure Ecological sustainability Credit Investment Trade & competition Knowledge workers Innovation linkages Knowledge absorption Intangible assets Creative goods and services Knowledge and technology outputs Online creativity
- 65. 41 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework performed by the Joint Research Centre of the European Union (results are detailed in Annex 3). A table is included for each pillar. That table provides a list of the pil- lar’s indicators, specifying their type (composite indicators are identified with an asterisk ‘*’, survey questions with a dagger ‘†’, and the remaining indicators are hard data); their weight in the index (indicators with half weight are identified with the letter ‘a’); and the direction of their effect (indicators for which higher values imply worse outcomes are identified with the letter ‘b’). The table then provides each indicator’s average values (in their respective units) per income group (World Bank classifi- cation) and for the whole sample of 142 economies retained in the final computation (Tables 1a through 1g). The Innovation Input Sub-Index The first sub-index of the GII, the Innovation Input Sub-Index, has five enabler pillars: Institutions, Human capital and research, Infrastructure, Market sophistication, and Business sophistication. Enabler pillars define aspects of the environment con- ducive to innovation within an economy. Pillar 1: Institutions Nurturing an institutional frame- work that attracts business and fos- ters growth by providing good gov- ernance and the correct levels of protection and incentives is essential to innovation. The Institutions pillar captures the institutional framework of a country (Table 1a). The political environment sub- pillar includes three indices that reflect perceptions of the likelihood that a government might be destabi- lized; the quality of public and civil services, policy formulation, and implementation; and perceptions on violations to press freedom. The regulatory environment sub-pillar draws on two indices aimed at capturing perceptions on the ability of the government to for- mulate and implement cohesive pol- icies that promote the development of the private sector and at evaluat- ing the extent to which the rule of law prevails (in aspects such as con- tract enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts). The third indicator evaluates the cost of redun- dancy dismissal as the sum, in salary weeks, of the cost of advance notice requirements added to severance payments due when terminating a redundant worker. The business environment sub- pillar expands on three aspects that directly affect private entrepreneur- ial endeavours by using the World Bank indices on the ease of start- ing a business; the ease of resolv- ing insolvency (based on the recov- ery rate recorded as the cents on the dollar recouped by creditors through reorganization, liquidation, or debt enforcement/foreclosure proceed- ings); and the ease of paying taxes.7 Pillar 2: Human capital and research The level and standard of education and research activity in a country are prime determinants of the innova- tion capacity of a nation. This pillar tries to gauge the human capital of countries (Table 1b). The first sub-pillar includes a mix of indicators aimed at captur- ing achievements at the elemen- tary and secondary education levels. Education expenditure and school life expectancy are good proxies for coverage. Public expenditure per pupil gives a sense of the level of priority given to education by the state. The quality of education is measured through the results of the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which examines 15-year-old students’ per- formances in reading, mathemat- ics, and science, as well as the pupil- teacher ratio. Higher education is crucial for economies to move up the value chain beyond simple production processes and products. The sub- pillar on tertiary education aims at capturing coverage (tertiary enrol- ment); priority is given to the sectors traditionally associated with innova- tion (with a series on the percentage Table 1a: Institutions pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 1 Institutions 1.1 Political environment 1.1.1 Political stability†..........................................................................0.76...............–0.22...............–0.63...............–0.70...............–0.08 1.1.2 Government effectiveness†..................................................1.23...............–0.05...............–0.49...............–0.70..................0.15 1.1.3 Press freedom† b.......................................................................20.70...............33.70...............38.60...............33.25...............30.77 1.2 Regulatory environment 1.2.1 Regulatory quality† a.................................................................1.16..................0.02...............–0.39...............–0.58..................0.19 1.2.2 Rule of law† a..................................................................................1.20...............–0.21...............–0.62...............–0.78..................0.05 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks b.........13.50...............19.49...............24.97...............19.91...............19.04 1.3 Business environment 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business†...............................................86.47...............80.91...............77.56...............70.12...............80.23 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency†...........................................68.11...............38.86...............31.17...............23.18...............43.86 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes†.............................................................80.67...............66.00...............57.59...............56.06...............67.05 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes.
- 66. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 42 of tertiary graduates in science and engineering, manufacturing, and construction); and the inbound and gross outbound mobility of tertiary students, which play a crucial role in the exchange of ideas and skills nec- essary for innovation. The last sub-pillar, on R&D, measures the level and quality of R&D activities, with indicators on researchers (headcounts), expendi- ture, and the quality of scientific and research institutions as mea- sured by the average score of the top three universities in the QS World University Ranking of 2012. By design, this indicator aims at cap- turing the availability of at least three higher education institutions of quality within each economy (i.e., included in the global top 700), and is not aimed at assessing the average level of all institutions within a par- ticular economy.8 Pillar 3: Infrastructure The third pillar includes three sub- pillars: information and communi- cation technologies (ICTs), general infrastructure, and ecological sus- tainability (Table 1c). Good and ecologically friendly communication, transport, and energy infrastructures facilitate the production and exchange of ideas, services, and goods and feed into the innovation system through increased productivity and efficiency, lower transaction costs, better access to markets, and sustainable growth. The ICT sub-pillar includes four indices developed by international organizations on ICT access, ICT use, online service by governments, and online participation of citizens. The sub-pillar on general infra- structure includes two indicators related to electricity supply (the average of electricity output and consumption in kWh per capita); a composite indicator on logistics per- formance;9 and gross capital forma- tion, which consists of outlays on additions to the fixed assets and net inventories of the economy, includ- ing land improvements (fences, ditches, drains); plant, machinery, and equipment purchases; and the construction of roads, railways, and the like, including schools, offices, hospitals, private residential dwell- ings, and commercial and industrial buildings. The sub-pillar on ecological sustainability includes three indi- cators: GDP per unit of energy use (a measure of efficiency in the use of energy), the Environmental Performance Index developed by Yale University and Columbia University, and the number of cer- tificates of conformity with standard ISO 14001 on environmental man- agement systems issued. Table 1b: Human capital & research pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 2 Human capital & research 2.1 Education 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..................5.09..................4.53..................4.50..................3.68..................4.56 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap.........................24.44...............18.15...............18.35...............17.88...............20.31 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.............................................15.79...............13.66...............11.68..................9.87...............13.31 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science a...............494.95............425.39............376.09............324.91............458.19 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary b.......................................11.38...............15.72...............19.21...............27.95...............17.13 2.2 Tertiary education 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross a.............................................59.93...............44.40...............24.65..................9.06...............38.71 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %......................22.65...............21.02...............18.76...............14.16...............20.39 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, % a...........................................10.28..................3.20..................2.33..................2.00..................5.46 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, % a........................4.46..................1.93..................1.50..................0.38..................2.39 2.3 Research & development (R&D) 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..........................5,093.69........1,210.01............487.33............108.22........ 2,121.22 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...................................1.82..................0.58..................0.27..................0.23..................0.94 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3†..............40.96...............15.90..................4.84..................0.26...............18.72 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes. Table 1c: Infrastructure pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 3 Infrastructure 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs) 3.1.1 ICT access†.......................................................................................7.47..................4.81..................3.27..................1.99..................4.88 3.1.2 ICT use†..............................................................................................5.32..................2.18..................1.06..................0.27..................2.64 3.1.3 Government’s online service†.............................................0.73..................0.51..................0.39..................0.28..................0.51 3.1.4 E-participation†............................................................................0.50..................0.27..................0.17..................0.07..................0.29 3.2 General infrastructure 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap a......................................9,970.34........2,929.85........1,312.87............558.32........ 4,792.36 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap a.......................9,570.28........2,680.17............917.30............490.34........ 4,472.18 3.2.3 Logistics performance†...........................................................3.55..................2.85..................2.63..................2.50..................2.96 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP.......................................20.03...............25.18...............24.77...............24.97...............23.40 3.3 Ecological sustainability 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq...........7.42..................7.08..................5.56..................3.44..................6.48 3.3.2 Environmental performance†...........................................60.30...............51.81...............48.85...............49.73...............53.80 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environ. certificates/bn PPP$ GDP............4.17..................3.05..................0.46..................0.21..................2.43 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes.
- 67. 43 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework at finding hard data on competition proved unsuccessful.11 Pillar 5: Business sophistication The last enabler pillar tries to cap- ture the level of business sophistica- tion to assess how conducive firms are to innovation activity (Table 1e). The Human capital and research pillar (pillar 2) made the case that the accumulation of human capital through education, and particularly higher education and the prioritiza- tion of R&D activities, is an indis- pensable condition for innovation to take place. That logic is taken one step further here with the assertion that businesses foster their produc- tivity, competitiveness, and innova- tion potential with the employment Pillar 4: Market sophistication The ongoing global financial cri- sis has underscored how crucial the availability of credit, investment funds, and access to international markets is for businesses to prosper. The Market sophistication pillar has three sub-pillars structured around market conditions and the total level of transactions (Table 1d). The credit sub-pillar includes a measure on the ease of getting credit aimed at measuring the degree to which collateral and bankruptcy laws facilitate lending by protecting the rights of borrowers and lend- ers, as well as the rules and prac- tices affecting the coverage, scope, and accessibility of credit informa- tion. Transactions are given by the total value of domestic credit and, in an attempt to make the model more applicable to emerging markets, the gross loan portfolio of microfinance institutions. The investment sub-pillar includes the ease of protecting inves- tors index as well as three indicators on the level of transactions. To show whether market size is matched by market dynamism, stock market capitalization is complemented by the total value of shares traded. The last metric is a hard data metric on venture capital deals, taking into account a total of 8,452 deals in 80 countries in 2012.10 The last sub-pillar tackles trade and competition. The market con- ditions for trade are given by two indicators: the average tariff rate weighted by import shares and a measure capturing market access conditions to foreign markets (five major export markets weighted actual applied tariffs for non-agri- cultural exports). The third and last indicator is a survey question that reflects on the intensity of compe- tition in local markets. Efforts made Table 1d: Market sophistication pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 4 Market sophistication 4.1 Credit 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit†...........................................................70.31...............63.93...............59.05...............50.33...............62.70 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............117.93...............54.48...............36.39...............24.31...............65.75 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP......................................0.01..................1.07..................2.42..................2.61..................1.87 4.2 Investment 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors†............................................62.37...............58.69...............50.57...............49.33...............56.41 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................61.99...............41.94...............23.40...............33.51...............45.54 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................55.55...............16.45..................4.72..................4.48...............28.77 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP....................................0.08..................0.01..................0.01..................0.03..................0.03 4.3 Trade & competition 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, % b.........................2.47..................5.32..................6.65..................9.72..................5.40 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, % b.....1.75..................0.87..................1.28..................1.89..................1.40 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†...........................................5.36..................4.56..................4.57..................4.31..................4.79 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes. Table 1e: Business sophistication pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 5 Business sophistication 5.1 Knowledge workers 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................32.10...............21.85...............16.91..................7.14...............24.13 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms........................42.59...............43.46...............32.75...............31.06...............37.63 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP a.............................1.22..................0.23..................0.09..................0.03..................0.64 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, % a..........................................47.10...............34.10...............15.63...............13.62...............34.96 5.1.5 GMAT mean score a...............................................................535.86............511.07............480.23............426.43............498.50 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34 a..............................365.32............116.01...............55.23...............18.66............165.56 5.2 Innovation linkages 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration† a............4.56..................3.58..................3.07..................3.24..................3.73 5.2.2 State of cluster development† a..........................................4.35..................3.56..................3.38..................3.25..................3.73 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................10.40..................8.54...............11.58...............29.40...............12.28 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP a......................0.09..................0.03..................0.02..................0.01..................0.04 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP a....1.64..................0.03..................0.01..................0.00..................0.55 5.3 Knowledge absorption 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees pay’ts, % service imports a.......7.21..................2.87..................1.69..................0.44..................3.52 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................12.84...............10.51..................7.21..................7.03...............10.03 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %...........5.75..................4.62..................3.67..................4.76..................4.77 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP.............................................................4.94..................4.03..................5.34..................5.17..................4.82 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes.
- 68. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 44 of highly qualified professionals and technicians. The first sub-pillar includes four quantitative indicators on knowledge workers: employment in knowledge-intensive services; the availability of formal training at the firm level; R&D performed by business enterprise (BERD) as a percentage of GDP (i.e., BERD over GDP);12 and the percentage of total gross expenditure of R&D that is financed by business enter- prise. In addition, the sub-pillar includes two indicators related to the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT).13 The GMAT mean scores and total number of test tak- ers (scaled by population aged 20 to 34 years old) were taken as proxies for the entrepreneurial mindset of young graduates and for their overall aptitude for success in global innova- tion markets (where skills in English and mathematics are crucial). Innovation linkages and public/ private/academic partnerships are essential to innovation (see Chapters 2–11 of The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth). In emerging mar- kets, pockets of wealth have devel- oped around industrial or techno- logical clusters and networks, in sharp contrast to the poverty that may prevail in the rest of the terri- tory. The innovation linkages sub- pillar draws on both qualitative and quantitative data regarding busi- ness/university collaboration on R&D, the prevalence of well-devel- oped and deep clusters, the level of gross R&D expenditure financed by abroad, and the number of deals on joint ventures and strategic alli- ances. The latter covers a total of 4,078 deals announced in 2012, with firms headquartered in 139 partici- pating economies.14 In addition, the total number of Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) and national office published patent family applications filed by residents in at least three offices is included this year to proxy for international linkages.15 In broad terms, pillar 4 on mar- ket sophistication makes the case that well-functioning markets contribute to the innovation environment through competitive pressure, effi- ciency gains, and economies of transaction and by allowing supply to meet demand. Markets that are open to foreign trade and investment have the additional effect of expos- ing domestic firms to best practices around the globe, which is critical to innovation through knowledge absorption and diffusion, which are considered in pillars 5 and 6. The rationale behind sub-pillars 5.3 on knowledge absorption (an enabler) and 6.3 on knowledge diffusion (a result)—two sub-pillars designed to be mirror images of each other— is precisely that together they will reveal how good countries are at absorbing and diffusing knowledge. Sub-pillar 5.3 includes four sta- tistics that are linked to sectors with high-tech content or are key to innovation: royalty and license fees payments as a percentage of total ser- vices imports;16 high-tech imports (net of re-imports) as a percentage of total imports; imports of commu- nication, computer and information services as a percentage of total ser- vice imports;17 and net inflows of foreign direct investment (FDI) as a percentage of GDP. The Innovation Output Sub-Index Innovation outputs are the results of innovative activities within the economy. Although the Output Sub-Index includes only two pillars, it has the same weight in calculating the overall GII scores as the Input Sub-Index. There are two output pillars: Knowledge and technology outputs and Creative outputs. Pillar 6: Knowledge and technology outputs This pillar covers all those vari- ables that are traditionally thought to be the fruits of inventions and/ or innovations (Table 1f). The first Table 1f: Knowledge & technology outputs pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 6 Knowledge & technology outputs 6.1 Knowledge creation 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP a..........10.35..................3.43..................2.20..................0.44..................5.22 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP a..........................3.52..................0.27..................0.10..................0.03..................1.34 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.............1.86..................3.63..................5.57..................1.64..................3.17 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP a..........31.88...............12.76..................7.97...............10.86...............17.22 6.1.5 Citable documents H index* a........................................309.82............111.95...............67.39...............58.76............155.49 6.2 Knowledge impact 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...............................1.57..................2.61..................2.19..................2.46..................2.11 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64 a........................................5.75..................3.31..................0.98..................0.33..................3.29 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP a.........................0.52..................0.31..................0.26..................0.19..................0.39 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP a............17.05...............12.18..................3.91..................0.85..................9.95 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, % a......33.96...............21.51...............16.05..................6.67...............24.14 6.3 Knowledge diffusion 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...4.55..................0.63..................1.65..................0.30..................2.10 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................10.00..................5.02..................1.54..................0.76..................5.32 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %...........8.52..................6.40...............10.08...............13.06..................8.99 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................16.82..................7.03..................0.44..................0.27..................7.96 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes.
- 69. 45 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework sub-pillar refers to the creation of knowledge. It includes four indi- cators that are the result of inven- tive and innovation activities: patent applications filed by residents both at the national patent office and at the international level through the PCT; utility model applications filed by residents at the national office; and scientific and technical published articles in peer-reviewed journals.18 The pillar was strengthened this year with a fifth indicator aimed at assess- ing the overall impact of scientific publications: the H index is an econ- omy’s number of articles (H) that have received at least H citations. The second sub-pillar, on knowl- edge impact, includes statistics rep- resenting the impact of innovation activities at the micro and macro- economic level or related proxies: increases in labour productivity, the entry density of new firms, spend- ing on computer software, and the number of certificates of conformity with standard ISO 9001 on qual- ity management systems issued. To strengthen the sub-pillar, the mea- sure of high- and medium-high- tech industrial output over total manufactures output was added this year. The third sub-pillar, on knowl- edge diffusion, is the mirror image of the knowledge absorption sub- pillar of pillar 5. It includes four statistics all linked to sectors with high-tech content or that are key to innovation: royalty and license fees receipts as a percentage of total ser- vice exports;19 high-tech exports (net of re-exports) as a percentage of total exports (net of re-exports); exports of communication, com- puter and information services as a percentage of total service exports;20 and net outflows of FDI as a percent- age of GDP. Pillar 7: Creative outputs The role of creativity for innovation is still largely underappreciated in innovation measurement and policy debates. Since its inception, the GII has always emphasized measuring creativity as part of its Innovation Output Sub-Index. The last pillar, on creative outputs, has three sub- pillars (Table 1g). The first sub-pillar on intangi- ble assets includes statistics on trade- mark registrations by residents at the national office; trademark registra- tions under the Madrid system by country of origin,21 and two survey questions regarding the use of ICTs in business and organizational mod- els, new areas that are increasingly linked to process innovations in the literature. The second sub-pillar includes proxies to get at creativity and cre- ative outputs in an economy. This year, the series on national feature films produced in a given coun- try (per capita count) and on daily newspapers’ circulation included in the past two editions were complemented by two additional sectoral indicators: audio-visual and related services exports (as a percent- age of total services exports),22 and printing and publishing output (as a percentage of total manufactures output).23 The fifth indicator, cre- ative goods exports, is aimed at pro- viding an overall sense of the inter- national reach of creative activities in the country.24 In future editions of the GII, attempts will be made to include a broader sectoral coverage (music, computer games, etc.). It will help that the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) recently launched a pilot data collection programme, so that in a few years it will be able to supply a large range of media indi- cators across countries (see Box 2). The third sub-pillar on online creativity includes four indicators, all scaled by population aged 15 to 69 years old: generic (biz, info, org, net, and com) and country-code top level domains; average monthly edits to Wikipedia; and video uploads on YouTube. Attempts made to Table 1g: Creative outputs pillar Average value by income group (0–100) High Upper-middle Lower-middle Low Indicator income income income income Mean 7 Creative outputs 7.1 Intangible assets 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..............46.68...............42.05...............63.52...............20.46...............45.31 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP..........1.84..................0.88..................0.51..................0.11..................1.19 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†.........................................5.01..................4.26..................4.06..................3.98..................4.42 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†............................4.69..................4.04..................3.84..................3.67..................4.16 7.2 Creative goods & services 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..................0.78..................0.63..................0.17..................0.47..................0.58 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69 a.........................8.10..................3.79..................2.75..................1.87..................4.89 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69 a...............22.92..................8.30..................4.25..................0.81...............11.01 7.2.4 Creative goods exports, %.....................................................2.99..................1.96..................1.64..................2.48..................2.39 7.2.5 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.........................2.78..................2.51..................0.81..................0.36..................1.92 7.3 Online creativity 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.82.84..............13.52..................9.72..................0.60...............32.61 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................93.72...............50.70..................9.47..................0.43...............46.77 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69..........6,645.04........1,748.86............763.89............140.53........ 2,942.24 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69*...................83.06...............67.98...............58.43...............36.43...............65.67 Note: (*) index, (†) survey question, (a) half weight, (b) higher values indicate worse outcomes.
- 70. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 46 Source: The Global Innovation Index 2013, indicator 7.2.4, based on United Nations, COMTRADE database and UNESCO-UIS, 2009. Note: Categories of GDP per capita follow the World Bank 2012 classification: low income = $1,025 or less; lower-middle income = $1,026 to $4,035; upper-middle income = $4,036 to $12,475; high income = $12,476 or more. 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 0 4 8 12 16 Since its inception, the Global Innovation Index (GII) has endeavoured to measure cre- ative outputs as part of its Innovation Output Sub-Index to stress the importance of cre- ativity for innovation, a fact largely under- estimated in innovation measurement and policy circles. In the GII, the Creative outputs pillar includes three sub-pillars: (1) Intangible assets, (2) Creative goods and services, and (3) Online creativity. Among international organizations, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)—the sta- tistical arm of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)—is responsible for, among others, developing and disseminating conceptual models and practical methodologies for the development and collection of cultural sta- tistics. The UIS, for example, administers and compiles data from a biannual survey on fea- ture film statistics, which has been included in the GII since 2011. In 2009, the UIS developed the 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS),1 which establishes a conceptual and practical model for the development of cultural statistics. The FCS includes taxono- mies for defining cultural industries, goods and services, and occupations from recog- nized international standard classifications. Compilation of data on the basis of these classifications is scheduled for mid-2013 for cultural employment statistics, and for 2014 for updated figures on international flows of cultural goods and services. Creative goods exports Since data on the basis of the FCS are not yet available, the GII research team, in close collaboration with the UIS, decided to com- pile data on the basis of the classification for creative goods exports.2 To our knowledge, this is the first time that the data are reported following this new international standard. This indicator replaces the series with the same title included in the past two editions of the GII, which were based on the 2008 and 2010 editions of UNCTAD’s Creative Economy Report, now discontinued.3 The UNCTAD esti- mates in that report used trade statistics as a benchmark and included all goods, without distinguishing the mode of production or type.4 One limitation of customs data is the difficulty in differentiating by mode of pro- duction (handmade or processed), or type of product (decorative or functional), especially for crafts and design goods. The UNESCO FCS proposes a more refined view that includes only the cul- tural and creative goods for the six core cultural domains associated with artistic or creative activity: A, Cultural and natural heritage; B, Performance and celebration; C, Visual arts and crafts; D, Books and press; E, Audiovisual and interactive media; and F, Design and creative services. In addition, the domain Equipment and supporting materi- als is taken into account.5 These new data yield a number of inter- esting results: Figure 2.1: Creative exports as a percentage of total exports by PPP$ GDP, 2011 Box 2: UNESCO cultural and creative trade data GDP per capita PPP (current US dollars) Shareofcreativeexportsovertotalexports(%) R2=0.06144 n Low income n Lower-middle income n Upper-middle income n High income (Continued)
- 71. 47 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework First, the intensity of creative goods exports is positively correlated with GDP but with contrasting patterns (Figure 2.1).6 Low- income countries have, on average, a share of creative exports over total trade that is below 0.5%, whereas this share reaches 1% for lower-middle-income countries. In this category, India and Viet Nam, with 5.98% and 4.86%, respectively, have a higher share than the average for high-income coun- tries, which is 2.57%. Upper-middle-income countries have the highest average share, at 2.62%. Second, from 2007 to 2011, the eco- nomic crisis impacted mainly the exports of creative goods of high-income coun- tries, which experienced an average drop of 10.79% in the share of creative goods in total exports during this period. By contrast, the intensity of creative exports continued to increase in the other countries, reaching an average growth of 3.12% in upper-middle income economies. Although the data compilation efforts and these preliminary results constitute a promising venue for future analysis, several challenges remain:7 First, customs-based data are classified by their observable physical characteristics, not according to their commercial value, leading to cultural goods being underval- ued. For example, customs statistics record the value of a tape at the commercial value of the support, even if the master copy of a movie would have a much higher valuation otherwise.8 Second, fragmented production net- works causing intra-firm trade or trade in intermediateproductsneedtobeaccounted for (e.g., trade among headquarters and for- eign affiliates, or between parties in different locations involved in producing a movie). Third, the Internet and new technolo- gies have led to the dematerialization of creative industries. Services data are thus increasingly crucial. To this end, the UIS contributed to the Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services (MSITS) to improve the definition and representation of cultural and creative services within its Extended Balance of Payments classifica- tion, updated in 2010 (EBOPS 2010).9 As soon as countries begin producing services data according to this new classification, the assessment of creative services will be much improved.10 For the moment, audio- visual services and computer services are increasingly and better tracked statistically. They provide an initial but still-partial pic- ture of the intensity and dynamism of trade creative services. Creative services exports The past two editions of the GII included a series on creative services exports based on UNCTAD’s Creative Economy Report (CER) 2008 and 2010. This series overestimated cultural services because it included non- cultural services as well, which is why only the trade on Audiovisual and related ser- vices (category 288) is included this year in the GII 2013.11 Source UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). Notes 1 For more information about UNESCO’s Framework for Cultural Statistics, see http:// www.uis.unesco.org/culture/Documents/frame- work-cultural-statistics-culture-2009-en.pdf. 2 The data compiled for the GII are extracted from the United Nations COMTRADE database based on the codes listed in Table 3 of the 2009 UNESCO FCS: International trade of cultural goods and services, defined using the 2007 version of the nomenclature ‘Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding Systems. 3 The UNCTAD compilation included 211 codes based on the 2002 Harmonised System HS 2002. 4 The category ‘arts and crafts and design’, for example, includes a large range of goods, from kitchen sinks to wallpaper and the entire fashion industry. 5 This category is defined as tools that are not nec- essarily cultural but can be used for the produc- tion or execution of a cultural good or activity and that are necessary for the existence of these cultural products. 6 Percentage of creative goods exports as share of total exports. 7 See UNESCO-UIS, 2005, Chapter 2. 8 See Basket IV: Digital Products, in Wunsch- Vincent, 2004. 9 See UN et al., 2010, section O. Definitions of the components of the Extended Balance of Payments Services Classification, sub-sections 8, Charges for the use of intellectual property n.i.e. and 11, Personal, cultural and recreational servic- es; see also section P, Complementary groupings of service and non-service transactions, subsec- tion 2, Cultural transactions. 10 EBOPS 2010 (in MSITS 2010) has been implement- ed only by Australia and Chile so far. See UN et al., 2010. 11 The explanatory notes to the CER 2010 Statistical Annex, available at http://unctadstat.unctad.org/ UnctadStatMetadata/Documentation/CER2010_ StatAnnex.pdf, list the included series as being EBOPS 2002 codes 266, 278, 280, 284, 288, 889, and 897. Audiovisual and related services is cat- egory 288. References UN, EUROSTAT, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD, UNWTO, and WTO (United Nations, Statistical Office of the European Union, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, and World Trade Organization). 2010. Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services (MSITS, 2010). Geneva, Luxembourg, Madrid, New York, Paris, and Washington DC: UN, EUROSTAT, IMF, OECD, UNCTAD, UNWTO, and WTO. UNCTAD/UNDP (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development/United Nations Development Programme). 2008. Creative Economy: Report 2008. New York: UN. Available at http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ditc20082cer_ en.pdf. ———. 2010. Creative Economy: Report 2010. New York: UN. Available at http://www.unctad.org/en/ docs/ditctab20103_en.pdf. UNESCO-UIS (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-Institute for Statistics). 2005. ‘Methodological Approach’. In International Flows of Selected Cultural Goods and Services, 1994–2003. Chapter 2. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. ———. 2009. 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Available at http://www.uis.unesco.org/culture/ Pages/framework-cultural-statistics.aspx. Wunsch-Vincent, S. 2004. ‘WTO, E-commerce, and Information Technologies: From Uruguay Round through the Doha Development Agenda’. A Report for the UN ICT Task Force, ed. J. McIntosh. New York: UN ICT Task Force. Available at http:// www.piie.com/publications/papers/wunsch1104. pdf. Box 2: UNESCO cultural and creative trade data (continued)
- 72. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 1:TheGIIConceptualFramework 48 strengthen this sub-pillar with indi- cators in areas such as blog posting, online gaming, the development of applications, and so on proved unsuccessful. Notes 1 For a fuller introduction to the Global Innovation Index, see GII 2011. Examples of other composite innovation indices were reviewed there, too. The Global Innovation Policy Index of the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, which is quite complementary to the GII, was formulated in 2012. 2 Eurostat and OECD, 2005. 3 OECD, 2010; GII 2011; and WIPO, 2011. 4 GII 2011; OECD Scoreboard, 2011; WIPO, 2011. 5 INSEAD, 2011; OECD, 2011; WIPO, 2011. 6 For completeness, 7.5% of datapoints are from 2009, 2.1% from 2008, 1.4% from 2007, 0.9% from 2006, 0.8% from 2005, 0.4% from 2004, and 0.3% from 2003. In addition, the GII is calculated on the basis of 10,401 data points (compared to 11,928 with complete series), implying that 12.8% of data points are missing. Data Tables (Appendix II) include the reference year for each data point and mark missing data as not available (n/a). 7 In 2013, for all ease of doing business indicators (1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 4.1.1, and 4.2.1), the percent rank measure used in 2012 was replaced by the new ‘distance to frontier’, which did not exist in 2012. The distance to frontier measure benchmarks economies to the frontier in regulatory practice, measuring the absolute distance to the best performance on each indicator and showing how much the regulatory environment for local entrepreneurs in each economy has changed over time in absolute terms. 8 This indicator replaces a survey question from the World Economic Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey that was used in the last two editions of the GII on the quality of scientific and research institutions. 9 This year, the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) of the World Bank replaces one of its component indicators, the quality of trade- and transport-related infrastructure, used in the 2011 and 2012 editions of the GII. 10 In the GII 2012 and 2011, this indicator was constructed on the basis of 6,306 deals in 71 countries in 2011 and of 7,937 deals in 81 countries in 2010, respectively. 11 The total value of exports and imports as a percentage of GDP, two indicators included in 2011 and 2012, were eliminated this year. Since big countries rely relatively more heavily on their internal markets, these metrics showed some bias based on the size of the economy. 12 This year, the percentage of R&D performed by business over total GERD, which was included in GII 2011 and 2012, is replaced by BERD over GDP for two main reasons: the former was highly correlated with the percentage of R&D financed by business enterprise, which remains included in the GII framework; and the new indicator captures the level of R&D that is actually performed by business. 13 The GMAT is a standardized test aimed at measuring aptitude to succeed academically in graduate business studies. It is an important part of the admissions process for nearly 5,600 graduate management programmes in approximately 2,000 business schools worldwide. 14 This was determined from a query on joint ventures/strategic alliances deals announced in 2012 from Thomson Reuters SDC Platinum database. A count variable was created: each participating nation of each company in a deal (n countries per deal) gets, per deal, a score equivalent to 1/n so that all country scores add up to the total number of deals. 15 This indicator replaced the share of Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) published applications with at least one foreign inventor named, which was used in GII 2011 and 2012. 16 In GII 2011 and 2012, this indicator was scaled by GDP. 17 In GII 2011 and 2012, a compilation made by the World Bank—which included other services such as construction services, personal services, and royalty payments— was used. This year, this indicator was recalculated to include only communication, computer and information services. 18 In 2011 and 2012, the source of the metric on scientific and technical journal articles was the US National Science Foundation. This year this indicator was recalculated by using the Thomson Reuters Web of Science. A simple count is used instead of a fractional count; that is, if an article has authors from more than one country, each country adds one article. This approach rewards international collaboration, which has been proved to be crucial to innovation. 19 In GII 2011 and 2012, this indicator was scaled by GDP. 20 In GII 2011 and 2012, a compilation made by the World Bank—which included other services such as construction services, personal services exports, and royalty and license fees receipts—was used. This year, this indicator was recalculated to include only communication, computer and information services. 21 Registrations through the Madrid system are now counted by country of origin, not by resident as was the case in the GII 2011 and 2012. 22 The past two editions of the GII included a series on creative services exports based on UNCTAD’s Creative Economy Report (CER) 2008 and 2010, which has now been discontinued. 23 This series was introduced this year. Although a count indicator of the number of original literary works, for example, would have been preferred, data on a global scale do not exist. 24 The past two editions of the GII draw on the series on creative goods exports based on UNCTAD’s Creative Economy Report (CER) 2009 and 2010 editions, which has been discontinued. The current series follows the 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics. References Eurostat and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2005. Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data, 3rd edition. Paris: OECD. INSEAD. 2011. The Global Innovation Index 2011: Accelerating Growth and Development. Fontainebleau: INSEAD. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2010. The OECD Innovation Strategy: Getting a Head Start on Tomorrow. Paris: OECD. ———. 2011. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2011. Paris: OECD. UNCTAD/UNDP (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development/United Nations Development Programme). 2008. Creative Economy: Report 2008. New York: UN. Available at http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ ditc20082cer_en.pdf. ———. 2010. Creative Economy: Report 2010. New York: UN. Available at http://www.unctad.org/ en/docs/ditctab20103_en.pdf. UNESCO–UIS (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization–Institute for Statistics). 2009. 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Available at http://www.uis. unesco.org/culture/Pages/framework- cultural-statistics.aspx. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization), 2011. ‘The Changing Nature of Innovation and Intellectual Property’. In World Intellectual Property Report 2011: The Changing Face of Innovation, Chapter 1. Geneva: WIPO. Available at http://www.wio.int/econ_stat/ en/economics/publications.html.
- 73. 49 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:AdjustmentsandYear-on-YearComparability AdjustmentstotheGlobalInnovationIndexFrameworkandYear-on-Year ComparabilityofResults Annex 2 The Global Innovation Index (GII) is a cross-country performance assess- ment, compiled on an annual basis, which continuously seeks to update/ improve the way innovation is mea- sured. The GII report pays spe- cial attention to making accessible the statistics used in the Country/ Economy Profiles and Data Tables, providing data sources and defini- tions and detailing the computation methodology (Appendices I, II, III, and IV, respectively). This annex summarizes the changes made this year and provides an assessment of the impact of these changes on the comparability of rankings. Adjustments to the Global Innovation Index framework The GII model is revised every year in a transparent exercise. This year, no change was made at the pillar level. The title of sub-pillar 7.1 was changed from Creative intangibles to Intangible assets to better reflect the nature of its component indicators. In addition, beyond the use of World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) data, we col- laborate with both public interna- tionalbodies(suchastheInternational Energy Agency, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the International Telecommunication Union)andprivateorganizations(such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC), Thomson Reuters, IHS Global Insight, the World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers (WAN-IFRA), QS Quacquarelli Symonds Ltd, ZookNIC Inc., and Google) to obtain the best data on innovation measurement globally. Although the rationale for the adjustments made to the GII frame- work are explained in detail in Annex 1, Table 1 provides a sum- mary of these changes for quick ref- erencing. A total of 20 indicators were modified, 10 indicators were deleted or replaced, and 10 under- went methodological changes (new computation methodology at the source, change of scaling factor, change of classification, etc.). Sources of changes in the rankings Scores and rankings from one year to the next are therefore not directly comparable. For the second time, however, an effort was made to be transparent regarding the sources of changes in rankings. The method- ology used in 2012 was used again 2013. Following the computation methodology established jointly with the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission and detailed in Appendix IV Technical Notes, only countries with an indi- cator coverage of at least 63% (53 out of 84 indicators) are included in the rankings. The application of this criterion led to the exclu- sion of Burundi and Lao People’s Democratic Republic and the inclu- sion of Barbados, Cape Verde, and Guinea in the 2013 rankings. Table 3 details the source of the changes in rankings, and includes six columns summarized in Table 2: 1. The GII 2013 ranking out of 142 economies (A). 2. The GII 2012 ranking out of 141 economies (B). 3. For the 139 economies included in both the 2012 and 2013 rank- ings, the difference between the GII 2012 and the GII 2013 rank is provided (C = A – B). There are three sources of changes in rank- ings (such that C = D + E + F): Data updates: Column D com- pares the GII 2012 rankings with the rankings obtained with the 2013 database and the 2012 GII framework. Adjustments to the GII frame- work in 2013: Column E com- pares the ranking obtained with the 2013 database and the 2012 GII framework with the GII 2013 ranking. The exclusion/inclusion of countries/economies: Column F compares the GII 2012 and GII 2013 rankings out of 139 econ- omies with the actual rankings (over 141 and 142 economies, respectively).
- 74. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:AdjustmentsandYear-on-YearComparability 50 Table 1: Changes to the Global Innovation Index framework GII 2012 GII 2013 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business: Percent rank 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business: Distance to frontier 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency: Percent rank 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency: Distance to frontier 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes: Percent rank 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes: Distance to frontier 2.3.3 Quality of scientific research institutions 2.3.3 QS university ranking (average score of the top three universities per country/economy) 3.2.3 Trade and transport-related infrastructure index 3.2.3 The Logistics Performance Index, to which the former 3.2.3 indicator is a sub-component 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit: Percent rank 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit: Distance to frontier 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors: Percent rank 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors: Distance to frontier 4.3.3 Imports of goods and services Deleted 4.3.4 Exports of goods and services Deleted 5.1.3 GERD performed by business enterprise: Percentage of GERD 5.1.3 GERD performed by business enterprise: Percentage of GDP 5.2.5 Share of patents with at least one foreign inventor named 5.2.5 Patent families filed in at least three offices 5.3.1 Royalty and license fees payments (EBOPS 266): Percentage of GDP 5.3.1 Royalty and license fees payments (EBOPS 266): Percentage of total services imports 5.3.3 Computer, communications and other services imports: Percentage of commercial services imports (World Bank compilation including EBOPS 245, 259, 262, 266, 268, 287 over 200CS) 5.3.3 Restricted to communications, computer and information services imports as a percentage of total services imports (EBOPS 245 and 262 over 200) 6.1.4 Scientific and technical journal articles: Fractional count; computed biannually by the US National Science Foundation on the basis of Thomson Reuters, Web of Science 6.1.4 Direct computation from Thomson Reuters, Web of Science; simple count instead of fractional count—i.e., if authors are from more than one economy, each economy adds a count of one 6.1.5 Citable documents H index 6.2.5 High-tech and medium-high-tech: Percentage of total manufactures output 6.3.1 Royalty and license fees receipts (EBOPS 266): Percentage of GDP 6.3.1 Royalty and license fees receipts (EBOPS 266): Percentage of total services imports 6.3.3 Computer, communications and other services exports: Percentage of commercial services exports (World Bank compilation including EBOPS 245, 259, 262, 266, 268, 287 over 200CS) 6.3.3 Restricted to communications, computer and information services exports: Percentage of total services exports (EBOPS 245 and 262 over 200) 7.1 Creative intangibles 7.1. Intangible assets 7.1.2 Madrid international registrations by residents 7.1.2 Madrid international registrations by country of origin 7.2.1 Recreation and culture consumption: Percentage of total consump- tion Deleted 7.2.5 Creative services exports: Percentage of total services exports (UNCTAD compilation including EBOPS 266, 278, 280, 284, 288, 889, and 897over 200, now discontinued) 7.2.1 Restricted to audio-visual and related services exports: Percentage of total services exports (EBOPS 288 over 200) 7.2.4 Printing and publishing output: Percentage of total manufactures output 7.2.4 Creative goods exports: Percentage of total goods exports (UNCTAD compilation including 211 codes based on the 2002 Harmonised System HS 2002) 7.2.5 Substituted by a compilation based on the Harmonised System 2007 (HS 2007) included in the UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics of 2009, Table 3 (135 6-digit codes and 6 4-digit codes) Note: The highlighted row indicates a change of name at the sub-pillar level. Green text indicates changes that are essentially methodological in nature (involving the same indicator). Refer to Annex 1 and Appendix III for a detailed explanation of terminologies and acronyms. Table 2: Summary of source of changes in the rankings: 2013 compared with 2012 Source of changes in rankings GII 2013 rank GII 2012 rank Change in ranking between GII 2012 and GII 2013 Data updates Adjustments to the GII framework Inclusion/exclusion of countries/ economies (net) GII framework 2013 2012 2012 2012 vs. 2013 Dataset 2013 2013 2012 vs. 2013 2013 Number of countries/economies 142 141 139 139 139 139 vs. 141/142 Country/Economy A B C = B - A = D + E + F D E F
- 75. 51 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:AdjustmentsandYear-on-YearComparability How to interpret Table 3 The adjustments to the framework affected the rankings of most coun- tries. These examples illustrate how Table 3 should be interpreted: • Singapore and the United States of America (USA) would have kept their 2012 rankings (3rd and 10th, respectively) had we kept the 2012 framework unchanged while updating the database; Singapore drops five spots and the USA gains five as a result of adjustments to the framework in 2013. • Switzerland and Sweden, in con- trast, exhibit rankings that are robust to changes in the frame- work, the updating of the data- base, and the inclusion and exclu- sion of economies; they keep their 1st and 2nd positions in all scenarios. • Thailand remains at position 57 in 2013. However, Thailand would have fared better this year had we kept the GII 2012 frame- work unchanged and would have jumped f ive positions in the rankings. Thailand lost four posi- tions as a result of adjustments to the framework in 2013, and lost an additional position because of the inclusion of Barbados, which entered the rankings at posi- tion 47. Other factors to keep in mind These sources of changes in rank- ings are only an approximation at best; for some countries, some weaknesses or strengths were also revealed through better data cover- age or updated figures (the data span the 2003–12 period). Moreover, the modelling choices—the statistical treatment of indicators that has no relation to the conceptual framework—also has an impact on scores and rankings. The exclusion/inclusion of countries/ economies, for example, has a direct impact on the rankings (column F in Table 2), but also an indirect impact through the min-max normaliza- tion. Making inferences about abso- lute or relative performance on the basis of year-on-year differences in rankings can be misleading. Each ranking reflects the relative posi- tioning of that particular country/ economy on the basis of the con- ceptual framework, the data cover- age, and the sample of countries— elements that change from one year to another. The statistical audit performed by the Joint Research Centre (Annex 3) stresses a similar point by providing a confidence interval for each ranking following a robustness and uncertainty analysis of the mod- elling assumptions. Although the technical exercises presented in Annexes 2 and 3 add layers of complexity to the inter- pretation of results, they allow ana- lysts to refine their assessment of the changes in rankings and to avoid misinterpretations. (Table 3 begins on following page)
- 76. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:AdjustmentsandYear-on-YearComparability 52 Source of changes in rankings Country/Economy GII 2013 rank GII 2012 rank Change in ranking between GII 2012 and GII 2013 Data updates Adjustments to the GII framework Inclusion/exclusion of countries/ economies (net) Switzerland 1 1 0 0 0 0 Sweden 2 2 0 0 0 0 United Kingdom 3 5 2 1 1 0 Netherlands 4 6 2 –1 3 0 United States of America 5 10 5 0 5 0 Finland 6 4 –2 –1 –1 0 Hong Kong (China) 7 8 1 2 –1 0 Singapore 8 3 –5 0 –5 0 Denmark 9 7 –2 –1 –1 0 Ireland 10 9 –1 0 –1 0 Canada 11 12 1 –1 2 0 Luxembourg 12 11 –1 –1 0 0 Iceland 13 18 5 7 –2 0 Israel 14 17 3 1 2 0 Germany 15 15 0 0 0 0 Norway 16 14 –2 –4 2 0 New Zealand 17 13 –4 –1 –3 0 Korea, Rep. 18 21 3 4 –1 0 Australia 19 23 4 –2 6 0 France 20 24 4 4 0 0 Belgium 21 20 –1 –2 1 0 Japan 22 25 3 1 2 0 Austria 23 22 –1 1 –2 0 Malta 24 16 –8 –3 –5 0 Estonia 25 19 –6 –4 –2 0 Spain 26 29 3 0 3 0 Cyprus 27 28 1 1 0 0 Czech Republic 28 27 –1 1 –2 0 Italy 29 36 7 5 2 0 Slovenia 30 26 –4 –2 –2 0 Hungary 31 31 0 1 –1 0 Malaysia 32 32 0 0 0 0 Latvia 33 30 –3 –3 0 0 Portugal 34 35 1 0 1 0 China 35 34 –1 0 –1 0 Slovakia 36 40 4 –1 5 0 Croatia 37 42 5 2 3 0 United Arab Emirates 38 37 –1 1 –2 0 Costa Rica 39 60 21 12 9 0 Lithuania 40 38 –2 0 –2 0 Bulgaria 41 43 2 1 1 0 Saudi Arabia 42 48 6 1 5 0 Qatar 43 33 –10 –4 –6 0 Montenegro 44 45 1 –1 2 0 Moldova, Rep. 45 50 5 11 –6 0 Chile 46 39 –7 –5 –2 0 Barbados 47 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Romania 48 52 4 3 2 –1 Poland 49 44 –5 –1 –3 –1 Kuwait 50 55 5 –7 13 –1 Macedonia, FYR 51 62 11 11 1 –1 Uruguay 52 67 15 13 3 –1 Mauritius 53 49 –4 6 –9 –1 Serbia 54 46 –8 –4 –3 –1 Greece 55 66 11 1 11 –1 Argentina 56 70 14 –2 17 –1 Thailand 57 57 0 5 –4 –1 South Africa 58 54 –4 –2 –1 –1 Armenia 59 69 10 14 –3 –1 Colombia 60 65 5 –2 8 –1 Jordan 61 56 –5 –2 –2 –1 Russian Federation 62 51 –11 –6 –4 –1 Mexico 63 79 16 4 13 –1 Brazil 64 58 –6 –10 5 –1 Bosnia and Herzegovina 65 72 7 –5 13 –1 India 66 64 –2 –6 5 –1 Bahrain 67 41 –26 –33 8 –1 Turkey 68 74 6 5 2 –1 Peru 69 75 6 2 5 –1 Tunisia 70 59 –11 –1 –9 –1 Ukraine 71 63 –8 4 –11 –1 Table 3: Source of changes in the rankings: 2013 compared with 2012
- 77. 53 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:AdjustmentsandYear-on-YearComparability Source of changes in rankings Country/Economy GII 2013 rank GII 2012 rank Change in ranking between GII 2012 and GII 2013 Data updates Adjustments to the GII framework Inclusion/exclusion of countries/ economies (net) Mongolia 72 68 –4 7 –10 –1 Georgia 73 71 –2 5 –6 –1 Brunei Darussalam 74 53 –21 –18 –2 –1 Lebanon 75 61 –14 –3 –10 –1 Viet Nam 76 76 0 23 –22 –1 Belarus 77 78 1 15 –13 –1 Guyana 78 77 –1 –2 2 –1 Dominican Republic 79 86 7 2 6 –1 Oman 80 47 –33 –29 –3 –1 Trinidad andTobago 81 81 0 0 1 –1 Jamaica 82 91 9 11 –1 –1 Ecuador 83 98 15 5 11 –1 Kazakhstan 84 83 –1 5 –5 –1 Indonesia 85 100 15 14 2 –1 Panama 86 87 1 4 –2 –1 Guatemala 87 99 12 –1 14 –1 El Salvador 88 93 5 –9 15 –1 Uganda 89 117 28 16 13 –1 Philippines 90 95 5 0 6 –1 Botswana 91 85 –6 3 –8 –1 Morocco 92 88 –4 –1 –2 –1 Albania 93 90 –3 3 –5 –1 Ghana 94 92 –2 –2 1 –1 Bolivia, Plurinational St. 95 114 19 9 11 –1 Senegal 96 97 1 –6 8 –1 Fiji 97 101 4 16 –11 –1 Sri Lanka 98 94 –4 –4 1 –1 Kenya 99 96 –3 –3 1 –1 Paraguay 100 84 –16 –7 –8 –1 Tajikistan 101 108 7 18 –10 –1 Belize 102 80 –22 –8 –13 –1 Cape Verde 103 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Swaziland 104 82 –22 –14 –6 –2 Azerbaijan 105 89 –16 –3 –11 –2 Mali 106 119 13 2 13 –2 Honduras 107 111 4 –5 11 –2 Egypt 108 103 –5 –1 –2 –2 Namibia 109 73 –36 –24 –10 –2 Cambodia 110 129 19 20 1 –2 Gabon 111 106 –5 –1 –2 –2 Rwanda 112 102 –10 –6 –2 –2 Iran, Islamic Rep. 113 104 –9 –6 –1 –2 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 114 118 4 –5 11 –2 Nicaragua 115 105 –10 –9 1 –2 Burkina Faso 116 122 6 –4 12 –2 Kyrgyzstan 117 109 –8 3 –9 –2 Zambia 118 107 –11 –13 4 –2 Malawi 119 120 1 –5 8 –2 Nigeria 120 123 3 5 0 –2 Mozambique 121 110 –11 –11 2 –2 Gambia 122 130 8 –4 14 –2 Tanzania, United Rep. 123 128 5 9 –2 –2 Lesotho 124 116 –8 5 –11 –2 Cameroon 125 121 –4 8 –10 –2 Guinea 126 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Benin 127 125 –2 –2 3 –3 Nepal 128 113 –15 1 –13 –3 Ethiopia 129 131 2 3 2 –3 Bangladesh 130 112 –18 –10 –5 –3 Niger 131 140 9 0 10 –1 Zimbabwe 132 115 –17 –14 0 –3 Uzbekistan 133 127 –6 –4 1 –3 Syrian Arab Rep. 134 132 –2 –1 2 –3 –3 Angola 135 135 0 0 3 –3 Côte d'Ivoire 136 134 –2 2 –1 –3 Pakistan 137 133 –4 9 –10 –3 Algeria 138 124 –14 –6 –5 –3 Togo 139 136 –3 0 0 –3 Madagascar 140 126 –14 11 –22 –3 Sudan 141 141 0 2 –1 –1 Yemen 142 139 –3 –2 0 –1
- 79. 55 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII JointResearchCentreStatisticalAuditofthe2013GlobalInnovationIndex Michaela Saisana and Dionisis Th. Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre (Ispra, Italy) Annex 3 Modelling versatile concepts under- lying innovation at the national scale around the globe, as attempted in the Global Innovation Index (GII), raises practical challenges related to the quality of data and the combi- nation of these into a single num- ber. The Econometrics and Applied Statistics Unit at the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC) in Ispra (Italy) was invited for a third consecutive year to audit the GII because of the adjustments made to the list of indicators included in the GII framework (see Annex 2 for more details). The JRC assessment of the 2013 GII focused on two main issues: the conceptual and statistical coherence of the structure, and the impact of key modelling assumptions on the GII scores and ranks.1 These are necessary steps to ensure the trans- parency and reliability of the GII, to enable policy makers to derive more accurate and meaningful con- clusions, and to potentially guide choices on priority setting and pol- icy formulation. As in the previous two GII reports, the JRC analysis comple- ments the country rankings with confidence intervals for the GII, the Innovation Input Sub-Index, and the Innovation Output Sub-Index in order to better appreciate the robust- ness of these ranks to the computa- tion methodology. In addition, for the first time this year, the JRC anal- ysis includes both an assessment of potential redundancy of information in the GII and a measure of distance to the efficient frontier of innovation by using data envelopment analysis (DEA). Conceptual and statistical coherence in the GII framework An earlier version of the GII model was assessed by the JRC in April 2013. Fine-tuning suggestions were taken into account in the final com- putation of the rankings in an itera- tive process with the JRC, aiming to set the foundation for a balanced index. The entire process followed four steps (see Figure 1): Step 1: Conceptual consistency Candidate indicators were selected for their relevance to a specific inno- vation pillar on the basis of the litera- ture review, expert opinion, country coverage, and timeliness. To repre- sent a fair picture of country differ- ences, indicators were scaled either at the source or by the GII team as appropriate and where needed. Step 2: Data checks The most recently released data were used for each country with a cut- off at year 2003. Countries were included if data availability was at least 63% (i.e., 54 out of 84 vari- ables) and at least two of the three sub-pillars in each pillar could be computed. Potentially problematic indicators that could bias the overall results were identified as those hav- ing absolute skewness greater than 2 and kurtosis greater than 3.5.2 These indicators were treated either by winsorisation or by taking the nat- ural logarithm (in case of more than five outliers). These criteria were decided jointly with the JRC back in 2011 (see Appendix IV, Technical Notes, for details). Step 3: Statistical coherence Weights as ‘scaling coefficients’ Weights of 0.5 or 1.0 were jointly decided between the JRC and the GII team as ‘scaling coefficients’ and not as ‘importance coefficients’, with the aim of arriving at sub-pil- lar and pillar scores that were bal- anced in their underlying compo- nents (with balanced contributions of indicators/sub-pillars to the vari- ance of their respective sub-pillars/ pillars). Paruolo, Saisana, and Saltelli (2013) show that in weighted arith- metic averages, the ratio of two nom- inal weights gives the rate of substi- tutability between the two indica- tors and hence can be used to reveal the relative importance of individ- ual indicators. This importance can then be compared with ex-post mea- sures of variables’ importance, such as the non-linear Pearson’s ‘correla- tion ratio’. As a result of this analy- sis, 23 out of 84 indicators and three sub-pillars—6.1 Knowledge cre- ation, 7.2 Creative goods and ser- vices, and 7.3 Online creativity— were assigned half weights, while all
- 80. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 56 other indicators and sub-pillars were assigned a weight of 1.0.3 Principal component analysis Principal component analysis con- firms the presence of a single latent dimension in each of the seven pil- lars (one component with eigen- value greater than 1.0) that captures between 63% (pillars 5 and 6) up to 83% (pillar 1) of the total vari- ance in the three underlying sub- pillars.4 These results reveal that the adjustments made to the 2013 GII framework led to a further improvement of its statistical coher- ence.5 Furthermore, results confirm the expectation that the sub-pil- lars are more correlated with their own pillar than with any other. It is interesting to note that sub-pil- lar 6.1 Knowledge creation has the same degree of correlation (0.76) with its own pillar 6 Knowledge and technology outputs than with pillar 2 Human capital and research, a confirmation of the link between human capital and the creation of knowledge. The five pillars in the Innovation Input Sub-index also share a single latent dimension that captures 82% of the total variance. The five load- ings are very similar to each other; thereafter, building the Input Sub- Index as a simple average (equal weights) of the five pillars is statis- tically supported by the data. The two output pillars, Knowledge and technology outputs and Creative outputs, are moderately correlated with each other (0.60), but they are both strongly correlated with the Innovation Output Sub-Index (0.88), implying that that sub-index is also well balanced in its two pillars. Last, building the GII as the sim- ple average of the Input and Output Sub-Indices is also statistically justi- fiable because the Pearson correla- tion coefficient of either sub-index with the overall GII is roughly 0.90. So far, results show that the grouping of sub-pillars into pillars, sub-indi- ces, and the GII is statistically coher- ent, and that the GII has a balanced structure justifying the various levels of aggregation. Assessing potential redundancy of information in the GII As discussed, the Input and Output Sub-Indices correlate well with each other and with the overall GII. However, the information summa- rized by the GII is not redundant. In fact, one way in which the GII helps to highlight other compo- nents of innovation is by pinpoint- ing the differences in rankings that emerge from a comparison between Figure 1: Conceptual and statistical coherence in the GII 2013 framework Step 1. Conceptual consistency • Compatibility with existing literature on innovation and pillar defini- tion • Scaling factors per indicator to represent a fair picture of country differences (e.g., GDP, population, total exports) Step 2. Data check • Availability requirements per country: coverage > 63% and at least two sub-pillars per pillar • Check for reporting errors (interquartile range) • Outlier treatment (skewness and kurtosis) • Direct contact with data providers Step 3. Statistical coherence • Treatment of highly collinear variables as a single indicator • Assessment of grouping sub-pillars to pillars, to sub-indices, and to GII • Use of weights as scaling coefficients to ensure statistical coherence • Assessment of arithmetic average assumption • Assessment of potential redundancy of information in the overall GII Step 4. Qualitative review • Internal qualitative review (INSEAD,WIPO, Cornell University) • External qualitative review (JRC, international experts) Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.
- 81. 57 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII the GII and each of the seven pil- lars (see Table 1). Of the 142 coun- tries included in the GII 2013, for more than 53.5% (up to 62.0%) of the countries, the GII ranking and any of the seven pillar rankings dif- fer by 10 positions or more. Step 4: Qualitative review Finally, the GII results—including overall country classifications and relative performances in terms of the Innovation Input or Output Sub- Indices—were evaluated to verify that the overall results were, to a great extent, consistent with cur- rent evidence, existing research, or prevailing theory. Notwithstanding these statistical tests and the positive outcomes on the statistical coherence of the GII structure, it is important to men- tion that the GII model is, and has to remain, open for future improve- ments as better data, more compre- hensive surveys and assessments, and new relevant research studies become available. Impact of modelling assumptions on the GII results Every country score on the GII and its two sub-indices depends on modelling choices: the seven-pillar structure, selected indicators, impu- tation or not of missing data, nor- malization, weights, aggregation method, among other elements. These choices are based on expert opinion (e.g., selection of indica- tors), common practice (e.g., min- max normalization in the [0,100] range), driven by statistical analysis (e.g., treatment of outliers), or sim- plicity (e.g., no imputation of miss- ing data). The robustness analysis is aimed at assessing the simultane- ous and joint impact of these mod- elling choices on the rankings. The data are assumed to be error-free, since potential outliers and eventual errors and typos were corrected dur- ing the computation phase (see Step 2 in Figure 1). The robustness assessment of the GII was based on a combination of a Monte Carlo experiment and a multi-modelling approach that dealt with three issues: pillar weights, missing data, and the aggregation formula. This type of assessment aims to respond to eventual criti- cism that the country scores asso- ciated with aggregate measures are generally not calculated under con- ditions of certainty, even if they are frequently presented as such.6 The Monte Carlo simulation related to the issue of weighting and comprised 1,000 runs, each corre- sponding to a different set of weights of the seven pillars, randomly sam- pled from uniform continuous dis- tributions centred in the reference values. The choice of the range for the weights’ variation was driven by two opposite needs: (1) to ensure a wide enough interval to have mean- ingful robustness checks, and (2) to respect the rationale of the GII that places on an equal footing the Input Sub-Index and the Output Sub- Index. Given these considerations, limit values of uncertainty intervals for the pillar weights are: 10%–30% for the five Input pillars and 40%– 60% for the two Output pillars (see Table 2).7 The GII developing team, for transparency and replicability, opted to not estimate missing data. The ‘no imputation’ choice, which is com- mon in similar contexts, might encourage countries not to report low data values.8 To overcome this limitation, the JRC opted to impute missing data using the Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm.9 Regarding the aggregation for- mula, decision-theory practitioners have challenged the use of simple arithmetic averages because of their fully compensatory nature, in which a comparative high advantage on a Table 1: Distribution of differences between pillar and GII rankings Innovation Input Sub-Index Innovation Output Sub-Index Rank differences (positions) Institutions (%) Human capital and research (%) Infrastructure (%) Market sophistication (%) Business sophistication (%) Knowledge and technology outputs (%) Creative outputs (%) More than 30 19.7 13.4 10.6 20.4 18.3 25.4 17.6 20 to 29 13.4 20.4 15.5 14.1 16.2 15.5 14.8 10 to 19 20.4 24.6 29.6 27.5 20.4 19.0 29.6 5 to 9 26.1 19.0 19.7 20.4 24.6 21.1 16.2 Less than 5 20.4 22.5 22.5 15.5 17.6 16.2 19.0 Same rank 0.0 0.0 2.1 2.1 2.8 2.8 2.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.
- 82. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 58 few indicators can compensate a comparative disadvantage on many indicators (Munda, 2008). Despite receiving statistical support in the previous section, the geometric average was considered instead,10 which is a partially compensatory approach that rewards economies with balanced profiles and motivates them to improve in the dimensions in which they perform poorly, and not just in any dimension. Four models were tested based on the combination of no impu- tation versus EM imputation, and arithmetic versus geometric average, combined with 1,000 simulations per model (random weights versus fixed weights), for a total of 4,000 simulations for the GII and each of the two sub-indices (see Table 2 for a summary of the uncertainties con- sidered in the GII 2013). Uncertainty analysis results The main results of the robustness analysis are shown in Figures 2a, 2b, and 2c with median ranks and 90% confidence intervals computed across the 4,000 Monte Carlo simu- lations for the GII and the two sub- indices. Countries are ordered from best to worst according to their ref- erence rank (black line), the dot being the median rank. Error bars represent, for each country, the 90% interval across all simulations. Table 3 reports the published rank- ings and the 90% confidence inter- vals. It can be verified that all but five country ranks lie within the simulated intervals, and that these are narrow enough for most coun- tries (less than 10 positions) to allow meaningful inferences to be drawn. GII ranks are rather robust: the median rank is close to the reference rank (six or fewer positions away) for 75% of the countries. Results for the Input Sub-Index are relatively more robust (75% of the countries shift fewer than three positions) for two main reasons: the high correlations between the five Input pillars (the average bivariate Pearson correla- tion coefficient of 0.82) and the very good data coverage (only 1 of the 142 countries has an indicator cov- erage below 63% of the 57 variables included in the Input Sub-Index). In contrast, the Output Sub- Index is more sensitive to the meth- odological choices (one-fourth of the countries shift more than 10 positions) for the same two reasons: there are only two pillars that are moderately correlated (0.60) and the data coverage is less satisfactory (15 countries have an indicator cover- age of less than 63% of the 27 vari- ables included in the Output Sub- Index). However, it cannot be ruled out altogether that the correlation between the two Output pillars could improve as data become avail- able, as suggested by theory. The currently observed moderate corre- lation might be the result of (1) the fact that missing values are particu- larly distorting; (2) the use of count and not value variables; (3) the use of proxies due to the lack of statistics. Sensitivity analysis results Complementary to the uncertainty analysis, sensitivity analysis has been used to identify which of the mod- elling assumptions have the great- est impact on certain country ranks. Figure 3 plots the rankings of the GII and sub-indices versus one-at- a-time changes of either the EM imputation method or the geomet- ric aggregation formula, with ran- dom weights, with summary results included in Table 4. Figure 4 pres- ents the box plots of ranking shifts with respect to the original ranking resulting from random weights only. The most influential assump- tion is the choice of no imputation versus EM imputation, particularly Reference Alternative I. Uncertainty in the treatment of missing values No estimation of missing data Expectation Maximization (EM) II. Uncertainty in the aggregation formula at the pillar level Arithmetic average Geometric average III. Uncertainty intervals for the GII weights GII Sub-Index Pillar Reference value for the weight Distribution assigned for robustness analysis Innovation Input Institutions 0.2 U[0.1,0.3] Human capital and research 0.2 U[0.1,0.3] Infrastructure 0.2 U[0.1,0.3] Market sophistication 0.2 U[0.1,0.3] Business sophistication 0.2 U[0.1,0.3] Innovation Output Knowledge and technology outputs 0.5 U[0.4,0.6] Creative outputs 0.5 U[0.4,0.6] Table 2: Uncertainty parameters: Missing values, aggregation, and weights Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.
- 83. 59 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121 131 141 Figure 2a: Robustness analysis (GII rank vs. median rank, 90% confidence intervals) Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Note: The Spearman rank correlation between the median rank and the GII 2013 rank is 0.987. Median ranks and intervals are calculated over 4,000 simulated scenarios combining different sets of weights, imputed versus non imputed (missing) values and geometric versus arithmetic average at the pillar level. l Median rank — GII 2013 rank GII2013ranksandintervalofsimulatedranks Countries/Economies 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121 131 141 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Note: The Spearman rank correlation between the median rank and the Input rank is 0.998. Median ranks and intervals are calculated over 4,000 simulated scenarios combining different sets of weights, imputed versus non imputed (missing) values and geometric versus arithmetic average at the pillar level. Figure 2b: Robustness analysis (Input rank vs. median rank, 90% confidence intervals) l Median rank — GII 2013 Input rank GII2013:Inputrankandintervalofsimulatedranks Countries/Economies
- 84. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 60 Table 3: GII 2013 and Input/Output Sub-Indices: Ranks and 90% confidence intervals GII 2013 Input Sub-Index Output Sub-Index Country/Economy Rank Interval Rank Interval Rank Interval Switzerland 1 [1, 2] 7 [5, 11] 1 [1, 3] Sweden 2 [2, 4] 5 [3, 5] 3 [3, 6] United Kingdom 3 [2, 4] 4 [3, 6] 4 [4, 5] Netherlands 4 [1, 4] 10 [9, 13] 2 [1, 2] United States of America 5 [5, 12] 3 [3, 13] 12 [10, 13] Finland 6 [6, 8] 6 [4, 10] 8 [6, 9] Hong Kong (China) 7 [6, 10] 2 [1, 3] 15 [15, 18] Singapore 8 [6, 16] 1 [1, 2] 18 [15, 26] Denmark 9 [8, 12] 8 [5, 8] 14 [12, 14] Ireland 10 [5, 11] 12 [6, 15] 11 [3, 11] Canada 11 [7, 12] 9 [6, 13] 13 [10, 14] Luxembourg 12 [12, 16] 18 [15, 21] 6 [5, 16] Iceland 13 [5, 15] 21 [15, 23] 7 [2, 11] Israel 14 [10, 16] 19 [16, 25] 9 [5, 10] Germany 15 [11, 15] 20 [18, 22] 10 [7, 11] Norway 16 [10, 16] 13 [7, 15] 16 [11, 17] New Zealand 17 [17, 20] 15 [11, 17] 19 [18, 25] Korea, Rep. 18 [17, 29] 16 [11, 21] 24 [22, 32] Australia 19 [17, 23] 11 [9, 14] 32 [17, 36] France 20 [17, 21] 23 [21, 24] 17 [13, 18] Belgium 21 [18, 22] 22 [16, 24] 22 [18, 22] Japan 22 [21, 27] 14 [12, 19] 33 [30, 34] Austria 23 [20, 24] 17 [16, 20] 27 [19, 27] Malta 24 [21, 27] 34 [30, 36] 5 [5, 21] Estonia 25 [22, 25] 25 [24, 26] 21 [18, 25] Spain 26 [23, 27] 24 [21, 25] 35 [29, 35] Cyprus 27 [23, 30] 30 [24, 33] 20 [20, 26] Czech Republic 28 [26, 31] 27 [26, 31] 26 [25, 28] Italy 29 [24, 29] 28 [26, 31] 29 [21, 30] Slovenia 30 [28, 31] 29 [27, 30] 34 [27, 34] Hungary 31 [30, 32] 36 [35, 40] 23 [19, 24] Malaysia 32 [30, 36] 32 [26, 33] 30 [29, 44] Latvia 33 [32, 34] 33 [29, 33] 37 [30, 38] Portugal 34 [33, 35] 31 [29, 34] 39 [35, 41] China 35 [33, 63] 46 [39, 58] 25 [24, 55] Slovakia 36 [35, 38] 37 [36, 41] 45 [35, 45] Croatia 37 [36, 39] 43 [40, 45] 41 [37, 41] United Arab Emirates 38 [36, 63] 26 [26, 36] 81 [60, 107] Costa Rica 39 [37, 46] 66 [55, 70] 31 [30, 41] Lithuania 40 [36, 43] 35 [34, 38] 56 [40, 57] Bulgaria 41 [38, 43] 50 [46, 53] 38 [36, 39] Saudi Arabia 42 [40, 68] 44 [40, 52] 44 [42, 79] Qatar 43 [41, 53] 38 [37, 45] 52 [48, 67] Montenegro 44 [34, 46] 40 [35, 43] 50 [33, 53] Moldova, Rep. 45 [40, 54] 76 [63, 77] 28 [27, 48] Chile 46 [42, 47] 41 [40, 45] 48 [48, 53] Barbados 47 [41, 50] 42 [32, 59] 49 [47, 56] Romania 48 [40, 49] 55 [51, 60] 40 [33, 41] Poland 49 [37, 49] 39 [36, 40] 64 [39, 65] Kuwait 50 [44, 60] 74 [66, 78] 36 [34, 52] Macedonia, FYR 51 [50, 53] 48 [47, 55] 66 [53, 69] Uruguay 52 [48, 59] 64 [58, 72] 46 [46, 55] Mauritius 53 [51, 71] 60 [47, 78] 57 [52, 71] Serbia 54 [47, 57] 63 [56, 67] 51 [45, 57] Greece 55 [44, 60] 45 [42, 53] 82 [45, 81] Argentina 56 [52, 62] 78 [66, 84] 43 [42, 49] Thailand 57 [51, 65] 57 [49, 62] 61 [57, 69] South Africa 58 [53, 67] 51 [41, 68] 71 [69, 75] Armenia 59 [55, 64] 71 [66, 79] 47 [46, 55] Colombia 60 [53, 61] 59 [51, 62] 65 [56, 65] Jordan 61 [57, 77] 61 [56, 76] 63 [60, 88] Russian Federation 62 [43, 62] 52 [46, 60] 72 [43, 74] Mexico 63 [62, 70] 68 [60, 70] 60 [60, 73] Brazil 64 [58, 68] 67 [58, 80] 68 [56, 69] Bosnia and Herzegovina 65 [59, 68] 58 [51, 71] 78 [58, 81] India 66 [64, 89] 87 [87, 106] 42 [42, 74] Bahrain 67 [52, 70] 47 [44, 52] 90 [63, 93] Turkey 68 [61, 71] 81 [78, 87] 53 [49, 54] Peru 69 [67, 80] 70 [61, 79] 70 [71, 93] Tunisia 70 [69, 95] 80 [71, 83] 59 [57, 112] Ukraine 71 [50, 74] 83 [75, 85] 58 [42, 59]
- 85. 61 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII Table 3: GII 2013 and Input/Output Sub-Indices: Ranks and 90% confidence intervals (continued) GII 2013 Input Sub-Index Output Sub-Index Country/Economy Rank Interval Rank Interval Rank Interval Mongolia 72 [56, 76] 49 [44, 54] 93 [67, 101] Georgia 73 [64, 75] 62 [58, 78] 83 [63, 84] Brunei Darussalam 74 [65, 79] 54 [46, 61] 89 [79, 104] Lebanon 75 [71, 80] 56 [51, 76] 88 [83, 91] Viet Nam 76 [70, 84] 89 [85, 96] 54 [50, 66] Belarus 77 [70, 79] 75 [65, 80] 79 [70, 83] Guyana 78 [74, 84] 94 [87, 113] 55 [53, 64] Dominican Republic 79 [80, 99] 93 [90, 101] 69 [68, 102] Oman 80 [76, 85] 53 [51, 63] 111 [103, 113] Trinidad andTobago 81 [78, 86] 82 [78, 84] 87 [83, 91] Jamaica 82 [82, 94] 85 [77, 92] 84 [85, 103] Ecuador 83 [80, 94] 100 [90, 107] 67 [67, 82] Kazakhstan 84 [73, 85] 69 [61, 71] 106 [82, 106] Indonesia 85 [82, 116] 115 [104, 125] 62 [62, 109] Panama 86 [72, 110] 73 [65, 82] 108 [88, 123] Guatemala 87 [87, 101] 91 [88, 102] 91 [89, 105] El Salvador 88 [87, 101] 88 [86, 98] 96 [87, 110] Uganda 89 [90, 122] 109 [103, 117] 75 [74, 129] Philippines 90 [85, 99] 108 [103, 118] 77 [73, 80] Botswana 91 [74, 98] 65 [51, 71] 125 [102, 128] Morocco 92 [89, 96] 90 [86, 101] 99 [92, 101] Albania 93 [79, 98] 77 [72, 84] 118 [83, 118] Ghana 94 [89, 115] 99 [89, 105] 95 [88, 119] Bolivia, Plurinational St. 95 [88, 107] 106 [95, 116] 86 [85, 106] Senegal 96 [94, 118] 116 [107, 117] 80 [78, 120] Fiji 97 [77, 109] 72 [60, 83] 129 [88, 129] Sri Lanka 98 [89, 112] 118 [110, 125] 76 [72, 99] Kenya 99 [95, 111] 98 [87, 108] 100 [94, 116] Paraguay 100 [86, 101] 104 [100, 105] 94 [76, 96] Tajikistan 101 [96, 108] 113 [109, 126] 85 [76, 94] Belize 102 [37, 102] 95 [79, 103] 102 [25, 106] CapeVerde 103 [93, 112] 84 [78, 94] 122 [99, 129] Swaziland 104 [96, 111] 124 [99, 140] 74 [69, 96] Azerbaijan 105 [100, 111] 92 [90, 99] 114 [111, 120] Mali 106 [103, 140] 132 [128, 137] 73 [67, 108] Honduras 107 [95, 107] 96 [88, 99] 115 [98, 117] Egypt 108 [100, 117] 101 [88, 112] 112 [112, 119] Namibia 109 [84, 123] 79 [63, 84] 134 [105, 135] Cambodia 110 [106, 128] 120 [118, 129] 101 [97, 123] Gabon 111 [104, 117] 117 [107, 118] 104 [103, 117] Rwanda 112 [111, 132] 102 [88, 114] 121 [119, 138] Iran, Islamic Rep. 113 [104, 117] 107 [97, 122] 120 [98, 121] Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep. 114 [102, 123] 134 [117, 141] 92 [74, 96] Nicaragua 115 [96, 129] 103 [89, 112] 128 [106, 130] Burkina Faso 116 [112, 133] 119 [107, 125] 109 [105, 137] Kyrgyzstan 117 [108, 118] 97 [90, 101] 133 [118, 133] Zambia 118 [115, 131] 128 [120, 139] 103 [98, 131] Malawi 119 [115, 138] 125 [115, 134] 105 [100, 140] Nigeria 120 [117, 141] 137 [133, 138] 97 [97, 141] Mozambique 121 [116, 134] 111 [102, 119] 124 [119, 137] Gambia 122 [108, 124] 127 [122, 135] 107 [81, 108] Tanzania, United Rep. 123 [118, 134] 110 [104, 118] 127 [121, 139] Lesotho 124 [81, 124] 86 [74, 95] 136 [86, 136] Cameroon 125 [116, 134] 131 [123, 133] 110 [110, 126] Guinea 126 [93, 126] 139 [134, 141] 98 [60, 99] Benin 127 [125, 132] 121 [117, 128] 130 [127, 134] Nepal 128 [115, 129] 129 [123, 129] 123 [109, 125] Ethiopia 129 [126, 142] 126 [123, 133] 126 [122, 142] Bangladesh 130 [124, 135] 135 [132, 137] 119 [111, 123] Niger 131 [103, 133] 130 [111, 131] 131 [95, 132] Zimbabwe 132 [130, 139] 138 [132, 142] 116 [114, 122] Uzbekistan 133 [126, 140] 114 [106, 127] 138 [130, 141] Syrian Arab Republic 134 [122, 140] 105 [99, 117] 140 [127, 141] Angola 135 [120, 139] 140 [137, 141] 117 [94, 118] Côte d'Ivoire 136 [134, 140] 133 [126, 134] 132 [131, 141] Pakistan 137 [124, 140] 142 [140, 142] 113 [110, 116] Algeria 138 [119, 139] 112 [105, 118] 141 [124, 141] Togo 139 [101, 139] 122 [119, 127] 137 [80, 138] Madagascar 140 [133, 140] 123 [119, 130] 135 [133, 137] Sudan 141 [137, 142] 136 [124, 140] 142 [126, 142] Yemen 142 [136, 142] 141 [137, 142] 139 [125, 140] Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013.
- 86. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 62 for the Output Sub-Index, then for the GII, and least for the Input Sub- index. For example, in one case, a country improves by three positions in the Output Sub-Index ranking if a geometric aggregation is applied, although it is found to improve by 36 positions if EM imputation is applied. If both assumptions are changed with fixed (equal) pillar weights, the impact of the imputa- tion is moderated (to a 19-position improvement). This sensitivity is the result of data availability, a factor that impacted the uncertainty anal- ysis as well and that propagates from the Output Sub-Index to the estima- tion of the overall GII. A recommendation for the future would be to apply the 63% criterion for data availability within each of the two sub-indices. For this year, drawing upon the analysis made by the JRC, the recommendation is to consider country ranks in the GII 2013 and in the Input and Output Sub-Indices not only at face value but also within the 90% confidence intervals in order to better appreci- ate to what degree a country rank depends on the modelling choices. Distance to the efficient frontier in the GII by data envelopment analysis Several innovation-related policy issues at the national level entail an intricate balance between global pri- orities and country-specific strate- gies. Comparing the multi-dimen- sional performance on innovation by subjecting countries to a fixed and common set of weights may pre- vent acceptance of an innovation index on the grounds that a given weighting scheme might not be fair to a particular country. An appeal- ing feature of the more recent DEA literature applied in real decision- making settings is that it allows for the determination of endogenous weights that maximize the overall score of each decision-making unit given a set of other observations. In this section, the assumption of fixed pillar weights common to all countries is relaxed once more; this time country-specific weights that maximize a country’s score are determined endogenously by DEA.11 In theory, each country is free to decide on the relative con- tribution of each pillar to its score so as to achieve the best possible score in a computation that reflects its innovation strategy. In practice, the DEA method assigns a higher (lower) contribution to those pil- lars in which a country is relatively strong (weak). Reasonable con- straints on the weights are assumed to preclude the possibility of a coun- try achieving a perfect score by assigning a zero weight to weak pil- lars: for each country, the share of 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121 131 141 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Note: The Spearman rank correlation between the median rank and the Output rank is 0.964. Median ranks and intervals are calculated over 4,000 simulated scenarios combining different sets of weights, imputed versus non imputed (missing) values and geometric versus arithmetic average at the pillar level. Figure 2c: Robustness analysis (Output rank vs. median rank, 90% confidence intervals) l Median rank — GII 2013 Output rank GII2013:Outputranksandintervalofsimulatedranks Countries/Economies
- 87. 63 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII Figure 3a: Sensitivity analysis: Impact of modelling choices (Imputation) Figure 3b: Sensitivity analysis: Impact of modelling choices (Geometric average) 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 141 131 121 111 101 91 81 71 61 51 41 31 21 11 1 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Note: Rs = Spearman rank correlation; imputation based on expectation-maximization algorithm. GIIrank Rs = 0.958 Rs = 0.990 Rs = 0.991 Rs = 0.994 Rs = 0.882 Rs = 0.991 Rank based on imputation GIIrank Rank based on imputation GIIrank Rank based on geometric average GIIrank Rank based on geometric average GIIrank Rank based on geometric average Innovation Input Sub-Index 2013 Innovation Input Sub-Index 2013 GIIrank Rank based on imputation Global Innovation Index 2013 Global Innovation Index 2013 Innovation Output Sub-Index 2013 Innovation Output Sub-Index 2013
- 88. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 64 Table 4: Sensitivity analysis: Impact of modelling choices on countries with the most sensitive ranks Index or Sub-Index Uncertainty tested (pillar level only) Number of countries that improve by 20 or more positions Number of countries that deteriorate by 20 or more positions GII Geometric vs. arithmetic average 0 2 EM imputation vs. no imputation of missing data 6 7 Geometric average and EM imputation vs. arithmetic average and missing values 2 0 Input Sub-Index Geometric vs. arithmetic average 0 0 EM imputation vs. no imputation of missing data 1 0 Geometric average and EM imputation vs. arithmetic average and missing values 0 0 Output Sub-Index Geometric vs. arithmetic average 0 2 EM imputation vs. no imputation of missing data 19 19 Geometric average and EM imputation vs. arithmetic average and missing values 4 7 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. –12 –8 –4 0 4 8 12 Output Sub-IndexInput Sub-IndexGII Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Figure 4: Sensitivity analysis: Impact of random vs. fixed weights on the GII, Input, and Output Sub-Indices l Median rank n First and third quartile ranks l Maximum and minimum Shiftinrank (142economies×1,000simulationsfortheweights)
- 89. 65 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII each pillar score (i.e., the pillar score multiplied by the DEA weight over the total score) has upper and lower bounds of 5% and 20%, respectively. The DEA score is then measured as the weighted average of all seven pillar scores, where the weights are the country-specific DEA weights, compared with the best performance among all other countries with those same weights. The DEA score can be interpreted as a measure of the ‘dis- tance to the efficient frontier’. Table 5 presents the pie shares and DEA scores for the top 10 econo- mies next to their GII scores. All pie shares are determined in accordance with a starting point that grants lee- way to each country when assigning shares while not violating the (rela- tive) upper and lower bounds. The pie shares are quite diverse, reflect- ing the different national innovation strategies. For example, Switzerland assigns 19% of its DEA score to Creative outputs, while the same pillar accounts for no more than 5% of Sweden’s DEA score. Four of the top 10 economies assign the maxi- mum allowed, 20%, to Institutions, Human capital and research, and Infrastructure. Four economies— Switzerland, Sweden, Hong Kong (China), and Singapore—reach a perfect DEA score of 1. Figure 5 shows how close the DEA scores and the GII 2013 scores are for all 142 economies (correlation of 0.993).12 Conclusion The JRC analysis suggests that the conceptualized multi-level struc- ture of the GII 2013 is statistically coherent and balanced (i.e., not dominated by any pillar or sub-pil- lar). Furthermore, the analysis has offered statistical justification for the weights and the use of arithme- tic averaging at the various levels of aggregation. Together with other fine-tuning suggestions made in the sections above, a key recommenda- tion for future years is to apply the data coverage criterion for countries’ inclusion not at the overall GII level, as currently done, but within each of the two Innovation Sub-Indices. Furthermore, the ‘no imputation’ choice for not treating missing val- ues, common in relevant contexts, as justified on grounds of transparency and replicability, can at times have undesirable impact on aggregate scores, with the additional negative side-effect that it may encourage countries not to report low data val- ues. Finally, this year’s choice of the GII team to use weights as scaling coefficients during the development of the index (as in the GII 2012) con- stitutes a significant departure from the traditional vision of weights as a reflection of indicators’ importance in a weighted average. It is hoped that such a consideration will also be made by other developers of com- posite indicators. The ‘distance to the efficient frontier’ measure cal- culated with DEA scores could sub- stitute for the Innovation Efficiency Ratio as a measure of efficiency, even if it is conceptually closer to the GII score than to the Efficiency Ratio. Overall, the country/economy ranks of the GII and its sub-indices are fairly robust to methodological assumptions related to the estima- tion of missing data, weighting, and aggregation formula, without being redundant (four or fewer position shifts for 88 out of 142 countries). Table 5: Pie shares and distance to the efficient frontier: Top 10 economies in the GII 2013 Economy DEA efficiency Institutions Human capital and research Infrastructure Market sophistication Business sophistication Knowledge and technology outputs Creative outputs Switzerland 1.00 0.06 0.18 0.11 0.08 0.19 0.19 0.19 Singapore 1.00 0.12 0.19 0.19 0.10 0.20 0.14 0.05 Hong Kong (China) 1.00 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.05 0.12 Sweden 1.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.05 0.13 0.05 United States of America 0.99 0.12 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.05 United Kingdom 0.99 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.06 0.09 Finland 0.98 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.11 0.19 0.05 Denmark 0.96 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.06 0.09 Ireland 0.95 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.12 0.18 0.05 Netherlands 0.95 0.20 0.12 0.20 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.18 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Note: The 10 economies that achieved the highest DEA scores are the same economies in the top 10 in the GII. Pie shares are in absolute terms, bounded by 0.05 and 0.20.
- 90. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 66 Consequently, inferences can be drawn for most economies in the GII, although some caution may be needed for a few. Note that perfect robustness would have been unde- sirable as this would have implied that the GII components are per- fectly correlated and hence redun- dant, which is not the case for the GII 2013. Notes 1 The JRC analysis was based on the recommendations of the OECD (2008) Handbook on Composite Indicators, and on more recent research from the JRC. The JRC auditing studies of composite indicators are available at http://composite-indicators.jrc. ec.europa.eu/; all audits were carried upon request of the index developers. 2 Groeneveld and Meeden (1984) set the criteria for absolute skewness above 1 and kurtosis above 3.5. The skewness criterion was relaxed to account for the small sample (142 countries). 3 When analyzing the statistical coherence of a framework, highly collinear indicators may dominate the aggregate scores. This problem is also taken care of by weights taken as ‘scaling coefficients’. Only four cases of strong collinearity (i.e., Pearson correlation coefficients greater than ~ 0.92) were spotted within the same sub-pillar: 1.2.1 with 1.2.2, 3.1.1 with 3.1.2, 3.2.1 with 3.2.2, and 7.1.3 with 7.1.4. Indicators 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 3.2.1, and 3.2.2 were assigned half weights because of their high correlation with the sub-pillar score; while 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 7.1.3, and 7.1.4 were not treated, this was found not to bias the results of the respective sub-pillars 3.1 and 7.1. 4 Principal component analysis was applied to the GII dataset after treating pairs of highly collinear variables as a single indicator. 5 In GII 2012, the first principal component captured from 57% (Business sophistication) up to 80% (Institutions) of the total variance in the three underlying sub-pillars, while for the seventh pillar (Creative outputs) two principal components with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were identified (in that case, the first component captured 56% of the variance of the three underlying sub-pillars). 6 Saisana, Saltelli, and Tarantola, 2005; Saisana et al., 2011. 7 The prior ranges are then rescaled to unity sum leading to posterior ranges of 5%–15% for the input pillar weights and 20%–30% for the output pillar weights. The ratio of the sum of the five Input pillar weights to the sum of the two pillar weights ranges between 0.77 and 1.39. 8 With arithmetic average, the ’no imputation’ choice is equivalent to replacing missing values with the average of the available (normalized) data within each sub-pillar. 9 The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm (Little and Rubin, 2002) is an iterative procedure that finds the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameter vector by repeating two steps: (1) The expectation E-step: Given a set of parameter estimates, such as a mean vector and covariance matrix for a multivariate normal distribution, the E-step calculates the conditional expectation of the complete-data log likelihood given the observed data and the parameter estimates. (2) The maximization M-step: Given a complete-data log likelihood, the M-step finds the parameter estimates to maximize the complete-data log likelihood from the E-step. The two steps are iterated until the iterations converge. 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 70 60 50 40 30 20 0 Source: Saisana and Philippas, European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2013. Figure 5: GII 2013 scores and DEA‘distance to the efficient frontier’scores l GII score — DEA efficiency DEAscore:Distancetotheefficientfrontier GIIscore Countries/Economies Rs = 0.993
- 91. 67 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:StatisticalAuditoftheGII 10 In the geometric average, pillars are multiplied as opposed to summed in the arithmetic average. Pillar weights appear as exponents in the multiplication. All pillar scores were greater than 1.0, so there was no reason to rescale them to avoid zero values that would have led to zero geometric averages. 11 The original question in the DEA-literature was how to measure each unit’s relative efficiency in production compared to a sample of peers, given observations on input and output quantities and, often, no reliable information on prices (Charnes and Cooper, 1985). A notable difference between the original DEA question and the one applied here is that no differentiation between inputs and outputs is made (Melyn and Moesen, 1991; Cherchye et al., 2008). To estimate the DEA-based distance to the efficient frontier scores, we consider the m = 7 pillars in the GII 2013 for n = 142 countries, with yj the value of pillar j in country i. The objective is to combine the pillar scores per country into a single number, calculated as the weighted average of the m pillars, where wi represents the weight of the ith pillar. In the absence of reliable information about the true weights, the weights that maximize the DEA-based scores are endogenously determined. This gives the following linear programming problem for each country j: ⌺ j=1 yij wij 7 max yc{dataset} ⌺ j=1 ycj wij 7 Y maxi wij ϭ (bounding constraint) Subject to wij 0, where j = 1, ..., 7, (non-negativity i = 1, ..., 142 constraint) In this basic programming problem, the weights are non-negative and a country’s score is between 0 (worst) and 1 (best). 12 Of these, only Switzerland achieved a 1.0 score in the Innovation Efficiency Ratio, calculated as the ratio of the Output Sub- Index over the Input Sub-Index. The Efficiency Ratio and the DEA score embody very different concepts of efficiency, leading to completely different results and insights. A high score in the Innovation Efficiency Ratio is obtained by scoring higher on the Output Sub-Index than on the Input Sub-Index, irrespective of the actual scores in these two Sub-Indices. A high score in the DEA score can be obtained by having comparative advantages on several GII pillars (irrespective of these being input or output pillars). The DEA scores are therefore closer to the GII scores than to the Innovation Efficiency Ratio. References Charnes, A., and W. W. Cooper. 1985. ‘Preface to Topics in Data Envelopment Analysis’. Annals of Operations Research 2: 59–94. Cherchye, L., W. Moesen, N. Rogge, T. Van Puyenbroeck, M. Saisana, A. Saltelli, R. Liska, and S. Tarantola. 2008. ‘Creating Composite Indicators with DEA and Robustness Analysis: The Case of the Technology Achievement Index’. Journal of Operational Research Society 59: 239–51. Groeneveld, R. A. and G. Meeden. 1984. ‘Measuring Skewness and Kurtosis’. The Statistician 33: 391–99. Little, R. J. A. and D. B. Rubin. 2002. Statistical Analysis with Missing Data. 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Melyn, W. and W. Moesen. 1991. ‘Towards a Synthetic Indicator of Macroeconomic Performance: Unequal Weighting when Limited Information is Available’. Public Economics Research Paper No. 17. Leuven: Centre for Economic Studies. Munda, G. 2008. Social Multi-Criteria Evaluation for a Sustainable Economy. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. OECD/EC JRC (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/European Commission Joint Research Centre). 2008. Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide. Paris: OECD. Paruolo, P., M. Saisana, and A. Saltelli. 2013. ‘Ratings and Rankings: Voodoo or Science?’ Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 176 (3): 609–34. doi: 0964–1998/13/176000 Saisana, M., B. D’Hombres, and A. Saltelli. 2011. ‘Rickety Numbers: Volatility of University Rankings and Policy Implications’. Research Policy 40: 165–77. Saisana, M., A. Saltelli, and S. Tarantola. 2005. ‘Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis Techniques as Tools for the Analysis and Validation of Composite Indicators’. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society A 168 (2): 307–23. Saltelli, A., M., Ratto, T. Andres, F. Campolongo, J. Cariboni, D. Gatelli, M. Saisana, and S. Tarantola. 2008. Global Sensitivity Analysis: The Primer. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons.
- 93. 69 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation chapter 2 TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation:ATerritorialPerspective Annalisa Primi, OECD Development Centre growth, few international compara- ble indicators are available to mea- sure and benchmark innovation at the local level (see Chapter 3). If measur- ing innovation is an evolving agenda with many goals to be reached, map- ping innovation at the territorial level is an even greater challenge.4 Our capacity to measure local innovation dynamics has improved in the last decades,5 but more effort is needed to improve our understanding of inno- vation and to provide better insights for policy making at the global level. This chapter focuses on identify- ing top global innovation hotspots by using a set of different indicators. It presents evidence on (1) tradi- tional, technology-based indicators, including research and development (R&D) and patenting; (2) the origin and direction of knowledge-inten- sive foreign direct investment (FDI); and (3) the ranking of the world’s top local start-up systems. These indica- tors offer a panorama of global inno- vation hotspots at different territo- rial scales, including regions, cities, and ‘local innovation systems’. This focus is not only the result of data availability, but it is also a deliber- ate choice. All territorial scales are relevant, but to different extents, depending on the country and the innovation aspect being measured. These indicators measure differ- ent aspects of innovation and have been chosen for a variety of reasons. Some, such as R&D and patenting, are commonly included in innova- tion analyses at the country level; it is therefore interesting to examine if and how the picture changes when we shift to the territorial dimension. Others, such as knowledge-intensive FDI and local start-up systems, are related to emerging trends in inno- vation that have recently begun to be measured at the local level. Finally, these indicators are all relevant for policy making since national and regional innovation policies are establishing incentives and influ- encing regional and local innovation dynamics, both in OECD countries and in emerging economies. The evidence presented in this chapter shows that (1) the ‘spikiness’ of innovation tends to persist—few places (whether regions, cities, or local systems) concentrate innova- tion assets, capabilities, and financ- ing; (2) new innovation hotspots are emerging in China and in other developing economies; and (3) local innovation systems are increasingly ‘internationalized’, meaning that their interaction with other regions and cities is growing, with respect both to collaboration for innovation and to business organization (this is demonstrated by the new trends in destination and origin of knowl- edge-intensive FDI). The theme of the 2013 edition of the Global Innovation Index report could not have been chosen at a more timely moment. The global eco- nomic landscape is changing rapidly. After the 2008 economic and finan- cial crisis, innovation is viewed as central to building stronger, cleaner, and more inclusive economies capa- ble of offering better jobs.1 In this new innovation agenda, regions and territories are becoming central actors.2 Local innovation systems are facing more pressure to stay com- petitive and to preserve or create their leadership. At the same time, regional and local governments are increasingly involved in innova- tion policy planning and financ- ing.3 These trends are not con- fined to countries in the European Union (EU) and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). They are happening also in emerging econo- mies, including Brazil, China, and India. In addition, regions in these countries differ not only in their nat- ural endowments, history, and cul- ture, but their populations are often larger than entire European coun- tries. Therefore the management of their local innovation systems requires special attention. Despite the acknowledged increasing relevance of the territo- rial dimension of innovation and The opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The author is grateful to Sacha Wunsch-Vincent for his comments on a previous version of this chapter. Ivan Landabaso and Alsino Skowronnek provided statistical support.
- 94. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation 70 Territorial concentration of technological innovation and heterogeneity in regional approaches to innovation The geography of innovation is not flat. Certain places, weather regions, cities, or local clusters tend to agglomerate specific competences, including scientific and technical knowledge as well as entrepreneurial capabilities and finance; these stand out as the world’s top innovation hotspots. Both R&D and patent- ing are highly concentrated in few hotspots in the OECD. According to OECD estimates, around 10% of OECD regions account for 30% of total OECD R&D expenditure and for more than 50% of total OECD patent applications.6 Heterogeneity in regional R&D investment within countries Top world R&D investing coun- tries host top world R&D investing regions. The top region for R&D in the OECD is New Mexico (United States of America, or USA). This state devotes more than 7% of its GDP to R&D, followed by Massachusetts (USA), which invests slightly less than 7% of its GDP in R&D. In the same year, 2007, the average OECD expenditure on R&D as a percent- age of GDP was 2.3%. Pohjois- Suomi (Finland), Hovedstaden (Denmark), Sydsverige (Sweden), and Chungcheong (Republic of Korea) follow, each region investing more than 5% of its regional GDP in R&D. In general, countries that invest the most in R&D show quite a high het- erogeneity between regions in terms of R&D intensity—that is, R&D is concentrated in one or two regions within the country (Figure 1). The distribution of R&D expen- ditures within countries is deter- mined by the institutional, geo- graphic, and economic setting of each country. For example, among top R&D investing countries, we find different patterns. In the USA and in Germany, the top R&D investing regions—California and Baden-Württemberg—account, respectively, for 21% and 25% of total country investments in R&D. In Finland and the Republic of Korea, the top regions—Etela-Suomi and the Korean Capital Region— account for 55% and 63% of total R&D expenditures.7 Territorial concentration of patent applications Looking at the world through the lenses of regional patenting reveals that innovation appears to be far from flat. The newly released OECD Regional Patent database shows that patenting via the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)’s Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) is concentrated in a few regions across the world.8 The top 20 patenting regions account for more than 50% of total world patent applications. Nine of these top 20 regions are from the USA, four are from Japan, three from Germany, and one each from France and the Netherlands. The Capital Region of Korea and Guangdong (China) have recently entered ranks of the world’s top 20 patenting regions. They are note- worthy for their dynamism. The Korean Capital Region increased its share in total world patent applica- tions from 1.4% in 2000–02 to 3.8% in 2008–10, and Guangdong’s share rose from 0.1% to 3.5% in the same period (Figure 2). Regions are also highly spe- cialized with respect to innova- tion. For example, the top 10 pat- enting regions for information and communication technologies (ICTs) account for more than 50% of world patent applications in ICTs. The top three regions are Southern Kanto (Japan), California (USA), and Guangdong Province (China), accounting for 13%, 11%, and 6%, respectively, of world PCT applica- tions in ICTs. In renewable ener- gies, patenting is less concentrated: the top 10 patenting regions account for 36% of total world patent appli- cations in this sector; the top three regions are California and the two Japanese regions of Southern Kanto and Kinki (Figure 3). Variety of regional patent co-inventorship networks The regions that invest the most in R&D and account for most of the world’s patent applications adopt different innovation modes. In fact, some rely more on networks than others. For instance, the propensity to carry out research with multiple inventors located in different regions varies across sectors and countries. The possibility that inventors located in one region may collaborate with others located elsewhere is shaped by several factors, including the institu- tional environment of the countries involved. In general, however, col- laborations are increasingly impor- tant for innovation. In the telecom- munication sector, the share of pat- ents with at least two co-inventors located in two different regions increased from 7.9% in the late1970s to 16.2% in 2005–07. In this sec- tor, California performs like a star; the share of patents applied for by residents of California with at least one co-inventor located in another region, in the USA or abroad, is around 24%, but the region has the world’s widest network in terms of the geographic location of partners. Top patenting regions in telecom- munications from Asian countries, on the contrary, tend to have less open collaboration patterns, both in terms of co-inventorship intensity and in terms of the variety regions with which they tend to co-invent.9
- 95. 71 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation Figure 1: R&D investment by region, OECD countries (2007) Figure 2: The world’s top 20 regions by PCT patent applications, 2008–10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 UnitedStates Finland Denmark Sweden Korea,Rep. France UnitedKingdom Germany Austria Norway Australia CzechRepublic Spain Netherlands Canada Italy Portugal Poland Hungary Slovenia Belgium SlovakRepublic Greece Ireland 0 2 4 6 8 10 Ohio–US Pennsylvania–US Minnesota–US South Holland–NL New Jersey–US Illinois–US Northern-Kanto, Koshin–JP NewYork–US Ile de France–FR Massachusetts–US Texas–US North Rhine-Westphalia–DE Toukai–JP Bavaria–DE Baden-Württemberg–DE Guangdong–CN Kinki–JP Capital Region–KR California–US Southern-Kanto–JP n 2008–10 n 2000–02 Source: OECD, 2011b. Note: Data for France are for 2004; Australia for 2005; Canada and Korea, Rep. for 2006. Chile, Iceland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Switzerland, and Turkey are not available at the regional level. NewMexico Pohjois-Suomi Hovedstaden Sydsverige Chungcheong Midi-Pyrenées Eastern Baden-Württemberg Steiermark Trøndelag CapitalTerritory StredniCechy Madrid Zuid-Nederland Quebec Lazio Lisbon Mazowieckie Kosep-Magyarorszag ZahodnaSlovenija RegionWallone BratislavKraj Attiki Border-MidlandsandWestern R&DexpenditureaspercentofGDP Regional share of total PCT filings (%) Source: Author’s elaboration, based on the OECD REGPAT database, accessed January 2013.
- 96. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation 72 Figure 3: The top 10 patenting regions in ICTs and renewable energies, 2008–10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 3a: ICTs 3b: Renewable energies Source: Author’s elaboration, based on the OECD REGPAT database, accessed January 2013. Massachusetts Baden-Württemberg Baden-Württemberg Texas Texas NewYork NorthRhine-Westphalia CentralJutland BavariaMassachusetts Kinki Kinki CapitalRegion CapitalRegion Guangdong Bavaria California California SouthernKanto SouthernKanto n German länders n US states n Chinese regions n Korean regions n Danish regions n Japanese regions Regional share of total PCT applications (%) Regional share of total PCT applications (%)
- 97. 73 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation Collaboration modes also differ according to sectors. For instance, top patenting regions in telecom- munications, biotechnology, and renewable energies exhibit differ- ent collaborative behaviours. Some inventors tend to apply for patents in collaboration with other inventors located outside their region, whereas others tend to co-invent mostly with inventors located in the same region. Ajmone-Marsan and Primi (2012) show that first-mover regions— that is, early patent leaders—tend to maintain their leadership over time, but there are opportunities for others to become local, national, or global hubs. An example of this growth is seen in the telecommu- nication sector: although California has maintained its leadership in tele- communications since the 1970s, the Chinese province of Guangdong has recently ranked among the top 20 world patenting regions in the field. National borders play an important role. Most top patenting regions show a high propensity to establish co-patenting collaborations within their own country rather than with foreign ones. This can be because of geographic proximity or scientific, linguistic, and cultural proximity, as well as for economic reasons. New top destinations for knowledge- intensive FDI The globalization of the world econ- omy has brought about a growing internationalization at the regional level. Regions have increased their ties with foreign regions, both in terms of collaborations for innova- tion—as shown above by regional co-inventorship patterns—and in terms of new linkages deriving from the new forms of innovation orga- nization; in fact, companies have started to delocalize research and design activities that had previously been kept in-house.10 This unbun- dling of the production and innova- tion processes and the new knowl- edge-intensive FDI are contributing to the generation of new alliances among regions and cities located in different countries, especially in emerging economies. These new forms of FDI are targeting not only main regions and capital cities; more and more they are targeting new places characterized by growing domestic demand and/or by territo- rial clusters of scientific and knowl- edge capabilities. These new forms of FDI have primarily benefited those places that have implemented specific policies targeted to attract these types of investments, including cities in different countries, includ- ing Brazil, China, Costa Rica, India and the United Arab Emirates. The fDi Market database col- lects information on greenfield investment projects. These data can be broken down to the city level.11 According to this database, the top five cities for outsourcing innovative FDI activities in 2010–12, as mea- sured by number of jobs created by greenfield investment projects, are Shenzhen (China); Espoo (Finland); and Fairfield, Palo Alto, and Seattle (USA). Seoul (Republic of Korea) ranks 6th, and has the peculiar- ity of outsourcing more R&D than design activities. Traditional European manufacturing sites, such as Boulogne Billancourt and Paris, also rank among the top 20 cities for outsourcing innovative activities (Figure 4a). Since the 2008 economic and financial crisis, innovative FDI has suffered of a sharp decrease. For example, the number of jobs cre- ated by greenfield FDI projects in design, testing, and R&D in the top recipient city decreased from 20,000 in 2005–07 to 13,000 in 2010–12, and from 1,500 to 500 in the 20th city in the rankings.12 The cities that receive the most FDI inflows related to R&D and design are located in emerging economies. Only six out of the top 20 are from European coun- tries; five are from India and three from China. The top five destina- tions for design, testing, and R&D are Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Pune in India; Singapore; and Shanghai in China (Figure 4b). Most of the jobs created are in design and testing, while a few are in R&D activities. Emerging innovation hotspots in developing economies The flourishing of new clusters of innovative start-ups in emerging economies is contributing to rede- fine the mapping of world innova- tion. Yet Silicon Valley is still the reference when thinking about a creative environment where knowl- edge-based firms flourish. In that environment, potential new entre- preneurs can easily make contact with a high-quality and vibrant sci- ence community, can interact with big and top innovative firms, and can have easy access to technolo- gies and finance. Furthermore, the regulatory framework is business- friendly and less adverse to risk-tak- ing than it is in other localities.13 However, new innovative hotspots where technology-based entrepre- neurs cluster together are begin- ning to appear in other regions. Israel, for instance, brands itself as the ‘Start-up Nation’. But start-up hubs have begun to flourish in new places, including specific locations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Several factors contribute to explain the emergence of clusters of start-ups in emerging economies. These include (1) the diffusion of ICTs that has opened new opportu- nities for knowledge exchange and innovation, making start-up com- panies a feasible business option in
- 98. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation 74 Figure 4: Top 20 cities for knowledge-intensive FDI, 2010–12 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 Shenzhen–CN Espoo–FI Fairfield–US PaloAlto–US Seattle–US Seoul–KR SanJose–US Mumbai–IN Armonk–US London–GB Stuttgart–DE NewYorkCity–US Boulogne-Billancourt–FR Paris–FR Bonn–DE Munich–DE Tokyo–JP Dublin–IE Amsterdam–NL Bangalore–IN n Research and development n Design, development, and testing 0 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 Bangalore–IN Hyderabad–IN Pune–IN Singapore–SG Shanghai–CN Dublin–IE Barcelona–SP Beijing–CN Wuhan–CN Mumbai–IN MexicoCity–MX Wroclaw–PL Melbourne–AU Budapest–HU Warsaw–PL HoChiMinhCity–VN AbuDhabi–AE Kyiv–UA Gurgaon–IN Cairo–EG 4a: Top 20 outsourcing cities 4b: Top 20 destination cities Source: Author’s elaboration on the basis of fDi Markets, a service from the Financial Times Ltd., 2013. Note: ‘Research and development’ refers to projects that involve the discovery, design, or development of a product (e.g., a technical design centre). ‘Design, development, and testing’ refers to projects that involve the design, development, or testing of a product (e.g., a software company opening a development centre). To be included in the research & development category, a project must include pure (technical) research. The figure uses ISO-2 country codes: AE = United Arab Emirates; AU = Australia; CN = China; DE = Germany; EG = Egypt; ES = Spain; FI = Finland; Fr = France; GB = United Kingdom; HU = Hungary; IN = India; IE = Ireland; JP = Japan; KR = Korea, Rep. MX = Mexico; NL = Netherlands; PL = Poland; SG = Singapore; UA = Ukraine; VN = Viet Nam. NumberofjobscreatedNumberofjobscreated
- 99. 75 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation growing, developing economies; (2) high GDP growth in develop- ing economies that has opened up new investment opportunities; and (3) the rise in the mobility of stu- dents and skilled workers, which has helped people from developing economies acquire professional skills in foreign universities and compa- nies, thus contributing to the devel- opment of an entrepreneurial cul- ture in their home countries. Start-ups often develop in sec- tors related to ICTs. They therefore require adequate digital infrastruc- ture (e.g., fast and reliable Internet access) as a precondition for their cre- ation and expansion. For instance, according to the Forbes list of the top African start-ups,14 in Africa, technology-based start-ups operate mostly in the software and telecom- munication sectors; most of these new companies cluster in capital cities, are relatively young, and tar- get the whole African continent as the principal market for their inno- vative services. The increasing rel- evance of start-ups and the growing interest of policy makers about if and how to promote them is generating an increasing demand to produce evidence about the conditions that determine the generation and evolu- tion of new technology-based firms. Determining where the new global start-up hubs are and why they per- form better in certain locations than in others is a topic of increasing rele- vance for both national and regional governments. Little international comparable evidence is available on this front, and more and better data are needed in this area to design bet- ter policies. The Startup Genome, in part- nership with Telefónica Digital, has carried out an interesting exercise in this respect. They have developed a Global Startup Ecosystem Index to rank territories with respect to their capacity to be conducive in the cre- ation of new technology-based firms. Their analysis is based on data from more than 50,000 start- ups that use an online service to improve the strategic decision mak- ing of new businesses by providing benchmarks and technical recom- mendations. The index has eight components that measure the differ- ent characteristics of the local envi- ronment assumed to influence the development of start-ups: these are the critical mass of entrepreneurship activity in the region; the availabil- ity of funding for start-ups; average company performance; local mind- set; the capacity to quickly adapt to changes; and the existence of men- torship and business services, local skills, and talents. It also includes a variable that measures the pecu- liarity of the local system (e.g., how different the system is from that of Silicon Valley) to take into account that the success of new innovative hotspots will be higher the more they are able to differentiate them- selves from Silicon Valley and to cre- ate their own unique cluster of start- ups. The total index is then calcu- lated using Silicon Valley as a bench- mark to rank the performance of the other hotspots. The index identifies 20 start-up ecosystems in the world, localized in 12 countries. Among these 20 eco- systems, five are from emerging mar- kets, including Singapore, Moscow (Russian Federation), Bangalore (India), São Paulo (Brazil), and Santiago (Chile). Each local system has its own peculiarities. For exam- ple, São Paulo ranks in the middle for the availability of venture cap- ital but falls short with respect to Silicon Valley for skills and expertise of start-up funders, while Moscow ranks in the middle for talent but has a pretty low score for the avail- ability of funding (Figure 5). This index and its subcomponents face limitations, but it is a useful exer- cise that serves to enrich our map- ping of innovation trends at the ter- ritorial level. In addition, this rank- ing exercise shows the potential of using new sources of information to generate comparable data on local innovation ecosystems. Conclusions: Some implications for measurement and policies The geography of innovation is changing. The rise of emerging economies, the growing importance of networks and openness for inno- vation, and new forms of knowl- edge-intensive FDI are contributing to increase the relevance of the terri- torial dimension in the organization of economic activity. In addition, the search for new economic models that prioritize inclusive and sustain- able growth is calling for new, and more active, roles for territories in policy design and implementation. Today competition and business are global, but assets and capacities are local. Countries, regions, and cities are facing greater pressure to create and retain competences at the local level and to boost growth opportunities in a more balanced way within countries, especially in emerging economies. Only some places are increasingly connected to global innovation networks. Growth, production, and innova- tion are taking place in specific loca- tions within countries while most of the territory still lags behind. This trend, if not counterbalanced by active policies, may create social tensions and undermine potential growth in the future. Available regional innovation indicators show a changing geog- raphy of innovation characterized by (1) the persistence of the ‘spik- iness’ of technological innovation,
- 100. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation 76 Figure 5: Top world start-up ecosystems, 2012 5 10 15 20 250 5 10 15 20 25 Fundingindex Talent index Source: Author’s elaboration, based on Telefónica Digital and Startup Genome, 2012. Note: The bubble size indicates the positioning of each territory in the total ranking, where Silicon Valley ranks at the top (i.e., 20) and Santiago at the bottom (i.e., 1). In each index, Silicon Valley is assumed to be the reference and it ranks at the top (i.e., it scores 20). The funding index measures the availability of risk capital in each start-up ecosystem, while the talent index ranks the skills of the start-up founders in each territory, taking into account different variables including age, education, work experience, and industry domain expertise, among other factors. with a few places concentrating most of global innovative capabilities and financing; (2) persistence in the leadership of traditional innovation hotspots, such as California, and the rise of new places for innovation in specific regions and cities in China and other emerging economies; and (3) a growing internationalization of innovative regions and cities. The new evolving geography of innovation reaffirms the impor- tance of territory. Competences and institutions tend to cluster in specific locations. Effective innovation poli- cies recognize the local dimension of innovation and take it into account in policy design and implementa- tion. This is even truer in the new global economic landscape where new, and different, innovation hotspots are emerging. For exam- ple, knowledge-intensive FDI does not spontaneously generate linkages with the local economy. Often, local innovation and production systems lag behind and face difficulties in providing critical inputs and services for international companies. In parallel, foreign companies tend to show little interest in devel- oping a network of local suppliers because the smaller local suppliers do not exhibit economies of scale, and because of trust and quality requirements on the part of the for- eign companies. Regional and local governments can play a determinant role in fostering local innovation by promoting synergies between knowledge-intensive FDI and the local innovation system. For exam- ple, in the city of Porto Alegre in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, the localization of an IBM design centre in the local technol- ogy park has contributed to increas- ing the brand-value of the park and to attracting other innovative com- panies to co-locate in the same site; matched with the national effort of creating national technology insti- tutes in the different Brazilian states, this has helped to create a critical mass of innovative companies in the state. The creation of new innovative firms can contribute to the dyna- mism of a local production system. Their creation faces several barriers, and public policies can play a deter- minant role in helping to create the conditions that foster the develop- ment of start-ups. The experience of both OECD and non-OECD coun- tries shows that policies can help by offering seed capital for the creation of these firms, as well as by provid- ing incentives for the development of venture capital and angel inves- tors. Policies can also facilitate access to soft and hard infrastructure and develop a business-friendly legal framework.15 History has also shown that suc- cess is not achieved by trying to Silicon Valley Moscow Boston Bangalore Tel Aviv Santiago New York City London Los Angeles Seattle Toronto Singapore São Paulo Berlin Vancouver Paris Sydney Chicago Waterloo Melboure
- 101. 77 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation emulate or recreate the phenomenon of Silicon Valley, which is unique and shaped by multiple specific fac- tors.16 Successful cases are those that have identified their own local for- mula and created new forms of local innovation ecosystems. For this rea- son, venture capital is effective only when there is enough capital avail- able to entrepreneurs in the ear- lier stages of their enterprises (i.e., seed and angel investors) and when measures to support the translation of ideas into business plans are in place. Many regions and cities in Latin America have recently estab- lished new instruments to promote the creation of start-ups. The prov- ince of Buenos Aires, for instance, offers financial support and business services to young entrepreneurs to initiate start-ups. In Colombia, the city of Bogotá has set up a new pro- gramme to attract foreign start- uppers to increase the dynamism of the local economy. In Brazil, various states—including Mina Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul—are investing in promoting university spin-offs.17 Although it is too soon to assess the impact of these incen- tives, improving the evidence about the performance and evolution of these new local start-up ecosystems would improve policy monitoring and increase policy impact. As regions and cities become key units of analysis for innovation trends and policies, better metrics are needed to grasp the systemic dimen- sion of innovation and the differ- ent characteristics that shape inno- vative dynamics at the local level. Measuring innovation at the country level, as the Global Innovation Index does, certainly remains an impor- tant, valid exercise. Innovation and innovation policies have—and will continue to have—a strong national dimension. Nevertheless, it is desir- able to improve our capacity to measure innovation dynamics at the territorial level and to benchmark local innovation systems. Regions and local systems should not be con- sidered smaller countries, and build- ing metrics at the territorial level needs to take this into account. Shifting to the territorial per- spective entails at least two major challenges. First, it is important to define the appropriate territorial scale for comparison. Regions, cit- ies, and functional regions can all be relevant depending on the aspect of innovation that we want to mea- sure and on the geographic and insti- tutional context of the country to which they belong. Second, the issue is not merely to ‘territorialize’ inno- vation indicators. The challenge is to develop measures that are appropri- ate to map innovation dynamics at the territorial level. While certain indicators—although debatable in their capacity to encompass all the complexity and the systemic dimen- sion of innovation—are defendable and offer easy interpretations from a national point of view, this might not hold true at the local level. For instance, a higher level of patent- ing at the country level indicates, in general, a country with higher inno- vation capabilities. At the regional level, it is more likely that a dif- ference in patenting performance reflects asymmetries in specializa- tion patterns rather than in innova- tion strategies. In fact, at the territo- rial level, this indicator tends to be more appropriate to benchmark ter- ritories with a similar technological specialization profile. There are no easy solutions that can take into account territorial met- rics in national rankings. Identifying the characteristics for the local level that make one national innova- tion system outperform others is not straightforward. Some coun- tries, like Germany and the USA, rank high in national indicators and rely on multi-innovative hub sys- tems; others are more centralized, like Finland and the Republic of Korea. Historically, two trends have emerged as positive for catching up in innovation trajectories: (1) the capacity to create new competen- cies and assets in localities that were not naturally endowed with them; and (2) the generation of systems based on networks and interactions, whether local, national, or global. Perhaps identifying new terri- tory-based measures and including them in national innovation rank- ings could add a relevant dimen- sion to the measurement of innova- tion at the country level. But this is easier said than done. The new global economic landscape calls for more refined innovation measures. Complementing national metrics with territory-based indicators is an avenue of research that needs to be addressed to improve our under- standing of the dynamics of the real economy and to offer more realis- tic policy advices. Increased collab- oration among international organi- zations and local think tanks could help to advance the innovation mea- surement agenda by improving our capacity to measure local innova- tion dynamics and by exploring new ways to address the systemic nature of innovation and its relation- ship with the local context to better inform policy decisions. Notes 1 OECD, 2010. 2 OECD, 2011a; EU, 2010. 3 OECD, 2011a. 4 OECD, 2010; INSEAD, 2011; INSEAD and WIPO, 2012. 5 Council on Competitiveness, 2005; Asheim and Coenen, 2006; Hollanders, Tarantola, and Loschky, 2009.
- 102. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 2:TheEvolvingGeographyofInnovation 78 6 OECD, 2011b. 7 OECD, 2011b. 8 OECD, 2011a; 2011b. For more information on the PCT, see http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/ treaty/about.html; and for related statistics see http://www.wipo.int/ipstats/en/statistics/ pct/. 9 Ajmone Marsan and Primi, 2012. 10 OECD, 2013a. 11 This database is part of the fDi Markets service from the Financial Times Limited; see http://www.fdimarkets.com/ for more detail. 12 fDi Markets database, 2012. 13 Saxenian, 2006. 14 Forbes, 2012. 15 OECD, 2013b. 16 Lerner, 2009. 17 OECD, 2013b. References Ajmone Marsan, G. and A. Primi. 2012. ‘Tell Me Who You Patent With and I’ll Tell You Who You Are: Evidence from Inter-Regional Patenting Networks in Three Emerging Technological Fields’. OECD Regional Development, Working Papers, 2012/03. Paris: OECD Publishing. Asheim, B. T. and L. Coenen. 2006. ‘Contextualising Regional Innovation Systems in a Globalising Learning Economy: On Knowledge Bases and Institutional Frameworks’. Journal of Technology Transfer 31: 163–73. Atsmon, Y. H., P. Child, R. Dobbs, and L. Narasimhan. 2012. Winning the $30 Trillion Decathlon: Going for Gold in Emerging Markets. McKinsey & Company. Available at http://www.mckinsey. com/features/30_trillion_decathlon. Council on Competitiveness. 2005. Measuring Regional Innovation: A Guidebook for Conducting Regional Innovation Assessments. Prepared by the U.S. Department of Commerce. United States of America: US Council on Competitiveness EU (European Union). 2010. EUROPE 2020: A Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth. Brussels: European Commission. Forbes. 2012. ‘Ranking of Top 20 African Startups’. Africa Magazine, February. Forbes Magazine Press. Hollanders, U., S. Tarantola, and A. Loschky. 2009. Regional Innovation Scoreboard 2009: Methodology Report. Brussels: Pro-Inno- Europe, European Commission. INSEAD. 2011. The Global Innovation Index 2011: Accelerating Growth and Development. Fontainebleau: INSEAD. INSEAD and WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2012. The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth. Fontainebleau: INSEAD. Lerner, J. 2009. Boulevard of Broken Dreams: Why Public Efforts to Boost Entrepreneurship and Venture Capital Have Failed and What to Do About It. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2010. Measuring Innovation: A New Perspective. Paris: OECD. ———. 2011a. Regions and Innovation Policy. Paris: OECD. ———. 2011b. Regions at a Glance 2011. Paris: OECD. ———. 2013a, Forthcoming. Perspectives on Global Development 2013: Industrial Policies in a Changing World. Paris: OECD. ———. 2013b, Forthcoming. ‘Start-up Latin America: A Comparative Study Based on the Experience of Six Countries in the Region’. OECD Development Centre Study. Paris: OECD. Saxenian, A. 2006. The New Argonauts: Regional Advantage in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Telefonica Digital and Startup Genome. 2012. Startup Ecosystem Report 2012. Online report. Available at http://blog.startupcompass.co/ pages/entrepreneurship-ecosystem-report (accessed November 2012).
- 103. 79 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation MeasuringRegionalInnovation:AEuropeanPerspective Hugo Hollanders, UNU-MERIT (Maastricht University) chapter 3 rise to prominence of regional and local business clusters as vehicles for global and national economic competitiveness’.3 Innovation policy in Europe is increasingly designed and imple- mented at the regional level. At the country level, almost 300 innova- tion-support measures have been identified for the EU Member States;4 at the regional level, more than 1,000 support measures have been identified in these countries.5 However, despite some advances, regional data on innovation indi- cators—which could help regional policy makers design and moni- tor innovation policies—frequently simply do not exist. Regional-level data are of value for two reasons.6 First, innova- tion policies are often developed and implemented at the regional and even municipal level, in addi- tion to national- and European Union (EU)-level policies. Regions that are lagging behind in eco- nomic development can apply for government support through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) to modernize and diversify their economic structure.7 Innovation promotion is increas- ingly seen as a crucial dimension of programmes set up under this fund. Regional indicators of innovation therefore can help inform regional innovation policies. Second, many innovative activ- ities are strongly localized into clusters of innovative firms, some- times in close cooperation with insti- tutions such as research institutes and universities. Policy needs to be directed at supporting these clusters and, where feasible, at encouraging new clusters of innovation in other regions. Doing so will often require different types of policy actions. The effective design and implementation of such policies depends on identi- fying both highly innovative regions and less innovative regions that might have future potential. Other regions, because their economic basis is in tourism, agriculture, or resource extraction, may need dif- fusion-oriented policies that focus on the adoption of new technol- ogy rather than its creation. Others, which base their economy on high- level knowledge creation activities, might be best served with policies focusing on spin-offs and high-tech clusters creation. The Regional Innovation Scoreboard: Indicators and data availability The following section illustrates some of the challenges and opportu- nities in measuring innovation at the regional level using the example of the European Regional Innovation Scoreboard (RIS). The RIS is the regional version of the Innovation Union Scoreboard (IUS). Similar to the GII, the IUS measures inno- vation performance at the country The Global Innovation Index (GII) focuses on measuring innovation at the country level. It provides inter- esting insights into the framework conditions needed for innovation to take place; it also looks at variations in actual innovation performance. Yet benchmarking at the country level hides potential large regional differences within countries. For larger countries in particular, dif- ferences between regions, not only in innovation but also in economic performance, can be substantial: even in countries with an average performance we might find regions with top-level performance. The importance of regional innovation The concept of national systems of innovation, developed in the late 1980s by Freeman and Lundvall,1 stressed the importance of flows of technology and information among people, enterprises, and institu- tions, seeing these flows as key to the innovative process. The role of regional innovation systems as a ‘complement to the study of knowl- edge flows at the national level’ was acknowledged by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in their 1997 report on national systems of innovation.2 Regions are increas- ingly becoming important engines of economic development; ‘global economic forces have raised the pro- file of regions . . . because of the
- 104. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation 80 Table 1: The Regional Innovation Scoreboard: Indicators and trends RIS 2002 RIS 2003 RIS 2006 RIS 2009 RIS 2012 Countries EU15 EU15 EU25 EU27+1 (a) EU21+3 (b) Number of regions covered in the RIS 148 173 208 201 190 Number of indicators in the RIS 7 13 7 16 12 Number of indicators in the EIS/IUS 21 22 26 29 24 Specific indicators Share of population aged 25–64 having completed tertiary education l l l l l Share of population aged 25–64 participating in life-long learning l l l l Share of employment in medium-high and high-tech manufacturing l l l l l (f) Share of employment in knowledge- intensive services l Share of employment in high-tech services l l l Share of households with broadband access l R&D expenditures by the public sector as a % of GDP l l l l l R&D expenditures by the business sector as a % of GDP l l l l l Number of high-tech patent applications per million population l l Number of public-private scientific co- publications per million population l Number of patent applications per million population (c) l l l l Innovative companies as a % of all firms l (d) SMEs innovating in-house as a % of all SMEs l l Innovative SMEs collaborating with others as a % of all SMEs l l Innovation expenditures as a % of sales l (d) Non-R&D innovation expenditures as a % of sales l l SMEs with product and/or process innova- tions as a % of all SMEs l l SMEs with marketing and/or organiza- tional innovations as a % of all SMEs l l Resource efficiency innovators as a % of all SMEs l Sales of products new to the firm as a % of sales l (e) l l (g) Sales of products new to the market as a % of sales l level, but it focuses on European countries only. The IUS is the successor of the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS), which was first introduced in 2001. The EIS was one of the first scoreboards to use results from innovation surveys; its measure- ment framework has been contin- uously improved over the years by adding and replacing indicators. The last edition, the IUS 2013,8 covers 34 countries using data for 25 indica- tors; innovation survey data are used for 6 of them.9 In its early stages, the EIS rec- ognized the importance of includ- ing the regional dimension: the first attempt to apply the EIS measure- ment framework at the regional level dates back to 2002. Further edi- tions were published in 2003, 2006, 2009, and 2012.10 The number of regions and indicators included in the RIS has changed significantly since its inception (see Table 1). These changes are in part the result of following changes in the EIS/IUS measurement framework and in part a response to improved data avail- ability. Readily available regional data on educational attainment, research and development (R&D) expenditures, and patent applica- tions have provided a reliable source of data for the framework, but the availability of regional innovation survey data has also had a profound impact on the development of the RIS. Because of a lack of regional data, the RIS covers only some of the indicators used in the EIS/IUS. Regional innovation survey data The key challenge to any regional benchmarking study is the availabil- ity of regional data. Eurostat, the sta- tistical office of the European Union, provides harmonized regional statis- tics for a wide range of indicators,11 Source: Author’s compilation. Notes: The EU27 countries are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The l symbol shows that the indicator was used in the respective RIS report; means that it was not. Indicators in italic use data from the innovation survey. SMEs are small and medium-sized enterprises. (a) EU27 countries plus Norway; (b) 21 EU27 countries (this excludes the smaller countries Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and Malta) plus Croatia, Norway, and Switzerland; (c ) the RIS 2012 uses the number of patent applications per billion GDP; (d) in the RIS 2006, this indicator is separate for manufacturing and services; (e) the indicator in 2006 covered only the manufacturing sector; (f) this indicator combines employment data in medium-high and high-tech manufacturing and knowledge-intensive services; (g) this indicator combines sales of products new to the firm and new to the market.
- 105. 81 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation but only a few are relevant for mea- suring regional innovation. Statistics on educational attain- ment, R&D expenditures, and pat- ent applications in particular are widely used in studies and academic publications measuring regional innovation. But at best these sta- tistics capture only some of the framework conditions (e.g., educa- tion), inputs (R&D), or throughputs (patents) of the innovation process. Still needed are statistics measur- ing firms’ innovation activities and innovation outputs. Such statistics are being collected using innovation surveys. In Europe, the Community Innovation Survey (CIS) provides information on the innovativeness of enterprises. The CIS provides statistics broken down by coun- try, type of innovator, economic sector, and size, and is carried out every two years across a large num- ber of European countries.12 The CIS, however, is designed to collect data at the country level, and imple- menting the EIS/IUS measurement framework at the regional level has been severely hampered by the non- availability of regional CIS data for most European countries. For the RIS 2009, Eurostat and national statistical offices were consulted to provide harmonized regional CIS data for those indica- tors included in the EIS. The fol- lowing two limitations emerged as being the key impediments to pro- viding regional CIS data:13 Regional activities in innovation surveys get misreported For most countries, the CIS sur- vey sample is drawn from respon- dents at the enterprise level. For companies with activities in multi- ple establishments in more than one region, it is impossible to determine in which establishment in which region the innovation takes place. A comparison of regional innovation performance could therefore attri- bute all innovative activities of an enterprise to the location of its head office even though a substantial part of these innovative activities may in fact be carried out in other regions. The problem is especially relevant in the case of indicators using expendi- ture or sales data because the aggre- gate results are dominated by large enterprises, which are more likely to be active in more than one region. As a partial solution for this prob- lem, the RIS uses CIS data only for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) because these firms are less likely than large firms to be active in multiple regions. Lack of regional stratum The sample of enterprises at the regional level should (ideally) rep- resent the size and sector composi- tion of the population of enterprises in that region. Sampling should include a regional stratum, and the sample size should be sufficiently large to keep sampling errors at the regional level at a reasonable mag- nitude. Not all countries include the regional level in their national surveys, however; those that do not cannot produce reliable and rep- resentative regional data. Within national surveys, some regions will thus be overrepresented and others will be underrepresented. The lack of a regional stratum is also partly explained by some countries having a survey sample that is too small to include a regional stratum. The Regional Innovation Scoreboard 2012 The latest RIS report was published in 2012 and includes data for 12 indi- cators (see Table 1).14 The report cov- ers 190 regions in 21 EU Member States,15 along with Croatia, Norway, and Switzerland at different levels of nomenclature of territorial units for statistics (NUTS),16 with 55 NUTS level 1 regions and 135 NUTS 2 regions. Collection of regional innovation survey data Regional CIS data requests were made to 20 countries in April-May 2010, and 16 of them—Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,Finland,France,Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden—responded positively and provided regional CIS data in May-June 2011.17 Regional innovation performance groups The performance data for the RIS 2012 have been summarized in one regional performance index using a composite indicator similar to the country-level innovation index in the IUS. In both the IUS and the RIS, countries and regions have been classified into four different performance groups based on their innovation performance relative to that of the EU27:18 • innovation leaders perform at a level well above that of the EU27; • innovation followers perform at a level above or close to that of the EU27; • moderate innovators perform at a level below that of the EU27; and • modest innovators perform at a level well below that of the EU27. Diversity in regional innovation performances The results show that most European countries include regions at differ- ent levels of performance (Figure 1). The difference between the most and least innovative regions is high- est in Finland, Romania, and Spain. There also appears to be a negative correlation between the difference
- 106. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation 82 Figure 1: Regional innovation performance: Wide country variations Source: Author’s calculations using RIS 2012 data. Note: Country codes are those used by Eurostat: AT = Austria, BE = Belgium, BG = Bulgaria, CH = Switzerland, CZ = Czech Republic, DE = Germany, DK = Denmark, ES = Spain, FI = Finland, FR = France, GR = Greece, HR = Croatia, HU = Hungary, IE = Ireland, IT = Italy, NL = Netherlands, NO = Norway, PL = Poland, PT = Portugal, RO = Romania, SE = Sweden, SI = Slovenia, SK = Slovakia, UK = United Kingdom. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 BGROPLSKHRGRHUESCZPTITNOSIFRIEATNLUKBEFIDEDKSECH Country Regionalinnovationindex2012score(0.000–1.000) Figure 2: Average innovative performance: Countries compared with regions Source: Author’s calculations, using data from the RIS 2012 and IUS 2011. Notes: The vertical axis gives the innovation performance at the country level as measured in the IUS. The horizontal axis gives the difference between the most and least innovative regions as measured in the RIS. Country codes are those used by Eurostat. See the note to Figure 1 for a list of codes used. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Most to least innovative region, ratio UISinnovationperformancescore(0.000–0.900) CH SE UK FI FR SI BE BG GR PL RO ES
- 107. 83 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation between the most and least innova- tive region and the country’s average innovation performance (Figure 2). Countries appear to be more inno- vative when the differences in per- formance between their regions are smaller. Most innovative: Regions and countries The IUS 2011 innovation leader and innovation follower countries include 84 regions, whereas there are 99 regional leaders and followers across the four country groups (see Table 2). Most of the regional lead- ers and followers are found within countries that are innovation lead- ers or followers themselves, although 25 regional leaders and followers are found in countries that are catego- rized as IUS moderate innovator countries. In countries that are innova- tion leaders, the majority of regions (two out of three) are among the most innovative (Box 1), whereas the countries that are innovation followers have fewer than one out of three regional innovation lead- ers. A country that wishes to boost its innovation performance should not attempt to improve its perfor- mance in only one of a few regions but rather should improve in most of its regions: countries need a balanced regional innovation performance. The RIS results highlight sev- eral regions in weaker-performing countries that are much more inno- vative than their country’s average. Several moderate innovators include one or more regions that are more innovative than their country: both Portugal and the Czech Republic, for example, include one innova- tion leader (Lisbon and Prague) and one innovation follower; Italy includes seven regions that are inno- vation followers; Spain includes five such regions; and both Greece and Croatia each include one innovation follower. Of the modest innovators, only Romania includes one region in a higher performance group: Bucharest is a moderate innovator. Most of these regions are metropol- itan regions (centred in either cap- itals or major cities) with a strong government sector presence, and they are home to universities and head offices of companies. This explains the regions’ above-aver- age performance on several of the RIS indicators (e.g., employment in knowledge-intensive services, ter- tiary education, scientific co-pub- lications, and public-sector R&D expenditures). Inter-regional exchanges Regions also benefit from exchanges with other regions. Regions can draw on the supply of highly skilled workers in other regions in the same country because they share the same education system, and firms can collaborate for their R&D activ- ities with firms in other regions within and outside their country. Border regions especially have more cross-border collaboration activities because of the close proximity of foreign regions. Such international inter-regional exchanges are not captured in the RIS because rele- vant European data are not available. Regions matter: The need for more regional innovation data Countries are made up of regions that may exhibit different industrial structures and where regional policy makers can be more or less autono- mous in designing and implement- ing policies. A better understanding of what is happening at the regional level will explain differences in per- formance at the country level. By promoting regional innovation, countries will improve their overall innovativeness and competitiveness. However, despite the improved availability of regional data (the con- sequence of several European coun- tries having shared regional inno- vation survey data), these regional- level data are still scarce, especially when compared with the available country-level indicators. In par- ticular, regional innovation survey data are sparse because sample sizes are too small to allow for a reliable regional breakdown of national-level data. An increase in sample size will require a corresponding increase in budget, but in times of auster- ity a call for an increase in budget is unlikely to be heard unless the need to better understand differences in Table 2: A comparison of IUS and RIS performance groups Regions (RIS groups) Country (IUS groups) Leaders Followers Moderate performers Modest performers Total number of regions Country leaders 28 11 2 0 41 Country followers 11 24 7 1 43 Country moderate performers 2 23 28 39 92 Country modest performers 0 0 2 12 14 Total number of regions 41 58 39 52 Source: Author’s calculations, based on data from EC, 2012a. Note: The IUS country groups include the European countries as shown in endnote 18; that endnote also shows country performance groups.
- 108. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation 84 innovation systems of countries. There are at least two strong argu- ments why it would be of interest to provide a Regional Innovation Index. First, we have seen that regions are engines of growth and that countries do well if regional differences within the country are regional performance becomes bet- ter understood. A regional version of the Global Innovation Index The GII provides a useful bench- marking tool for comparing the small. Having more detailed infor- mation on strong and weak regions in countries will help us understand why some countries do not perform well in the GII or its (sub-)pillars. Second, the GII encompasses countries with a wide range of sizes, from very small countries such as Bahrain and Cyprus to very large countries such as China and India. Applying best practices from these large countries to smaller ones will be difficult because of the differ- ences in scale. We need to be able to compare smaller countries with regions of larger countries that are similar to the smaller countries in size or in industrial structure. Such a comparison requires a breakdown of country-level statistics into regional statistics, where regions should not be defined as static administrative regions (as in the European NUTS classification of regions), but rather as economic regions that can be dis- tinguished from bordering regions and that should have a certain degree of internal cohesion.19 There are no guidelines for determining the ‘ideal’ region, but large metropolitan areas seem to emerge as a natural category. Conclusions The large regional differences seen in innovation data within coun- tries indicate that a consideration of regional data, rather than coun- try-level data alone, could provide insight into ways that countries could form policy to encourage innovation. The GII model could be enhanced by adding a regional element, so that best practices for regions that are comparable to small countries, such as Cyprus, could be considered as more applicable and appropriate for small countries than the best practices of a large country, such as India. Work to be done will include establishing guidelines that Box 1: Most-innovative European regions Switzerland (7): Innovation leader Région lémanique (CH01) Espace Mittelland (CH02) Nordwestschweiz (CH03) Zürich (CH04) Zentralschweiz (CH06) Ticino (CH07) Sweden (8): Innovation leader Stockholm (SE11) Östra Mellansverige (SE12) Sydsverige (SE22) Västsverige (SE23) Övre Norrland (SE33) Denmark (5): Innovation leader Hovedstaden (DK01) Midtjylland (DK04) Germany (16): Innovation leader Baden-Württemberg (DE1) Bayern (DE2) Berlin (DE3) Bremen (DE5) Hamburg (DE6) Hessen (DE7) Niedersachsen (DE9) Nordrhein-Westfalen (DEA) Rheinland-Pfalz (DEB) Saarland (DEC) Sachsen (DED) Thüringen (DEG) Finland (5): Innovation leader Etelä-Suomi (FI18) Länsi-Suomi (FI19) Pohjois-Suomi (FI1A) Belgium (3): Innovation follower Région de Bruxelles-Capitale (BE1) Vlaams Gewest (BE2) United Kingdom (12): Innovation follower East of England (UKH) South East (UKJ) Netherlands (12): Innovation follower Utrecht (NL31) Noord-Holland (NL32) Zuid-Holland (NL33) Noord-Brabant (NL41) Austria (3): Innovation follower Ostösterreich (AT1) France (9): Innovation follower Île de France (FR1) Centre-Est (FR7) Portugal (7): Moderate innovator Lisboa (PT17) Czech Republic (8): Moderate innovator Praha (CZ01) Source RIS, 2012. Note Innovation group membership at the country level as identified in the IUS. The number in parentheses after the country name shows the total number of regions in each country; the codes after the city/ region are the NUTS codes used for the regions within countries. See endnote 16 for further detail.
- 109. 85 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 3:MeasuringRegionalInnovation determine the ‘ideal’ size and char- acteristics of a region, but large cities seem a natural place to begin. Notes 1 Freeman, 1987; Lundvall, 1992. 2 OECD, 1997. 3 Cooke and Memedovic, 2003. 4 More information on each of these support measures is provided by the European Commission–funded TrendChart project, available at http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ policies/innovation/facts-figures-analysis/ trendchart/index_en.htm. 5 An inventory of European innovation support measures at the regional level is provided by the European Commission–funded Regional Innovation Monitor project. See http:// ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ policy/regional-innovation/monitor/. 6 The following is a revised version of the introduction in Hollanders, 2003. 7 The ERDF aims to strengthen economic and social cohesion in the European Union by correcting imbalances between its regions. The ERDF finances direct aid to investments in companies to create sustainable jobs; infrastructures linked notably to research and innovation, telecommunications, environment, energy and transport; financial instruments (capital risk funds, local development funds, etc.) to support regional and local development and to foster cooperation between towns and regions; and technical assistance measures. 8 See http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/ innovation/files/ius-2013_en.pdf. 9 Hollanders and Janz, 2013. 10 The RIS 2012 (EC, 2012b) is available at http:// ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/ files/ris-2012_en.pdf. The accompanying RIS 2012 methodology report is available at http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/ innovation/files/ris-2012-methodology- report_en.pdf. 11 The regional statistical database from Eurostat includes regional statistics on agriculture, demographics, economic accounts, education, science and technology, business, health, tourism, transport, labour market, labour costs, information society, migration, environment and energy, and poverty and social exclusion. 12 The community innovation survey is available at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ ITY_SDDS/en/inn_esms.htm. 13 The following material is adapted from the discussion in section 3 in Hollanders, Tarantola, and Loschky, 2009. 14 See EC, 2012b: http://ec.europa.eu/ enterprise/policies/innovation/files/ris-2012_ en.pdf. The report was prepared by Hugo Hollanders, Lorena Rivera Léon, and Laura Roman. 15 The EU Member States Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and Malta have not been included because there are no separate statistical regions in these countries. 16 The nomenclature of territorial units for statistics (NUTS) classification is a hierarchical system for dividing up the economic territory of the EU for the purpose of the collection, development, and harmonization of EU regional statistics; the system distinguishes between different sizes. NUTS 1 regions (about 97 in total across Europe) are major socioeconomic regions with between 3 million and 7 million inhabitants. NUTS 2 regions (about 270 across Europe) are basic regions for the application of regional policies with between 800,000 and 3 million inhabitants. See http://epp.eurostat. ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_ nomenclature/introduction for more details. 17 These regional CIS data are not publicly available and have been made available by the different countries explicitly for constructing the Regional Innovation Scoreboard. 18 The innovation leaders are Denmark (DK), Finland (FI), Germany (DE), Sweden (SE), and Switzerland (CH); the innovation followers are Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Cyprus (CY), Estonia (EE), France (FR), Iceland (IS), Ireland (IE), Luxembourg (LU), Netherlands (NL), Slovenia (SI), and the United Kingdom (UK); the moderate innovators are Croatia (HR), the Czech Republic (CZ), Greece (GR), Hungary (HU), Italy (IT), Lithuania (LT), Malta (MT), Norway (NO), Poland (PL), Portugal (PT), Serbia (RS), Slovakia (SK), and Spain (ES); and the modest innovators are Bulgaria (BG), Latvia (LV), the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (MK), Romania (RO), and Turkey (TR) (see EC, 2012a). 19 Cooke and Memedovic, 2003. References Cooke, P. and O. Memedovic. 2003. Strategies for Regional Innovation Systems: Learning Transfer and Applications. UNIDO Policy Paper. Vienna: UNIDO. EC (European Commission). 2012a. Innovation Union Scoreboard 2011. Brussels: EC. ———. 2012b. Regional Innovation Scoreboard 2012. Brussels: EC. Freeman, C. 1987. Technology and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan. London: Pinter. Hollanders, H. 2003. 2003 European Innovation Scoreboard: Technical Paper No 3 Regional innovation performances. Brussels: European Commission, DG Enterprise and Industry. Hollanders, H. and N. Janz. 2013. ‘Scoreboard and Indicator Reports’. In F. Gault, ed., Handbook of Innovation Indicators and Measurement. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, pp. 279–97. Hollanders, H., S. Tarantola, and A. Loschky. 2009. Regional Innovation Scoreboard 2009: Methodology Report. Brussels: European Commission, DG Enterprise and Industry. Lundvall, B-Å., ed. 1992. National Innovation Systems: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning. London: Pinter. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 1997. National Innovation Systems. Paris: OECD.
- 111. 87 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs chapter 4 TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs Barry Jaruzelski, Rasheed Eltayeb, Tamer Obied, and Hatem Samman, Booz & Company Scripps Research Institute, the Salk Institute, and the Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute attracts leading minds. The area also hosts companies such as Qualcomm, the telecommunication technology sup- plier. At the other end of the spec- trum,ineconomiessuchasSingapore and the Republic of Korea, state- sponsored research programmes provide the organizational kernel for innovation hubs. Between these extremes, in countries such as the United Kingdom (UK) and India, a range of paths are based on mixed models that include varying degrees of academic and state involvement. Although innovation hubs develop along different paths, almost every successful innovation hub studied involves the participa- tion of large enterprises that serve as hub champions. Sometimes these champions are private enterprises, as they are in Silicon Valley in the USA, where companies—including Hewlett-Packard, Lockheed, and Xerox—helped catalyse growth at various points in the hub’s history. More recently, chaebols (conglomer- ates)—including Samsung, LG, and SK Energy—have played this role in innovation hubs in the Republic of Korea. Sometimes these champions are state-owned enterprises (SOEs). For example, the state-owned oil giant Saudi Aramco acts as a cham- pion in the Dhahran Techno-Valley (DTV), an emerging innovation hub in Saudi Arabia. Enterprise champions support innovation hubs in important ways. They help build hubs’ capabilities by providing capital, a pool of experi- enced technical talent, and business opportunities; they also provide interregional and international con- nections via their networks and value chains. They stimulate research and development (R&D) within hubs by facilitating knowledge creation and sharing. In addition, they help other stakeholders within the hub to bridge the commercialization gap with their resources through collab- oration or supplier relationships. Enterprise champions there- fore can play an essential role in the development of innovation clusters, especially in developing economies. In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries,4 for instance, efforts are afoot to establish hubs as a means of diversifying national economies. Whether or not these initiatives achieve their full poten- tial will depend on how effectively they can establish a reliable inno- vation sequence and accelerate the rate of innovation. In the GCC and elsewhere, enterprise champions— including SOEs, family-owned con- glomerates, and multinational cor- porations (MNCs)—can be the principal drivers of these activities. They are already connected to the main constituents of innovation ecosystems, including government, universities, financial institutions, and other companies throughout Innovation hubs can be vital compo- nents of national and regional eco- nomicstrategy.Thesehubsareknowl- edge-intensive business clusters that serve as centres of wealth creation and link the local economy to the global economy. Research indicates a posi- tive correlation between the strength of these clusters and national pros- perity.1 Figure 1 presents this corre- lation for the NUTS regions in the European Union 15 (EU15).2 Given the increasingly inte- grated global economy and the resulting intensity of competition, countries need to develop strate- gically aligned innovation hubs to avoid falling behind in the race for economic sustainability and leader- ship. This chapter looks at some steps countries can take to put successful hubs into place. Innovation hubs: More than one path to success The developmental paths of innova- tion hubs vary. In some countries, such as the United States of America (USA), hubs tend to form around research universities and institutes that attract and support an entrepre- neurial community.3 For instance, SanDiego,California,hasbecomean important area for innovation in the USA. In addition to the draw of the University of California San Diego campus, the presence of research institutions such as the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the
- 112. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs 88 Figure 1: The correlation between innovation clusters and prosperity in the EU15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 Employees in strong clusters, % (2005) GDPpercapita,PPPadjusted(2004euros) y = 83,342x2 – 16,467x + 22,866 R2 = 0.3941 Source: EC, 2007; European Cluster Observatory, ISC/CSC cluster codes 1.0, dataset 20070510. Note: The figure refers to the nomenclature of territorial units for statistics (NUTS) regions in the EU15, excluding Portugal and Greece. Strong clusters are defined by a localization quotient (LQ) greater than 2. For a given industry located in a region within a country (e.g., the automotive industry in Västsverige, Sweden), an LQ of 1 means that its share of employment in the region is at the average level for that industry in that country; an LQ of 2 means its share is at twice that level. With an LQ of 3.66, the automotive industry is a strong cluster in Västsverige. Source: Booz & Company. Figure 2: The innovation hub value chain Enable efficient access to capital and expertise; ensure strong intellectual property protection Help to generate external market demand Build a self-sustaining ecosystem to support advanced R&D Create a home for independent stakeholders: academics, corporations, researchers, venture capitalists, etc. Attract world-class business and scientific talent; take advantage of the local talent Build a leading business and regulatory environment that supports new ventures Early stage, basic research Technology development Prototype production Advanced, focused research Prototype development Market launch Early stage: pre-market Late stage: Market entry Research Development Operations Commercialization
- 113. 89 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs the world. Further, their influence and financial might are considerable. For these reasons, governments should consider enterprise champi- ons to be a critical foundational ele- ment. The local and national poli- cies they help shape should create a sound basis for innovation hub devel- opment and should attract champi- ons by streamlining the business and logistical processes that hubs require; ensuring the availability of talent; providing for and incentivizing foreign ownership; making direct investments in enabling technolo- gies; and stimulating the investment of foreign and domestic venture capital. Although innovation hubs in Western economies are created without government instigation, in the GCC, SOEs are the dominant economic actors and therefore often play a key role in kick-starting the innovation process. The three roles of enterprise champions Innovation hubs are platforms for the integration of scientific endeav- our and its commercial application. They serve as commercialization catalysts by transforming technolog- ical advances into marketable prod- ucts and services. Accordingly, the value chain of innovation hubs that succeed in becoming serial innova- tors includes research, development, commercialization, and the pro- duction and dissemination of new products and services (see Figure 2). Enterprise champions support this value chain in three ways: by build- ing hub capabilities, by supporting and developing hub R&D activities, and by enabling commercialization. Building hub capabilities Successful innovation hub develop- ment depends on the ability to gen- erate and protect intellectual prop- erty (IP) and gain access to the capital and expertise needed to develop it commercially. Enterprise champions can leverage their financial resources and expansive networks to support these requirements, as follows: • They can act as service providers, investors, and customers within the hub. • They can attract local and inter- national companies, which will co-locate within the hub in order to do business with them. In doing so, enterprise champions can orchestrate the creation of a network of resources that can, for example, provide university partners with access to top-notch commercial research. • They can create a sufficiently large talent pool—one on the scale needed to start and seed new businesses. • They can establish and manage alliances and partnerships, as well as make acquisitions, to secure the technologies and capabilities needed to strengthen the hub. • They can support and encourage the development of a strong IP protection system by filing their patents and licenses domestically and internationally, maintaining strong internal policies and pro- cesses for protecting their own IP and that of their partners, and advocating the enactment of com- prehensive national IP policies. Building the capabilities of an innovation hub is especially impor- tant in the early stages of its develop- ment, when its structure and inno- vation activities are first being estab- lished (see Box 1). Supporting and developing hub R&D activities Once the major structural elements of a hub are in place, a self-sustaining R&D ecosystem is needed. To be successful, such an R&D system requires capabilities that enable hub players to capture customer needs, conceive breakthrough ideas, and feed high-value concepts into the prototype development pipeline. Increasing R&D output requires talent development within the hub, especially with regard to the staff and students of academic partners. Often this development is fuelled by increased industry collaboration and financial support. Universities gen- erate IP that is marketed to exter- nal users by university-owned com- panies, and local businesses pro- duce products and services based on local IP. This requires find- ing specific beneficiaries with dif- ferent objectives, including basic research, industry-driven commer- cial research, and technology devel- opment and commercialization. Enterprise champions play an essential critical role in achieving R&D goals in at least three distinct ways: • By making R&D a strategic pri- ority, collaborating with aca- demic institutions, and organiz- ing forums, champions can lever- age intellectual capital by encour- aging knowledge sharing and cross-pollination within the hub. • Through established R&D sat- ellites across their international networks, champions can facili- tate the transfer of complex knowledge to innovation hubs and promote the hubs as hot spots for innovation. • By utilizing their local and inter- national links, champions can steer hubs in directions that better meet regional and international needs and thus help contribute to the hub’s economic growth.
- 114. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs 90 Box 1: Saudi Aramco: An enterprise champion in the Dhahran Techno-Valley Established in 2001, the Dhahran Techno- Valley (DTV) is a nascent innovation hub founded to support the growth of Saudi Arabia’s knowledge economy. Its principal objective is to support energy-related tech- nology development by strengthening links between the hub’s academic anchor—the King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), one of Saudi Arabia’s leading edu- cation institutions—and the energy indus- try, aligning R&D agendas between domes- tic and international energy stakeholders, and unlocking the commercial value of intel- lectual property. The DTV’s principal asset, the King Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz Science Park (KASP), encompasses approximately 770,000 square metres and provides a number of services and facilities, including proprietary R&D facilities owned and operated by leading energy companies, a collaborative ecosys- tem, conference and meeting facilities, busi- ness facilitation and support services, capa- bilities development services, investment opportunities, and licensing opportunities. Tenants of KASP are typically located in six key sectors that support the energy industry in Saudi Arabia: advanced materials, refining and petrochemical processes, geosciences and petroleum engineering, water man- agement, energy efficiency and renewable energy, and advanced computing. The science park is operated by the Dhahran Techno-Valley Company (DTVC), a wholly owned subsidiary of the KFUPM. The DTVC plays the important role of fostering an environment in which the drivers of inno- vation work together to deliver economic, business, and employment opportunities of national and global value in the energy sec- tor. Among these drivers is Saudi Aramco, whose headquarters are in Dhahran. The company represents the science park’s most prominent and largest enterprise champion. Saudi Aramco has helped build KASP’s capa- bilities in two main ways, described below. Setting the energy R&D agenda in Saudi Arabia Developing links: In an effort to strengthen their own ties with Saudi Aramco, a number of international companies have established R&D facilities in the DTV’s science park. These companies also have developed links with the KFUPM. The research conducted within the confines of these facilities is focused on finding innovative solutions related to the energy priorities of the Kingdom, many of which are driven by national champi- ons such as Saudi Aramco. These solutions include efficiently extracting hydrocarbons through the pursuit of conventional and unconventional sources, expanding refining capacity, pursuing renewable energy and sustainable water management, diversify- ing the country’s energy mix, reducing the country’s energy intensity, leveraging intel- lectual capital and supply chains’ economies of scale, and developing knowledge-based expertise. All of these solutions will rely heav- ily on improving existing technologies and developing new ones. As a result, a cohe- sive and integrated environment in which new industry-relevant technologies can be developed and commercialized has begun to emerge (see Figure 1.1). Tenants • Critical mass of high-quality R&D capabilities • Industry-relevant commercial research SMEs • Access to SMEs’R&D services • Investment opportunities in joint ventures Other enterprise champions • Collaborative research opportunities • Access to R&D sponsorships Dhahran Techno-Valley Figure 1.1: The Dhahran Techno-Valley innovation hub Source: DTVC, 2013. Note: KFUPM = King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals; SMEs = small and medium-sized enterprises. KFUPM • Access to human capital to drive the R&D process • Access to infrastructure and services for ecosystem players Saudi Aramco • Collaborative research • Access to advanced research facilities • Brand association with Saudi Aramco (Continued)
- 115. 91 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs Box 1: Saudi Aramco: An enterprise champion in the Dhahran Techno-Valley (continued) Supporting collaborative research: Together with the KFUPM, Saudi Aramco, and other enterprise champions, the DTV provides tenants with access to collabora- tive research and the opportunities, infra- structure, and environment needed to develop, test, and deploy new technologies. Similarly, the presence of Saudi Aramco will provide opportunities for the emergence of small and medium-sized enterprises via business opportunities and access to R&D services. Challenges facing the DTV The DTV has made considerable progress over the past decade. However, in common with similar ecosystems in Saudi Arabia, the DTV faces challenges in terms of policy, regulation, and investment. For instance, immigration policies that create obstacles to talent recruitment and regulations that impede hub operations (such as import/ export restrictions that make it difficult to obtain research equipment) need to be revised. In addition, new financing models that allow small and medium-sized enter- prises to pursue product engineering and development are needed to enable the manufacturing of promising new technolo- gies created within the DTV. A thriving environment in the DTV Irrespective of these challenges, the DTV has created a thriving environment. It has managed to attract leading global and Saudi Arabian players in the energy sector to set up R&D facilities in its science park— among these are Amiantit, Baker Hughes, Emerson,GE,Halliburton,Honeywell,ROSEN, Schlumberger, Sipchem, Weatherford International, and Yokogawa. KASP has already begun to see successes in devel- oping an innovation ecosystem. For exam- ple, Schlumberger’s Carbonate Research Center has filed over 50 patents and pub- lished over 50 scientific papers over the last five years. Clearly, KASP’s hosting some of the largest and most innovative companies in the energy sector is helping Saudi Arabia to build its knowledge-based economy. Source www.kfupm.edu.sa; company press releases; Oil & Gas News, 2011. innovation ripple effect through- out the hub value chain. The Hsinchu Science Park in Taiwan, Province of China, pro- vides an example of how bridging the commercialization gap can provide benefits for all hub players including enterprise champions (see Box 2). Public policy for successful innovation hubs The study of innovation hubs and the foundational role that enter- prise champions play in their viabil- ity offer useful lessons for govern- ments seeking to build economic sectors through hub development. If these lessons are incorporated into national and hub-specific poli- cies, governments can enhance their ability to create successful hubs and attract strong enterprise champions. National policies: National poli- cies must be aligned with hub-spe- cific policies in order to replicate and leverage the cultures and pro- cesses of innovation hubs across the Enabling commercialization Nascent innovation hubs often fail to close the gap between R&D and commercialization. There are a number of reasons for this failure, including the difficulties of attract- ing partners and investments in proj- ects with high technical risk and long developmental time frames; the loss of grant funding as project scope expands beyond academic research; the lack of critical end market insight or access; and the lack of entrepre- neurial culture within the research community. Enterprise champions can help bridge the commercializa- tion gap, and reap benefits them- selves, in several ways: • Through training and consult- ing, enterprise champions can help their domestic suppliers enhance the capabilities—such as manufacturing quality and effi- ciency—that they need to suc- cessfully commercialize innova- tions. In turn, enhanced capa- bilities help champions improve the quality of their products and reduce waste. National enterprise champions can also create oppor- tunities for entrepreneurs to sell products and services. For exam- ple, telecommunication opera- tors can outsource installation and repair activities to their own employees on a commission basis. • Enterprise champions often employ highly talented people, but they do not always provide them with incentives to inno- vate. An example of a success- ful approach to this issue is Saudi Aramco, which has addressed this need by providing employees with opportunities to share their ideas with senior management and rewarding them when ideas are successfully implemented. • Enterprise champions can educate downstream companies vis-à-vis new domestic and international markets. They also can acquire companies in order to obtain capabilities that can provide an
- 116. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs 92 country. Towards this end, govern- ments should do the following: • A plan for knowledge economy development and policies that encourage technology transfer and innovation should be for- mulated at the national level. For example, infrastructure develop- ment programmes can facilitate interregional knowledge sharing and commerce, and educational initiatives can help nurture the development of a robust talent pool. • National governments should seek to identify promising inno- vative projects within private enterprise and leverage them by providing financial and logisti- cal support through programmes, infrastructure projects, and other initiatives that foster knowledge sharing and communication with stakeholders within innovation hubs. • National policy should provide financial capital to support the commercialization of innova- tion hub research by establishing and funding start-up technology incubators. • National governments should support business formation and operation, and promote market efficiency, by creating a condu- cive regulatory environment. For instance, policies that simplify and streamline business registra- tion processes, offer easy access to worker visas, and revamp ownership laws (to enable, for example, foreign ownership in certain sectors and to protect IP) should be adopted. • National governments should consider the competitive land- scape in which their hubs will operate and seek to establish clear and distinct competitive advantages for each hub. Ideally, national policies should encour- age hubs in different industries that complement each other and align with the country’s eco- nomic development objectives. For example, in Saudi Ara- bia, where many hubs are being established, it is essential that the new hubs do not overlap or com- pete with each other directly for talent and/or investment funds. Box 2: Enterprise champions in the Hsinchu Science Park The Hsinchu Science Park (HSP), founded in 1980, is Asia’s version of Silicon Valley. Its objective was to build an interactive community that could integrate science and its application to grow an Asian semi- conductor industry. The HSP’s two princi- pal enterprise champions are the United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC) and the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Ltd. (TSMC), both of which were also founded in the 1980s. Local and interna- tional firms were enticed to the park through tax incentives and financing programmes. Its two major academic anchors are Tsinghua University and the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI). Buildingcapacity:TheHSP’scapacitywas built in lockstep with its enterprise champi- ons. In 1974, ITRI formed the Electronics Research and Service Organization (ERSO) to conduct research and transfer global tech- nology in semiconductors. In 1980, when the HSP was formally launched, the UMC was spun off from ITRI/ERSO. Throughout the 1980s, knowledge diffusion occurred throughout the local semiconductor industry with the funding and support of the government, and new private compa- nies were launched in the HSP. Among these were the TSMC, another ITRI/ERSO spin-off, in 1987. By the end of the 1980s, a young industry cluster had emerged with capa- bilities in semiconductor technologies such as design and assembly. By the mid-1990s, the HSP cluster had matured and enjoyed a large number of firms and a large share of the world’s semiconductor market. By 2009, the HSP was home to more than 190 compa- nies operating across the entire value chain of the semiconductor industry and boasted annual revenues of US$20 billion. Support of national champions: The HSP is an excellent example of the role that innovation hubs can play in the develop- ment of enterprise champions. Both the UMC and the TSMC grew into global giants along with the hub. Their commercializa- tion capabilities were markedly strength- ened by the international corporations and local private-sector firms that co-located in the HSP. In addition, the establishment of an export-processing zone brought in additional investment from foreign semi- conductor corporations. Indeed, the hub generated more and more business over time, and entrepreneurial activity increased. This activity enabled the UMC and the TSMC to bridge the commercialization gap. Supporting policies: The government’s role in the HSP has been an essential ele- ment in its success. The government decided to establish the park and provided it with financial and regulatory support. It was instrumental in creating the enterprise champions needed to support a semicon- ductor innovation hub and act as magnets for other private-sector firms. The govern- ment also supported the attraction and retention of talent for the HSP by facilitating immigration and providing quality-of-life services, such as schooling for dependents and medical services. Source The Hsinchu Science Park website and Annual Reports 2006–11, available at http://www.sipa. gov.tw/english/index.jsp.
- 117. 93 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs Hub-specific policies: At the hub level, policies should be designed to ensure the viability and develop- ment of the hub by identifying both a technological focus that is prop- erly aligned with national economic strategy and enterprise champions that can properly support that focus. • Innovation hubs should be located in areas that offer a ‘nat- ural fit’, irrespective of the value that will be created by the hub itself. For example, a focus on downstream and upstream energy industry is a natural fit for oil- producing countries such as those in the GCC. Focus on solar energy technology in these coun- tries—where there is abundant direct solar radiation—is also a natural fit. The infrastructure, services, and regulatory environ- ment delivered by a hub cannot substitute for location-specific advantages, such as easy access to resources and talent pools or close proximity to markets. • Hub policy should establish a framework for governance that ensures coordination both within the hub (among its tenants and internal stakeholders) and with external partners, including min- istries, agencies, MNCs, and other innovation hubs. The goal of this coordination is to cre- ate synergies within the hub and eliminate external obstacles that could negatively affect hub devel- opment. • Hub policy should strengthen the ties between research and com- merce with the aim of achieving a long-term collaborative rela- tionship. One way to facilitate the development of this relation- ship is to institute regular events, such as meetings and seminars. In these encounters, industry and academia can match their wants and can break down the barriers between research and commer- cialization. • Hub policy must be designed to facilitate long-term invest- ment and attract both foreign and domestic investors. In particular, policy should address the high risks involved in innovation hub investment and reflect the inter- ests of investor and operator in the management and execution of hub programmes, such as tech- nical training. • Hub policy should provide for the value-added services needed to boost the hub’s appeal. For example, programmes that pro- vide financing and logistical sup- port for small and medium-sized enterprises can promote com- mercial activity and enhance hub competitiveness. Conclusion Innovation hubs do not grow over- night. They require sustained, pub- lic-private collaborations that may need 15 to 30 years to come to fru- ition. These collaborations require governmental, academic, and cor- porate anchors. In their quest to develop successful innovation hubs, governments must therefore either create and grow, or identify and enlist, strong enterprise champi- ons. To provide strategic direc- tion for innovation hubs, govern- ments must also identify priority sectors for development. They must seek to balance their economic and human capital development strate- gies and provide incentives for inno- vation in priority sectors. For exam- ple, they can channel funding and investment to activities at various stages of the innovation value chain of high-potential start-ups, or they can establish companies to operate in these strategic sectors. It is essential to recognize that hubs will thrive only if they nat- urally further both an enterprise champion’s and the interested gov- ernment’s economic interests. These champions play the role of catalyst in developing innovation hubs by help- ing to build hub capabilities and tal- ent pools, by stimulating and sup- porting R&D activities, and by help- ing bridge the gap between research and commercial success—a critical challenge that must be met to ensure the long-term viability of innova- tion hubs and the national economic sectors that they are intended to sup- port. With these champions, the odds of creating a successful innova- tion hub rise significantly; without them, the odds of failure are almost certain. Notes 1 See, for example, EC, 2007. 2 The nomenclature of territorial units for statistics or NUTS classification is a hierarchical system for dividing up the economic territory of the EU for collecting, developing, and harmonizing EU regional statistics: NUTS 1 (major socioeconomic regions), NUTS 2 (basic regions for the application of regional policies), and NUTS 3 (small regions for specific diagnoses). Furthermore, NUTS allows for the framing of EU regional policies: regions eligible for aid from the Structural Funds (Objective 1) have been classified at NUTS 2 level; areas eligible under the other priority objectives have mainly been classified at NUTS 3 level. For further detail, see http://epp.eurostat. ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_ nomenclature/introduction. 3 Wilson, 2012. 4 The GCC countries are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. References DTVC (Dhahran Techno-Valley Company). 2013. Presentation to Society of Petroleum Engineers, Khobar, Saudi Arabia, 28 January. Available at http://spesas.org/sites/default/ files/Final%20SANDROSE%20February%20 iSSUE%202013.pdf.
- 118. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 4:TheRoleofEnterpriseChampionsinStrengtheningInnovationHubs 94 EC (European Commission). 2007. ‘Innovation Clusters in Europe: A Statistical Analysis and Overview of Current Policy Support’. DG Enterprise and Industry report, Europe INNOVA/PRO INNO Europe Paper No. 5. Luxembourg: European Commission. Oil & Gas News. 2011. ‘Schlumberger Celebrates Five Glorious Years of SDCR’. Oil & Gas News, 26 September. Available at http://www. thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle. aspx?id=267926075. Wilson, E. J. 2012. ‘How to Make a Region Innovative’. strategy+business 28 February (Spring 66). Available at http://www.strategy- business.com/article/12103?gko=ee74a.
- 119. 95 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 5:OpenInnovation chapter 5 OpenInnovation:TheViewofanICTLeaderinDistributedGlobalInnovation Qian Xiangjiang, James Peng, and Joe Kelly, Huawei Technologies established in the region to sup- port these technology-based indus- try giants. A combination of entre- preneurship, technical development, and supportive local government polices came together to create the world’s first ‘innovation-in-imag- ing’ innovation cluster. In another example, in 1939, Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard met at Stanford University and set up a fledgling technology company in a small garage in Palo Alto in south- ern California. Hewlett Packard, also known as HP, has famously become one of the world’s largest and most well recognized technol- ogy brands. The location of the HP garage is arguably the key founda- tion on which Silicon Valley grew to become the world’s leading and highest profile ‘innovation-in-infor- mation technologies (IT)’ cluster. In the early 1980s, the Chinese government designated Shenzhen on China’s south coast as a special economic zone (SEZ). The deci- sion was designed to attract high- technology investment from around the world. Thanks to the Chinese government’s policy of economic reform and opening-up, Shenzhen quickly grew to become a major technology innovation cluster. The success of Shenzhen gave birth to a range of leading technology compa- nies, including Huawei. This chapter looks at the evolu- tion of Huawei as a leading innova- tor and considers the environment in which it operates. Some of the strat- egies it pursues, as well as the envi- ronmental context in which it is able to thrive as an innovator, can apply to other enterprises. Policies that support this type of environment will be policies that other countries and regions looking to encourage innovation should consider. The role of public policy In 1980, Shenzhen was a small fish- ing village on the Chinese main- land close to Hong Kong (China). To fuel the growth of the city, pub- lic policies were enacted to ease the movement of talent, expertise, and investment into the area, both from across China and from over- seas. International corporations were encouraged to invest and cre- ate operations in Shenzhen. Policies supported the construc- tion of public and private infra- structure, from business parks and transportation and communication links to hotels and residential devel- opments. The city’s population has grown from 20,000 to 15.5 mil- lion people in just over 30 years; Shenzhen is thriving as a high-tech- nology innovation cluster and sup- porting markets around the world.3 Huawei was established in Shenzhen in 1987 as a sales company, reselling technology developed by a third party. The company enjoyed early local market recognition and success, but in 1990 the third party Industrial innovation requires both investment and scale.1 As the Global InnovationIndex(GII)demonstrates, a number of countries, regions, and sub-regions of the world—regard- less of size, population, or natural resources—have been successful in fostering a culture of innovation and creating innovation clusters. These clusters, which are con- centrations of research and develop- ment (R&D) skills and investment, provide environments that assist in the creation of global industries and drive socioeconomic development. Switzerland and Ireland, for exam- ple, are two countries with rela- tively small populations. However, both have reached higher positions in the GII than many countries with significantly larger populations and greater resources. The most successful innovation clusters are those that combine pri- vate and public investment with a public policy commitment to cre- ate an active and open environment where innovation is encouraged, investments are made, and a sup- portive ecosystem can thrive.2 As an example, Rochester, in Monroe County, New York, in the United States of America (USA), became the centre of the world’s imaging industry when both Eastman Kodak and Xerox estab- lished operations there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Over several decades, a network of smaller satellite businesses was gradually
- 120. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 5:OpenInnovation 96 was acquired by another corpora- tion. As a result, its cooperation with Huawei ceased. With an early accu- mulation of technology and cus- tomer resources, Huawei decided to design and develop its own prod- ucts and services and make innova- tion its core capability. Surrounded by the supportive environment of the emerging innovation cluster in Shenzhen, Huawei’s R&D capabil- ity was established. A global industry dominated by proprietary innovation By the 1990s, with the advent of the Internet and the growth of mobile networks, the worldwide telecom- munication market was growing quickly. The telecommunications industry had long been dominated by proprietary network technology from a range of well-established pro- viders, but limited interoperability was built into the network tech- nologies. This approach kept the cost of telecommunication services high, protected market positions, and inhibited competition.4 At this time, Huawei began to expand from its domestic mar- ket into markets around the world. These markets differed from Huawei’s domestic market and from each other in their technical needs as well as their commercial require- ments. Recognizing these new con- ditions, Huawei set about expanding its R&D activities into these over- seas markets. The company’s strat- egy was to place its R&D ventures as close as possible to the locations of its customers. To leverage the concentrated pools of talent pools and innovation excellence, it estab- lished those R&D operations mostly within existing clusters. The advent of Internet protocol By the mid to late 1990s, the Internet, based on a global standard called ‘Internet protocol’, came into prominence. In the years that fol- lowed, the Internet began to con- verge with traditional information and telecommunication technolo- gies (ICTs). As a result, telecommu- nications operators began to think differently about how network architecture should be designed.5 Much of the research focus at the time was in replicating the tra- ditional ‘five 9s’ reliability (0.99999 out of 1), which had become the accepted quality of service in tele- communications for Internet-based platforms. These Internet-based platforms promised operators sig- nificantly lower operating costs, but they compromised on service qual- ity and reliability. At the same time, research was also focused on the introduction of data and Internet services on mobile networks and devices. This period of convergence created greater col- laboration between the IT tech- nology clusters in locations such as Silicon Valley and the traditional telecommunication research clusters concentrated in Chicago and the East Coast of the USA, in northern Europe, and in Germany and the United Kingdom (UK). Embracing open innovation Open innovation is the principle that accepts that the best ideas can come from anywhere, not neces- sarily from within a single orga- nization. Open innovation accepts that breakthroughs in innovation achieved by one company can be shared with both competitors and customers, usually under license, to accelerate the innovation process for all parties.6 In short, open innovation speeds up the creation of new technology and new markets through patent cross-licensing agreements and helps to spread global standards across the industry. It also allows multi- ple viewpoints to be considered in the product design and develop- ment process and includes the views of customers. These requirements can be engineered directly into the innovation life cycle. Open innovation mitigates the investment risks of R&D. It avoids duplication of effort, reduces the cost of innovation, and acceler- ates the delivery of new products and services to market. It also leads to products that customers want, because open innovation begins with a clear understanding of spe- cific customer requirements and maintains a view of these require- ments throughout the innovation development cycle. The open inno- vation process ends only when cus- tomers enjoy market success through these new innovations. Distributed innovation As Huawei expanded its sales oper- ations internationally, it chose, like many other enterprises, to imple- ment a distributed innovation strat- egy. This led to the creation of R&D facilities in multiple geographies around the world, each with a spe- cific innovation focus. The majority of Huawei’s R&D sites were located in established innovation clusters. These decisions were driven by a number of requirements. First was the requirement to have R&D operations located closer to key customer locations. The second was to place research operations in established clusters that offered an existing ecosystem, a collection of skilled talent, and existing linkages
- 121. 97 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 5:OpenInnovation with universities and research insti- tutes and infrastructure. This led to the location of R&D sites in northern Europe, where clus- ters had been established in mobile network and base station technol- ogy development as well as mobile device design. For the same rea- sons, optoelectronic research opera- tions were located in Italy, Germany, and the UK, while software devel- opment centres were established in Bangalore, India, and the USA. As convergence across the ICT industry progressed, the organiza- tions located in these technology- specific distributed clusters began to work more closely together. The evolution of the smart- phone market, for example, made software and applications develop- ment in Bangalore or Silicon Valley more central to the future of the mobile telecommunications indus- try. As telecommunication networks began to carry digital entertainment and video games, this led to stron- ger collaboration between innova- tion centres in video compression technology with network equip- ment development. Because of convergence, com- panies with a widely distributed R&D footprint found themselves well positioned to take advantage of a converging IT and telecommuni- cations industry. Open innovation allowed other companies to par- ticipate in converging technology development through the licensing of third-party innovation. The role of global standards bodies As the communications and IT industries converged, network equipment from one vendor was required to execute the same com- munication protocols, within the same communication networks, as the equipment produced by competitors. This process is gov- erned by a range of international standards bodies. For example, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) unites standards develop- ment partners from different coun- tries to provide market advice and opinion on unified platforms, pro- ducing specifications for a 3G stan- dard mobile system based on the evolved Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) core net- works, which have become core standards in today’s global telecom- munications industry.7 As in other industries, global standards bodies, to a large extent, play a critical role in the innovation and development of the ICT indus- try. They constitute one of the major facilities necessary for open innova- tion and collaboration. Creating a sound environment for innovation investment Innovation is an investment. Commercial companies that invest in innovation do so in the expecta- tion that they will earn a return that can be reinvested in future R&D. For this reason, the choice of loca- tions for new R&D sites is an impor- tant decision. Typically, Huawei looks first to established clusters. These can pro- vide the necessary pool of skilled professionals and links to academic research institutions and universi- ties, as well as the right public policy environment to help ensure that the process of establishing a new cen- tre proceeds as smoothly as possible. Huawei is open to establishing R&D centres in new locations, par- ticularly if they are close to key cus- tomers or if other conditions are attractive. Huawei will continue to look at the presence of support- ive public policies, infrastructure and investment commitments, open trade philosophies, and respect for intellectual property rights (IPRs). The global telecommunica- tions industry is continually rein- venting itself through innovation and new technology development. Good innovation is blind to geog- raphy, nationality, and the passport of the innovator, and recognizes that new ideas will not always come from existing centres of expertise. The ability to recognize, embrace, and enable innovation lies at the heart of any culture of innovation. Respect for and protection of intellectual property rights The idea that innovation is a fun- damental input to socioeconomic development is a strong belief held within the corporate culture of any successful innovative company. Commercial companies that invest significantly in R&D do so on the basis that their innovation will have the opportunity to earn a return on those investments. Without a return on innovation, the ability to con- tinually innovate diminishes. This ability requires that IPRs be both respected and protected. This is a key factor in establishing a culture of innovation and achieving scale.8 Asanexample,Huaweihasentered into numerous cross-licensing agree- ments with industry peers since 2002 and has paid a large amount in pat- ent licensing fees to use third-party intellectual property. In 2012 alone, Huawei paid some US$300 million in patent licensing fees. Huaweialsolicensesitsownintel- lectual property. In fact, Huawei is one of the leading IPR holders in the ICT industry. By December 2012, Huawei had filed 41,948 patent applications in China, 12,453 inter- national Patent Cooperation Treaty patent applications, and 14,494 pat- ent applications outside China.
- 122. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 5:OpenInnovation 98 Huawei attaches greater impor- tance to the commercial value and quality of its IPRs than to their actual quantity, however. Huawei takes the lead in holding patents in such technical fields as long-term evolution, next-generation wireless communications technology, fibre- to-the-home networks, optical transport networks, and the G.711.1 audio standard on fixed broadband networks worldwide. Huawei stra- tegically maintains its patent appli- cation level at 3,000 to 4,000 appli- cations annually. The future of technology innovation clusters Just as technology convergence between telecommunications, IT, and the Internet has driven the growth of cross-cluster collabora- tion in recent years, the next decade will see the closer collaboration of ICT clusters with centres of innova- tion in other industries worldwide. ICTs have traditionally been a business support capability for busi- nesses. With the growth of cloud computing and big data, the frag- mentation of markets, and the changes in consumer behaviour that are the consequence of the growth of social media and connected, digital technologies, however, the oppor- tunities and need for industries to bring ICTs to the heart of their oper- ations is rising. ICTs and the energy industry will work more closely in the devel- opment of smart grids, for example. This will help to maximize the uti- lization and sustainability of energy resources. The integration of ICTs with travel information, public safety, and scheduling systems will create intelligent, integrated travel opportunities that enable people and goods to be transported more safely, predictably, and efficiently by roads, by rail, by air, and by sea. Looking to the future, every business will need to become an ICT business. ICTs will be the infrastructure, the cen- tral nervous system that makes the business of the future relevant and competitive. This will require cross- industry collaboration on a scale not yet experienced. This, in turn, will see an acceleration of cross-cluster collaboration. Conclusion Innovation clusters bring scale and ease of collaboration to innovation. There are many reasons why today’s established clusters exist. Some were created through acts of history, while others depended on acts of public policy. In all cases, maintaining and growing innovation clusters require a range of factors—an environment that encourages investment, infra- structure, public planning, and pol- icies, and the concentration and renewal of skills and connections with academia. The recent revolutions in high- speed communication technologies have made cross-cluster collabora- tion and communication easier. Good innovation delivers social and economic development, creates jobs, and improves life and busi- ness. However, it is also an invest- ment, and investments need to earn financial returns if a commitment to innovation is to be sustained and maintained. As product life cycles accel- erate and customer demands for innovation grow, an open innova- tion approach—where innovation is shared among all stakeholders— helps to speed up development and helps to ensure investment returns. Technology convergence has driven cross-cluster, cross-indus- try collaboration in innovation over the last decade. The next decade will be driven by cross-industry or cross-sector innovation, as ICTs are applied to the transformation of industries for the digital age. Notes 1 Mandel, 2011. 2 Sallet, Paisley, and Masterman, 2009. 3 Tantri, 2011. 4 Braunstein, Jussawalla, and Morris, No date. 5 Ray and Sarracen, 2002. 6 Chesbrough, 2005. 7 For more detail about Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) core networks, see http://www.etsi.org/about/our- global-role/3gpp. 8 WIPO, 2012. References Braunstein, Y, M., M. Jussawalla, and S. Morris. No date. ‘Comparative Analysis of Telecommunications Globalization’. University of San Francisco. Available at http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~bigyale/ global_telecom.pdf. Chesbrough, H. W. 2005. Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Mandel, M. 2011. ‘Scale and Innovation in Today’s Economy’. Policy Memo, 13 December. Progressive Policy Institute. Available at http://progressivepolicy.org/wp-content/ uploads/2011/12/12.2011-Mandel_Scale-and- Innovation-in-Todays-Economy.pdf. Ray and Sarracen. 2002. ‘How Telecoms Can Get More from Internet Protocol’. McKinsey Quarterly Review. Sallet, J., E. Paisley, and J. Masterman. 2009. ‘The Geography of Innovation: The Federal Government and the Growth of Regional Innovation Clusters’. Science Progress, September. Available at http:// www.scienceprogress.org/wp-content/ uploads/2009/09/eda_paper.pdf. Tantri, M. 2011. ‘Trajectories of China’s Integration with the World Economy through SEZs: A Study on Shenzhen SEZ.’ Working Paper No. 261. Bangalore: Institute for Social and Economic Change. Available at http://www. isec.ac.in/WP%20261%20-%20Malini%20 L%20T_4.pdf. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2012. World Intellectual Property Report: The Changing Face of Innovation. WIPO Economics & Statistics Series. Geneva: WIPO.
- 123. 99 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics LocalInnovationDynamics:ExamplesandLessonsfromtheArabworld Jean-Eric Aubert, Tamer Taha, and Anuja Utz, Center for Mediterranean Integration, World Bank dynamic private sector that cooper- ates actively with a strong knowl- edge and research base; the need for a clear, long-term vision that drives their development; the importance of building on competitive advan- tage within a good governance framework that involves all key actors along with the public authori- ties; the imperative to engage in con- tinuous efforts to increase sophis- tication and diversification of the activities undertaken; and the need to forge strong international integra- tion using methods such as attract- ing foreign direct investment (FDI), joint education schemes, research and development (R&D) coopera- tion mechanisms, and the like. Elgazala Technopark, Tunisia Elgazala was the first technopark in Tunisia and in the Maghreb Region to specialize in the ICT sector;3 it was launched in 1999 as part of Tunisia’s national strategy to develop this sector.4 The ecosystem of Elgazala Technopark is highly diversified and incorporates a variety of com- ponents to create a vibrant environ- ment where innovation can flour- ish. It includes a business incubator; a research centre dedicated to the ICT industry (Centre Etude Recherche Telécommuniations, or CERT); various telecommunication schools, including two doctoral schools; and several research divisions dealing with ICT-related disciplines: tele- communication systems, network engineering, mobile network, information systems, and business communications. Moreover, sev- eral national agencies—such as the National Electronic Certification Agency and the National Frequency Agency—are located in the tech- nopark to serve ICT companies. Elgazala Technopark has so far been relatively successful in meet- ing its objectives. It currently hosts about 100 firms (among them are 13 multinationals, including Microsoft, Huawei, Alcatel-Lucent, and Stonesoft), compared with 25 only in 2002 (Figure 1). The num- ber of employees working in the technopark has increased from 500 in 2002 to about 2,000 currently, 70% of whom have a Master-level degree in engineering or an equiva- lent degree.5 Moreover, 67% of these personnel are working in a private- sector entity.6 The environment offered by Elgazala—through technology transfer mechanisms from mul- tinationals to national small and medium-sized enterprises, the shar- ing of resources, academia-busi- ness collaboration, or even partic- ipation in fairs and other thematic events—has helped to foster synergy with different actors in the tech- nopark. For instance, 23% of intra- company partnerships were set up to work jointly on various projects and another 23% were in the form A new type of development strat- egy driven by innovation is needed in Arab countries to cope with the daunting challenges—chief among them unemployment—they face.1 This new approach calls for higher growth rate regimes sustained by strong innovation and entrepreneur- ship efforts. Dynamic technology- based sites, such as science parks, industrial clusters, and so on, are key instruments for the success of an innovation-driven development strategy. Inspired by global experi- ence, a number of Arab countries have actively embarked on such sites; there are no less than 50 technoparks in the region. Most of those, how- ever, have experienced difficulties in ‘taking off’ and remain essentially real estate ventures.2 This chapter will look at the local dynamics of innovation in several Arab countries and focus on three success stories: the Elgazala Technopark in Tunisia, which spe- cializes in information and com- munication technologies (ICTs); Haliopolis in Agadir, Morocco, an agrifood cluster; and the City of Dubai, which has witnessed dyna- mism in service innovation. These examples will be used to illustrate the common features of how such specific sites—technoparks, indus- trial zones, and city districts—can develop and how they can inspire similar approaches in the region and elsewhere. Key features of all three sites include the establishment of a chapter 6
- 124. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics 100 Figure 1: Elgazala Technopark, Tunisia 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 201020092008200720062005200420032002 0 20 40 60 80 100 201020092008200720062005200420032002 1a: Number of employees, 2002–10 1b: Number of enterprises established, 2002–10 Source: Elgazala Technopark, CMI survey, 2012.
- 125. 101 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics of joint participation in calls for pro- posals or consultations (Table 1).7 The internationalization dy- namics created within Elgazala Technopark have had an influen- tial spillover effect on the quality of the output produced by the compa- nies in the technopark. For instance, 33% of the companies are totally ex- porting firms, while 29% are par- tially exporting, and the rest target the local market.8 Moreover, 75% of the technological production tak- ing place in the technopark in ar- eas such as software and information technology solutions and services is directed towards exports. Because of the relative success of the Elgazala model, in 2008, the Tunisian government decided to build technology parks in two new areas of Ariana and Manouba, in the suburbs of Tunis (Figure 2). In addi- tion, the government has plans to replicate the model for other sectors (e.g., the textile and clothing sector at the Monastir cluster; renewable energy, water, and biotechnology at Borj Cedria Technopol; and agro- food industries at the Bizerta tech- nology park located in the north of the country). However, Elgazala is faced with some challenges that it would do well to overcome to attain its full poten- tial. One of these has to do with the need for adequate financial resources for R&D activities, notably for its start-ups.9 Additionally, despite a slew of incentives, neither technical nor managerial human competencies have been easily attracted to work on new ideas and to start up their own new businesses.10 There is also a need to think of the model’s lim- ited sectoral diversification—it is too focused on ICTs—as it seems to be reaching a saturation point, especially in terms of job creation. Opportunities in related activities (applications of electronics, soft- ware, telecommunications, etc.) or in new fields (biotechnology) should be actively sought. Such diversifi- cation would call for a continuous critical mass of new ideas and start- ups to trigger more growth and jobs. Haliopolis in Agadir, Morocco A number of Moroccan cities have benefited from national plans launched by the Moroccan govern- ment over the past decade to boost established sectors such as tourism, agriculture, automobile, aeronau- tical, electronics, and offshoring industries.11 The city of Agadir (the capital of the Souss-Massa-Draâ region) has been at the forefront of some of these plans because it was already advanced in traditional sectors, such as tourism, agriculture, and fishing (representing 21%, 13%, and 6%, respectively, of the region’s econ- omy). The agro-food sector con- stitutes around two-thirds of the region’s value-added, 81% of invest- ment, 92% of exports, and around 80% of industrial employment. The region also contributed to more than 41% of Moroccan value-added in the fishing and aquaculture industries between 1999 and 2009. Since the beginning of 2000, Morocco was faced with increas- ingly strict regulations and rules imposed by the European Union (EU), which is its biggest trading partner and accounts for half of its agro-food exports. In order to com- ply with these regulations, Moroccan enterprises were pushed to introduce innovative production processes in the fishing sector and to upgrade and modernize their related infra- structure. Such reforms have had a significant positive impact on the overall performance of the fishing industry.12 These regulation con- straints have also organically pushed the creation of a number of export groups (cooperatives) in the form of ‘Boards’ with the mission of coor- dinating issues related to logistics, insurance, and transport to foreign markets, as well as sharing available quotas, as allowed by the EU in this sector.13 Following these developments, Agadir, through Haliopolis, became the heart of the ‘Halieutis’ strategy, which is dedicated to strengthen- ing the fishing sector’s contribution to the national economy by tripling its value-added to attain 22 billion dirhams in 2020.14 Agadir has also been chosen to host the country’s first fishing and processing seafood cluster because of its high growth potential in this field, in addition to its location (it is near to Agadir har- bour and the International Airport, and connected to northern Morocco by an expanding highway network) and know-how in seafood process- ing (the Souss-Massa-Draâ region is endowed with skilled human resources and training centres spe- cialized in the halieutic industry).15 Moreover, the government has put in place an attractive incentive Table 1: Inter-company partnerships in Elgazala Technopark Type of partnership Frequency (%) Joint projects implementation 23 Joint participation in calls for proposals or consultations 23 Propose new solutions 17 Solving internal problems 6 Other services/assistance/counseling 31 Source: Ennaifar, 2008.
- 126. Figure 3: Unemployment rates in the Souss-Massa-Draâ region, 1999–2011 0 3 6 9 12 15 2011201020092008200720062005200420032002200120001999 Male Total Female Percent Source: Enquête nationale sur l’emploi, Haut-Commissariat au Plan (Direction de la Statistique). Figure 2: Location of the cities of Manouba, Ariana, and Tunis Manouba Tunis Ariana
- 127. 103 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics package to encourage businesses to invest at Haliopolis. The package includes, among other things, tax measures, support schemes to sup- port company relocalization to its new fisheries park, and assistance ser- vices in training and recruitment.16 Aspartofthisplan,theHaliopolis Park was established in 2009 to clus- ter all actors in the value chain of the seafood processing, and to integrate various actors as sources of innova- tion. The park is registered as a com- pany with stockholders—financial partners that have invested in the park for its development—from the private sector: Medz (55%), Crédit Agricole (22%), Igrane fund (15%), as well as the Souss-Massa-Draâ region (8%).17 This project also aims to enhance forward linkages in the seafood-processing industries, such as in packaging and conditioning as well as providing related support and logistics services. Although the project is still in its early stages, all lots of the first phase (70 hectares in a total area of 150 hectares of the Haliopolis Agadir) were sold by the end of September 2012 for 21 projects covering dif- ferent segments of transformational processing, such as deep-freezing, preserving, producing flour and fish oil, and processing algae. With an investment of approximately 1 bil- lion dirhams (around US$115 mil- lion), the first phase has also suc- ceeded in creating 4,600 jobs.18 The project predicts the creation of 20,000 job opportunities in total, including 13,000 direct jobs.19 Fostering innovation is one of the main channels used by Haliopolis to improve the competitiveness of companies within it. It offers sup- port to R&D projects for compa- nies within the cluster to improve their research skills and to create partnerships with research institu- tions. For instance, Haliopolis has partnered with Agadir International University (Universipolis) to offer training to its personnel as part of its continuous education program. Haliopolis and other projects, such as the annual fishing exhibition Salon Halieutis, have helped place Morocco among the largest pro- ducers and exporters of seafood in Africa. In 2011, Moroccan exports of seafood recorded nearly 11.7 bil- lion dirhams (roughly US$1.4 bil- lion), thus contributing nearly 58% of its food exports and 6.8% of Morocco’s total exports. Agadir’s contribution to the preserved sea- food sector jumped from 4.48% of the country’s production in 2009 to 11.82% in 2012.20 Thanks to all these efforts, the region’s unemployment rate dropped from 12.1% in 1999 to 7.4% in 2011 (Figure 3).21 This performance has been in no small part the result of the pro- motion of technological innovation and increasing the effectiveness of the support measures provided to companies seeking new markets (such as business information, fairs, and export platforms), as well as the development of logistics to opti- mize costs and improve connectivity of Morocco with different destina- tions, especially the African market. In sum, the Agadir success story is largely the consequence of an excel- lent synergy between actions taken by dynamic industrial and agricul- tural communities on one hand and efficient government policies on the other, combining adequate invest- ments in infrastructure, appropriate support for innovation and export, and so on. City of Dubai The city of Dubai is no stranger to innovation and is on its way to developing into a vibrant knowledge economy. The city’s economy, like economies in many parts of the Arabian Gulf, relied heavily on pearls until the invention of arti- ficial pearls in 1920s, which dras- tically affected the city’s economy, and the discovery of oil on Dubai soil in mid-1960. But the Emirate’s visionary rulers were determined to build Dubai on a much more diversified development model than its neighbours, aiming to give it a unique regional positioning in the knowledge economy. They focused on making Dubai a regional trans- port hub and tourist destination dur- ing the first phase. The second phase was devoted to building up needed infrastructure for various knowl- edge-based industries.22 The government of Dubai has drawnuptwosuccessiveplans:Vision 2010 (approved in 2002) to drive the Emirate towards a knowledge-based economy, and the Dubai Strategic Plan 2015 (approved in 2009) to achieve social, economic, and envi- ronmental sustainability. Under the framework of the Vision 2010 mas- ter development plan, a number of mega-projects were devoted mainly to knowledge-based activities and innovation (Table 2). The result of the implementation of both these plans has so far been impressive. The share of oil revenues in Dubai’s GDP dropped from 18% in 1995 to 10.4% in 2000 and to less than 1.5% in 2011; in 2011 the oil sector represented only 1% of total stock in FDI.23 Knowledge-based industries and services increased their share of GDP over the same period: tourism, financial services, manufacturing and transport, and storage and communication has accounted for a large share of GDP (4%, 11.3%, 14.2%, and 14% in 1995, 2000, 2011, and 2012, respectively). The real estate sector has also expe- rienced a boom, notably between
- 128. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics 104 2004 and 2008, as a result of the establishment of a number of con- struction megaprojects; it currently accounts for 9.7% of the Emirate’s GDP. TECOM Investments, a member of Dubai Holding, was established in 2005. It is now a global com- pany dedicated to the development of knowledge industries and busi- ness growth, which it does in part through TECOM Business Parks. It comprises 10 interconnected busi- ness parks arranged in five industry clusters: the ICT, Media, Education, Sciences, and Manufacturing and Logistics sectors.24 Some 4,500 businesses have taken part in these clusters and business parks not only because of the state-of-the-art infra- structure available, but also as a result of generous incentives pro- vided by the government, which include tax incentives (these apply to corporate taxes, import and export taxes, and personal income taxes) and the possibility of full repatria- tion of capital. Dubai has also suc- cessfully attracted bright minds, in addition to investors, from all over the globe, preventing brain drain. Dubai Internet City (sometimes referred as the ‘Middle East Silicon Oasis’) currently employs 25,000 knowledge workers with 182 differ- ent nationalities.25 With the oil boom of the mid- 2000s and the return of many Arab funds following the September 11, 2001, attacks, and accompanied by a speculative real estate bubble, Dubai’s financial sector began to flourish. Since 2001, the city has witnessed double digit real GDP growth rates. Dubai has emerged as a dynamic financial hub for the region, hosting many banks and insurance, financial, and legal service firms. The government established the Dubai International Financial Center (DIFC), a free zone regu- lated by its own independent com- mercial and civil laws and under the United Arab Emirate (UAE) consti- tution. The DIFC provides a com- petitive operating environment that offers many advantages, including the possibility of full foreign own- ership, a 0% tax rate on income and profits (guaranteed for a period of 50 years from 2004), and no restric- tions on the repatriation of income and profits. These regulations have opened the door for financial insti- tutions to start introducing financial innovations to the market, notably in Islamic finance. These activities have served to make Dubai a model for neighbour- ing countries such as Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. However, the 2009 global financial crisis has called Dubai’s growth model into question. Real estate speculation, accompa- nied by huge debts, led to a rescue operation by the UAE authorities in 2009. Since then, Dubai has recov- ered and is on a modest growth path. To continue on a higher growth trajectory that is sustainable in the long term, it will need to maintain its engagement with the knowledge economy by intensively explor- ing new areas, notably in high-tech and R&D activities, and by devel- oping top-notch higher education programmes to educate a cadre of highly skilled people. Common features and policy conclusions These three cases, although differ- ent in terms of size and sector spe- cialization, present some common features that characterize successful innovative sites: • Efficient government action, which can be fostered by means such as building the needed infra- structure, providing a variety of incentives, and establishing a sound legal framework. This should be coupled with invest- ments in research and education. • Dynamic interactions among local actors, which can either pre- exist government action or be stimulated by it. Collaboration between industry and the on-site academic and research institu- tions is key to increase the overall skills of the workforce, to offer technical support, and to gener- ate new ideas and spinoff compa- nies, thus leading to the creation of jobs. • Internationalization of the sites, which can be done by attracting FDI, having quality standards, encouraging export development, and developing international branding. These mechanisms are crucial if the sites are to be suc- cessful at inserting companies, universities, research centres, and other actors into global value Table 2: Dubai knowledge and technology sites Name Year founded Area (km2) Activities Jebell Ali 1985 100 Trade Dubai Airport Free Zone 1996 12 Trade Dubai Internet City 2000 4 Information technology Dubai Technology Park 2003 3 Petrochemicals Knowledge Village 2003 21 Healthcare Dubai Industrial City 2004 52 Manufacturing Dubai Financial City 2004 44 Finance Dubai Tech 2006 2.3 Biotech Dubai Silicon Oasis 2007 7 Information technology Source: Ennaifar, 2008.
- 129. 105 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics chains and competition, and for generating continuous pressure for quality and progress. • A focus on (potential) competitive advantages of the sites, and then a demonstration of some tangible success—in the form of dynamic industrial clusters. This prag- matic approach of ‘plucking the low-hanging fruit’ helps to cre- ate the necessary trust and confi- dence in the process and to facili- tate further reforms. • Sustained effort for diversification and renewed sources of growth, with the creation of more sophis- ticated activities. The above factors for success of local innovative sites are found all around the world. It is, however, important to observe that such sites can flourish in the Arab region, which needs a proliferation of such experiences to respond to the impor- tant challenges it faces, particularly in terms of the creation of good and sustainable jobs. To sum up, to promote dynamic technology sites of national and global significance, governments should: • Be visionary catalysts rather than ‘hands-on’ investors, and should create a climate favourable to entrepreneurship, knowledge accumulation, and cooperation among actors. This requires not only appropriate investments in infrastructure, education, and R&D structures along with the provision of attractive incentives, but also good governance in which the business sector plays an important role, alongside govern- ment and research and academic bodies. Most governments in the region are not prepared to play this kind of subtle role, which is needed at both the central and local level and calls for a kind of learning process. This pro- cess can be usefully stimulated by an exchange of good practices, study tours, and so on within the region, as well as with other parts of the world. • Be international integrators, by inserting actors into the global economy by all means possible, through mechanisms such as FDI, international branding, trade net- works, joint education, and R&D projects. These vectors not only bring financial and intellectual resources to a site, but also ensure a continuous pressure for quality upgrading. Regional integration processes—in the Arab world and in the Mediterranean—are of particular importance. Some focused and specialized schemes have begun to develop: examples include university twinning and management, joint R&D plat- forms, and access to venture capi- tal. • Be clever strategists, beginning with fine-tuned and focused projects that can show visible results after a few years and that can help build self-confidence among con- cerned communities. Gradual diversification and higher sophis- tication need to be encouraged if the economies are to keep up with the international competi- tion. Various obstacles affect the formulation and implementation of such strategies. Among these are a lack of coordination among the different government depart- ments (finance, infrastructure, education, research, and so on); the planning of grandiose proj- ects with excessive ambitions; and continual changes in politi- cal and administrative person- nel. It is for these reasons that the development of dynamic and innovative sites—crucial for the region—should be a national cause, broadly shared and under- stood among all key actors. This chapter has considered the common elements of three differ- ent types of innovation-fostering approaches in three different coun- tries with unique environments. These features can serve as land- marks for other countries striving to institute their own models for inno- vation in their own circumstances. Innovation is a powerful tool for progress, and these three successful examples have a great deal to offer the rest of the region. Notes 1 This is the subject of a new report, Transforming Arab Economies: Traveling the Knowledge and Innovation Road, prepared by the Center for Mediterranean Integration (CMI) with the World Bank, the European Investment Bank (EIB), and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO). See World Bank, 2013. 2 See World Bank, 2013. Appendix 9.1 will be available at www.cmimarseille.org/ke. 3 The Maghreb Region countries are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, and Libya. See World Bank et al., 2010, for more information about science parks in the region. 4 InfoDev Incubator Support Center (www. idisc.net/en/incubator.65.html). 5 World Bank, 2013. 6 MICT, 2010. 7 Abida, 2013. 8 MICT, 2012. 9 INSME, 2012. 10 Ghodbane, 2008. 11 These plans targeted different sectors, such as tourism (Plan Azur and Vision 2020); agriculture (Plan Maroc Vert); artisanal industry (Vision 2015); and the automobile, aeronautical, electronics and offshoring industries (Emergence Plan II). 12 Peuckert and Gonçalves, 2011. 13 Kuznetsov, Dahlman, and Djeflat, 2012. 14 Oxford Business Group, 2011. 15 Centre Régional d’Investissement: Souss Massa Draâ, 2010. 16 ATLAS, 2010.
- 130. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 6:LocalInnovationDynamics 106 17 ANIMA, 2011. 18 Agadir Haliopôle, 2012. 19 News Central: Morocco’s News, 2009. 20 These data come from the Rapport Statistique des produits de la mer, 2010 and 2012. 21 Enquête nationale sur l’emploi, Haut Commissariat au Plan (Direction de la Statistique). (www.hcp.ma/Souss-Massa- Draa_a269.html) 22 Aubert and Reiffers, 2004. 23 Dubai Statistics Center. 24 Dubai Internet City and Dubai Outsource Zone form the ICT cluster, while Dubai Media City, Dubai Studio City, and the International Media Production Zone make up the Media cluster. Dubai Knowledge Village and Dubai International Academic City are part of the Education cluster. DuBiotech and ENPARK compose the Science cluster. Dubai Industrial City comes under the Manufacturing and Logistics cluster. (See www.tecom.ae). 25 Dubai Internet City, Corporate Profile and Fact Sheet, available at www.tecom.ae/ uploads/file/DIC-fact-sheet.pdf. References Abida, N. 2013. ‘Les Technopôle TIC en Tunisie’. WIPO African Conference on the Strategic Importance of Intellectual Property (IP) Policies to Foster Innovation, Value Createion, and Competitiveness. 13 March. Dar es Salaam: WIPO. Agadir Haliopôle. 2012. ‘La stratégie Halieutis est au cœur de la stratégie du Département de la Pêche maritime en 2013’. Newsletter. Agadir. October. ANIMA. 2011. ‘CRI SMD at the Heart of the Haliopolis Project’. Invest in Med. Morocco: Souss Massa Drâa Region. Available at www. animaweb.org/uploads/bases/document/ CRI-SMD_2011_EN_4.pdf. ATLAS, M. A. H. 2010. ‘Use of “Territorial Intelligence” in the Development of Industrial Clusters in Morocco’. Master of Science thesis, August. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Napier University. Available at http://www.master-iped.com/ downloads/USE%20OF%20TERRITORIAL%20 INTELLIGENCE%20IN%20THE.pdf. Aubert, J.-E. and J.-L. Reiffers. 2004. ‘Knowledge Economies in the Middle East and North Africa: Toward New Development Strategies’. WBI Learning Resources Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at http://www. ecolabs.org/IMG/pdf/MENA4K.pdf. Centre Régional d’Investissement: Souss Massa Draâ. 2010. ‘Haliopolis: The First Halieutic Park in Morocco’. Presentation at the ANIMA conference ‘Territorial Marketing: Investments for the Local Economic Development Workshop’. Amman. January 14th. Available at www.animaweb.org/uploads/bases/ document/CRIAgadir_Haliopolis_2010_EN_5. pdf. Dubai Internet City. Corporate Profile and Fact Sheet. Available at www.tecom.ae/uploads/ file/DIC-fact-sheet.pdf (accessed 16 March 2013). Enquête nationale sur l’emploi, Haut Commissariat au Plan (Direction de la Statistique). Available at www.hcp.ma/Souss-Massa-Draa_a269. html. Ennaifar, A. 2008. ‘Technopôle Elgazala acteur majeur pour lesTIC en Tunisie.’ MEDINNOV. November. Ghodbane, W. 2008. ‘ICT Job Shifts and ICT Cluster Assessment: An Exploratory Study’. Proceedings of SIG GlobDev’s First Annual Workshop, Paris, France, 13 December. INSME. 2012. ‘Interview with Mrs. Aicha Ennaifar’. INSME’s Interviews. Available at www.insme. org/insmes-interviews/interview-with-mrs.- aicha-ennaifar/interview. Kuznetsov, Y., C. Dahlman, and A. Djeflat. 2012. How to Facilitate High-Productivity Employment in MENA Economies? Unpublished Background Report for the CMI. Marseille: CMI. MICT (Ministry of Information and Communication Technologies), Tunisia. 2010. El Gazala Report. Unpublished. ———. 2012. Acteur Majeur pour la Promotion des TIC en Tunisis. El Gazala Technopark. Available at http://www.elgazala.tn/fileadmin/ template/PDF/Elgazala_Technopark1_2012. pdf. News Central: Morocco’s News. 2009. ‘Morocco to Set Up Large Halieutics Project’. 11 March. Available at http://news.central.co.ma/ politics/home-morocco-to-set-up-large- halieutics-project.html Office National des Pêches. 2010 and 2012. Rapport Statistique des produits de la mer. Rabat: Office National des Pêches. Oxford Business Group. 2011. The Report: Morocco 2011. London: Oxford Business Group. Peuckert, J. and J. Gonçalves. 2011. ‘National Quality Infrastructure in the Context of Emerging Innovation System’. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 3 (2): 43–55. World Bank. 2013. Transforming Arab Economies: Traveling the Knowledge and Innovation Road. Prepared by the CMI (Center for Mediterranean Integration) with the World Bank, EIB (European Investment Bank), and ISESCO. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank, EIB, Medibtikar, and Ville de Marseille. 2010. Plan and Manage a Science Park in the Mediterranean. Marseille, Luxembourg, and Giza: EIB.
- 131. 107 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative chapter 7 InnovationClustersInitiative:TransformingIndia’sIndustryClustersfor InclusiveGrowthandGlobalCompetition Samir Mitra, Office of Advisor to the Prime Minister of India used a unique approach that trans- formed the existing and established local industry associations present within each MSME industry cluster to catalyse, drive, and sustain innova- tion activities to benefit the cluster. Innovation clusters Cluster-based approaches for foster- ingindustrialdevelopmenthavebeen successfully tried in both developed and developing economies, includ- ing in those of the European Union, the United States of America (USA), Japan, China, the Republic of Korea, and South Asia. Efforts such as cre- ating common facilities, streamlin- ing supply chains, and providing focused skill-training programmes have led to the industrial develop- ment of clusters.2 Examples of suc- cessful MSME cluster initiatives in India are found in the auto ancillar- ies cluster in Pune and the specialty chemicals cluster in Gujarat, but few efforts have been able to nurture and sustain an innovation-focused devel- opment that can scale broadly across the country. Innovation, with the constraints faced by MSMEs, must be a highly collaborative effort if it is to be suc- cessful in filling gaps such as acquir- ing new technologies for product development and providing access to experts to analyse processes/tech- niques, assistance by mentors to facil- itate creativity, access to risk capital, and so on. Innovation ecosystems are well known to be a necessary condition for innovation to flourish. Most government efforts, both in India and elsewhere, have depended on initial stimulus to sow innovation in industry clusters. However, such initiatives have faced challenges in sustaining the programme beyond the initial stimulus. NInC, after much field analysis, designed a new model and piloted that model as a locally driven innovation approach, where government acts as catalyst and facilitator (rather than mandating a government-managed scheme or programme). The model stipulates that the approach will: 1. Use the existing cluster’s institu- tional and organizational entities: Institutions and organizations that already exist should work on innovation and take responsibil- ity for it (see the next section). Endeavour to avoid creating a new organization or facility. 2. Initially select clusters primed for short-term impact: After assess- ing the existing MSME clusters, pick first those with an ability to showcase innovation ben- efits quickly to various cluster stakeholders. This will inspire belief, confidence, and self-ral- lying behind innovation within the cluster(s) and will present a message likely to spread to other clusters. 3. Recruit local innovation leader- ship: Identify local people who The growth of micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) and their continual innovation of prod- ucts and processes are critical com- ponents of a socioeconomic develop- ment plan for emerging economies such as India to compete globally. MSMEs—registered(i.e.,organized) and unregistered (i.e., unorganized) units—are widely acknowledged to be the primary creators of new employment and inclusive growth on the path towards a nation’s devel- opment. However, MSMEs find it increasingly difficult to compete in a globalized world because they suf- fer from a lack of talent, resources, financing, and capabilities that are needed in the journey of innovation. TheNationalInnovationCouncil (NInC) was created by the Prime Minister of India in 2010 to re-think and formulate new approaches for inclusive innovation in India. NInC, which consists of a group of eminent Indian innovators, is managed from the Office of Advisor to the Prime Minister of India.1 NInC recognized that MSME industry clusters, with their pre- existing concentration of indus- try talent, know-how, capabilities, supply chains, and practices, repre- sent a key asset that can help jump- start innovation activities, the ben- efits of which are locally relevant (Box 1). Among these benefits are new growth, new income, and new employment for the MSME indus- try cluster and its participants. NInC
- 132. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative 108 have leadership capabilities, who understand the need for change in the MSME cluster, and who are respected by the various clus- ter stakeholders and can thus lead the change towards driving and sustaining innovation activities in the cluster. 4. Create a partner interest in collabora- tion: Develop economies of scale and win-win partnerships that can attract significant partners to work with MSME clusters on new products and processes in close collaboration with the existing MSME participants. Using cluster industry associations to propagate innovation The unique aspect introduced by the Innovation Clusters Initiative was the use of local cluster indus- try associations to catalyse and self- sustain innovation activities in the MSME cluster. The responsibilities of the local industry association are expanded from the typical indus- try advocacy/lobbying activities so that the local industry organization becomes a nexus point for agreeing on critical innovation needs, devel- oping a vibrant innovation ecosys- tem, and initiating innovation-ori- ented activities. Having an association that rep- resents several hundred or thou- sand MSME units enables various economy-of-scale advantages. This approach allows MSME industry clusters to pool their R&D talent and efforts, to more rapidly recruit the leadership necessary for innova- tion, and to rally other assets for local industry-specific innovation. This approach also makes the MSME cluster more attractive to world-class partners to establish collaborations, makes the clusters better able to iden- tify appropriate skills and resources, and enables a quicker validation of Box 1: MSME clusters data in India FormaldataonthenumberofMSMEindus- try clusters in India varies, as most MSME units remain unregistered and it is difficult to collect primary and statistical informa- tion. For the Innovation Cluster Initiative by NInC, MSME industry clusters include industrial, handicraft, and handloom clus- ters in India. The Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises data show 311.52 lakh registered MSMEs,1 which employed 732.17 lakh and had an annual production of Rs 1,095,758 crore for 2010–11.2 Analysing India’s Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) from the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation reveals close to 8,500 clusters in the country for 2009– 10 when micro-clusters are included.3 The Cluster Observatory pegs the number of MSME clusters (including micro-clusters) to be between 4,000 and 5,000 (which the author considers as generally accepted).4 Table 1.1: MSME industry clusters in India, 2009–10 Cluster information 2009 2010 Number of clusters 8,377 8,571 No. of registered units operating 155,321 157,634 Source: Interpretation of Annual Survey of Industries, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, 2009–10 data. Note: ‘Clusters’ are defined as unique combinations of National Industrial Classification (NIC) Level 3-digits enterprises with one or more units within states and districts. It is important to note that, in all reports, the data collected reflect only the registered units and the organized work- force, which are estimated to represent just 15%–20% of the total units within MSME clusters in India.5 The bulk of MSME units and most of its workforce are unregistered and unorganized. A recent presentation by the State of Kerala Furniture Manufacturers & Merchants Welfare Association (FuMMa) notes that, in their furniture industry, reg- istered organized MSME units comprise only 15% of the total units; unregistered unorganized MSME units comprise 30%; and unregistered, unorganized, open (con- tract-work) MSME units comprise 55%.6 Table 1.2: MSME unit types in the furniture industry cluster, State of Kerala, India Unit type Percent of total Organized MSME units 15% Unorganized MSME units 30% Unorganized, open MSME units 55% Source NInC. Notes 1 A lakh is 100,000. 2 Annual Report 2011–12, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Government of India (see http://msme.gov.in/msme_ars.htm for details). 3 Annual Survey of Industries 2009–10, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India (see http://mospi. nic.in/mospi_new/upload/asi/ASI_main. htm?status=1&menu_id=88 for details). 4 The Cluster Observatory—a project of foun- dation for MSME clusters—is supported by the Department of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India (see http://www.clus- terobservatory.in/ for details). 5 These are empirical estimates based on analysis by NInC and other government agencies. 6 These figures are from a presentation made by FuMMa (K. P. Raveendran) to the Chairman of NInC and the State of Kerala officials in Cochin, Kerala, January 2013.
- 133. 109 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative new product prototypes and test- ing of new innovative processes. All these advantages, when combined, accelerated the pace of innovation at the MSME cluster. Furthermore, the model provides a new source of revenue (through items such as fees for pooled R&D and services) for these industry associations and helps to establish a scalability model for government efforts. It is estimated that two- thirds of clusters have a dedicated association office or space at the local premises of an affiliated state or dis- trict agency that can be used as a net- working hub for innovation. According to an independent study conducted by IIT Roorkee on the Faridabad Small Industries Association (FSIA),3 local associa- tions can impact the cluster with a certain level of synergy that is nec- essary for getting collective ben- efits. Leadership of the FSIA is instrumental in providing collec- tive solutions for individual prob- lems. Memorandums of under- standing between the FSIA and the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), the Indian Development Bank of India (IDBI), the Indian Overseas Bank, and the United India Insurance Company are examples. These tangible ben- efits keep members interested in activities of the association. Further, a large number of regular activities are important for the success of such associations. A selection of activities is equally important for keeping the interest of members alive. The FSIA prepared the plan of activities which, on one hand, helped members to explore new markets for business and, on the other hand, improved efficiency and productivity of vari- ous member units.4 Innovation cluster pilots NInC piloted the innovation cluster model and supported the creation of cluster innovation centres (CICs) in seven MSME clusters in the country during a one-year implementation period. The CIC consists of a small group of people resident within the industry association who will man- age the development of an innova- tion ecosystem relevant for the local industry’s needs. The CIC also acts as a networking and sharing hub, manages cluster innovation activi- ties, and facilitates inbound/out- bound interactions among cluster participants and partners for innova- tive new product and process devel- opment (Box 2). These seven clusters collectively comprise approximately 85,000 MSME units (registered and esti- mated unregistered), which together employ about 1 million people and generate US$4 billion in annual rev- enues (Table 1).5 Box 2: Actions taken by NInC in the Innovation Clusters Initiative • Enlisted existing industry cluster associations to serve as a nexus for a localized innovation ecosystem. • Helped recruit local, motivated inno- vation champions to lead the inno- vation initiatives for their industry cluster. • Instituted, jointly with the indus- try association, a two- to three-per- son cluster innovation centre (CIC) within the industry association office to act as a networking hub and a forum for innovation activities. • Facilitated collaboration between the CIC and external public and pri- vate research institutions, industries, universities, and agencies to jump- start innovation for local industry products and processes. • Organized training sessions in intel- lectual property, innovation project management, building collaborative partnerships, etc., to upgrade the skills of stakeholders in MSME clus- ters and their industry associations. Source National Innovation Council, Government of India (see http://www.innovationcouncil. gov.in/ for details). Table 1: India’s Innovation Cluster Initiative pilots, 2011–13 Location (region, state) Industry sector Total size of seven pilots (combined) Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu Agriculture, Food processing More than 1 million people employed 85,000 MSME units US$4 billion annual revenue Agartala, Tripura Bamboo Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh Brassware Thrissur, Kerala Ayurveda medicine Ernakulam, Kerala Furniture Faridabad, Haryana Auto components Ahmedabad, Gujarat Life sciences Source: NInC. The NInC pilot succeeded in weaving together 39 public and pri- vate institutions and universities as collaborating participants in inno- vation ecosystems developed for these seven clusters. The partner for technology and knowledge efforts was the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)—India’s largest R&D organization, consisting of 37 labs with 19,600 scientific per- sonnel (scientists, scientific and tech- nical support staff, and research stu- dents).6 Funding for prototype devel- opment for some pilot clusters came
- 134. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative 110 from the Department of Scientific & Industrial Research (DSIR). Central government bodies—such as the Ministry of MSME, the Ministry of Textiles, the Ministry of Commerce, and the Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)—were pub- lic partners. Several state institutions from the States of Kerala, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura, as well as local government agencies, became public partners as well. Private part- ners included India’s leading indus- try associations: the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI); the Tata Management Training Centre, India’s well-known innova- tion-focused industry group; and the Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services Limited (IL&FS), the coun- try’s leading infrastructure, cluster development and financing com- pany. Local universities—such as Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, the MS University of Baroda, Delhi University, Manav Rachna University, and NIT Tripura—also participated. Within one year, the CIC-driven innovation cluster model resulted in the successful demonstration and/or prototypeof12newproducts,10new process improvements, and 2 new entrepreneurship-support centres. These new innovations will lead to new markets for the industry cluster and new competitive offerings, and will ultimately drive more employ- ment. The pilot demonstrated that innovation impact is possible in a short period of time across geogra- phies and different industries with minimal budgetary investment by the government, giving confidence to the Innovation Clusters model’s ability to have an important socio- economic impact and scale broadly across the country. One of the key success factors for the CIC-driven innovation cluster model concerns identifying, crafting, and managing win-win partnerships and collaborations. For example, when a partnership with a CSIR lab is established by an industry cluster, the lab invests in R&D and knowl- edge talent while the cluster invests in validating the technology in the field, enhancing it for manufactur- ing/distribution, and setting up go- to-market mechanisms, thus creat- ing new products and/or processes in a collaborative fashion. Innovation management and ecosystem/partnership management were found to be relatively new concepts for a number of industry associations and participants. NInC provided information and know- how such as intellectual property (IP) management, innovation man- agement, and partner handhold- ing in the form of training and pro- gramme management support to ensure that the ecosystem becomes better established. Case studies The Indian School of Business in Hyderabad and NInC carried out studies on three of the seven pilot clusters in 2013. Two of the stud- ies are summarized in this chapter.7 Case study 1: The brassware cluster, Moradabad, State of Uttar Pradesh, India Situation: The Moradabad brassware cluster in Uttar Pradesh, one of the oldest clusters in the country, has an annual turnover of over 3,500 crore rupees (Rs), of which 80% is earned through exports.8 Despite growth in thenumberofexportersinthecluster, the number of artisans in the region has declined significantly because of the challenges presented by living conditions, wages, raw material pro- curement, prices, and stricter inter- national compliance norms. These artisans form the backbone of the cluster, and the need to improve their socioeconomic conditions is acute. NInC has facilitated innova- tion interventions at the Moradabad cluster, which are expected to impact the economics for all stakeholders: the artisan, the manufacturer, and the exporter. NInC and its partners are focused on facilitating the cre- ation of an innovation ecosystem and the CIC to address the long-term challenges confronting the cluster (Box 3). Actions taken: NInC helped facil- itate and launch (1) a CIC, which would be an innovation hub for Box 3: Cluster issues at the brassware cluster, Moradabad Six main issues are faced by brassware cluster stakeholders. These can be con- sidered in two groups: issues faced by artisans and those faced by exporters. • Artisans must confront: ›› low wages and income growth opportunities; ›› hazardous living conditions caused by coal pollution and the presence of cyanide in electro- lytes during electroplating manu- facturing procedures; and ›› an absence of formal channels for credit financing. • Exporters must confront: ›› the high price of brass, which has caused a shift to other metals; ›› an inadequate power supply; and ›› competition from China and Thailand, which have better prod- ucts available based on their bet- ter manufacturing processes and technologies. Source Sachan, Munagala, and Chakravarty, 2013.
- 135. 111 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative Figure 1: Innovation ecosystem development at Moradabad R&D Technology Financing Government programs Industry knowledge Skills MentorsCluster association A Cluster Innovation ecosystem MCIDS CLUSTER INNOVATION ECOSYSTEM CREATED AT MORADABAD CIC CIC Source: Adapted from NInC. Note: CIC = cluster innovation centre; CECRI = Central Electrochemical Research Institute; CSIR = Council of Scientific and Industrial Research; FICCI = Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry; IL&FS = Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services; MCIDS = Moradabad Cluster Inclusion and Development Society; MHSC = Metal Handicrafts Service Centre; NML = National Metallurgical Laboratory. CSIR-NML CSIR-CECRI NInC CSIR MHSC FICCI CSIR IL&FS the local industry; and (2) a com- mon MSME industry associa- tion called the Moradabad Cluster Inclusion and Development Society (MCIDS). Several smaller associa- tions had previously served differ- ent interests; these are now brought under one umbrella. The formation of the MCIDS was geared towards bringing key players onto a common platform and facilitating the devel- opment of new programmes, prod- ucts, services, collaborations, and partnerships for the benefit of the local MSME industry. NInC, in partnership with the MCIDS, piloted three innovations to help improve the competitiveness of the cluster: 1. Energy-efficient coal furnace: A new low-cost (approximately Rs 3,000 to 4,000) furnace was developed to improve productiv- ity and energy efficiency and to reduce pollution. The National Metallurgical Laboratory (NML) at Jamshedpur, a CSIR lab, part- nered with the MCIDS to design an improved furnace with higher efficiency, greater capacity, and reduced coal consumption. The new furnace not only increased the artisan’s income level— which is key for the artisans to adopt new innovations—but also provided socioeconomic benefits such as a dramatic reduction of pollution (Table 2). Item Pre-innovation Post-innovation (a) Brass melt (kgs) 25 30 (b) Coal consumption (kgs) 25 20 (c) Revenue potential (Rs) 2,000 2,400 (d) Cost of coal (Rs) 700 560 (e) Estimated loss of brass during melting, fabrication, & other activities 600 600 (f) Average income per furnace (c) – (d) – (e) (Rs) 700 1,240 Source: Pilot field measurements from the NML and NInC, 2013. Table 2: Impact of new energy-efficient coal furnace per day for each artisan
- 136. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative 112 developed by another CSIR lab, the Central Electrochemical Research Institute, to provide the artisans with a cleaner, safer environment that meets interna- tionally accepted norms. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic rep- resentation of an innovation cluster model that showcases the innova- tion ecosystem created at the brass- ware cluster in Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh. Case study 2: Food-processing cluster, Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu Situation: Krishnagiri and its sur- rounding districts produce approx- imately 300,000 tonnes of fresh mango annually (in the two- to three-month harvest period), which in turn produces about 150,000 tonnes of pulp.9 However, it is esti- mated that 30%–35% of the produce perishes before it reaches the end cus- tomer. This high spoilage rate is the result of operational inefficiencies in the harvest, storage, grading, trans- portation, packaging, and distribu- tion of the fruit.10 Moreover, diversi- fication of mango-based products— which could have the potential to enable income generation during non-harvest periods—is minimal. Actions taken: The Krishmaa Cluster Development Society (KCDS) engaged with stakehold- ers of the industry, both within and outside the Krishnagiri region. The CIC, created within the KCDS, pro- vided a common platform and venue to exchange ideas and nurture inno- vation for the cluster’s needs (Box 4). NInC helped the KCDS to partner with the Central Food Technology Research Institute (CSIR-CFTRI), the National Institute of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (CSIR-NIIST), the DSIR, the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, and the Agricultural 2. Fast-acting, high-performance brass lacquer: An efficient lacquer was developed in partnership with the CSIR-NML. Lacquer is used to protect the metal sur- face from environmental dam- age and increases the shelf life of the handicraft. The new lacquer reduced the time needed for bak- ing and application by 66%, and also reduced the amount of thin- ner used, resulting in major sav- ings in application time. 3. Cyanide-free electrolytes: Electro- lytes used in brass plating used to contain cyanide, a poison that caused serious health prob- lems for the artisans. A cyanide- free brass electrolyte is being Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) to create new technologies and exchange knowl- edge to solve the cluster’s needs (Box 4). Four innovative activities were undertaken: 1. Solid waste management: The CIC provided support to set up a pilot plant to make fuel briquettes from the pulverized solid waste generated during the mango production processes. These fuel briquettes would not only reduce the need for expensive firewood, which is traditionally used to fire the boilers in preparing the man- goes for market, but would also help reduce environmental pol- lution and improve efficiency. Using the briquettes instead of firewood is expected to result in an estimated savings of Rs 44,000 per day (Table 3). NInC has helped the KCDS to part- ner with the National Institute of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology to provide technical assistance to improve the pro- cess efficiency of the briquet- ting units. 2. Liquid Waste Management: The KCDS set up a pilot plant at one of the processing units to pro- duce electricity from the liquid waste from the production pro- cess. The pilot trials were suc- cessful, and the CIC plans to help the cluster replicate them in other units. Power generated from liquid waste is expected to make the processing units less susceptible to power outages; it is also significantly cheaper than the grid power. With increased efficiency and proper manage- ment, the biofuel-based power is expected to be able to com- pletely substitute for grid power. An estimated 800 cubic meters of biogas can be produced by an Box 4: Cluster issues at the food- processing cluster, Krishnagiri Three main issues are faced by the food-processing cluster at Krishnagiri: • Solid and liquid waste management: The wet waste of mangoes decom- poses quickly, causing disposal issues, polluting air and ground water, and creating a breeding ground for flies, rats, and diseases. • Limited technology: Units do not have access to the technological expertise needed to produce diver- sified mango products on a com- mercial scale (such as mango-fla- voured cereals, bars, etc.). • Farming, storage, and handling pro- tocols: The lack of proper protocols leads to a shorter shelf life, reducing the business potential of the mango produce. Source Sachan et al., 2013.
- 137. 113 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative average processing plant—this is equivalent to nearly 100 kW of power per day, enough to power a processing plant for 16 hours. 3. Farming and storage protocols: The CSIR-CFTRI scientists experi- mented extensively with various pre- and post-harvest techniques designed to prevent the man- goes from rotting and to extend their shelf life by delaying rip- ening. These interventions are expected to increase the com- mercial value of the produce, especially since an extended shelf life for fresh mangoes opens new distant domestic and export mar- kets for the farmers. 4. Diversified mango products: The CSIR-CFTRI was asked to sug- gest new products that would cater to wider tastes of the market. A hygienic form of mango fruit bar was developed to extend the working season for processing mango pulp and find new uses and markets for it. Additionally, local women’s self- help groups, which were already making thin papadams, were trained to make new types of pickles from raw mangoes. Concluding remarks For governments and policy mak- ers, stimulating and sustaining inno- vation in MSMEs clusters is criti- cal to generating new employment and inclusive growth for a nation’s economy. Taking advantage of pre-existing clusters and their orga- nizations is vital, since it comprises industrial infrastructure that is already working along with people- oriented networks and community programmes that are already serving their participants. Various cluster models have been attempted with scattered results, especially when top-down approaches are taken. NInC real- ized that determined local efforts are key to innovation model effec- tiveness, sustenance, and scaling up. This is particularly essential when dealing with a wide variety of indus- tries and geographies. If innova- tion can become the responsibility of local organizations, stakeholders, and communities, where immediate benefits are felt, an initial push from government could be transformed to a local pull down the road. Several challenges arise in facil- itating innovation at MSME clus- ters. For example, the government is not able to deal directly with local MSME units, whether through cen- tral or state or even local interven- tions. NInC had the insight to trans- form India’s hundreds of local indus- try associations, which already exist in clusters across the country, to become innovation actors, cham- pions, and facilitators. Using these associations as larger representatives of the local industry made the cluster more attractive to external organi- zations because innovation partners see the industry association as a path to a larger market with a broader reach via an institution with strong leadership. At both the national and state levels, NInC recommends the cre- ation of small but agile innovation cluster teams at different levels of government. In India, it is expected these teams will be called Cluster Innovation Cells (another type of CIC) and be staffed by individuals experienced in business develop- ment. This special type of CIC will be housed within government, can support existing industry association CICs, enlist new industry associa- tions to create CICs by showcasing successful case studies, develop new collaborative partners to expand local innovation ecosystems, for- mally monitor and analyse MSME clusters, and create communities that range from websites to physi- cal communities that broaden rela- tionships to stimulate beneficial net- work effects. NInC and the pilot clusters suc- cessfully enlisted motivated public and private institutions and local universities as partners to develop local innovation ecosystems and new products and processes. The initia- tive demonstrated that innovation at MSME industry clusters is people- oriented, centred on collaboration, best managed locally by local par- ticipants, and can be self-sustained locally because true benefits are felt locally. The government’s role is to catalyse, facilitate, and inject hands- on innovation leadership, support, and confidence at local levels. Table 3: Impact of briquettes vs. firewood during harvest season (9–10 weeks) Item Calorific value (kcal) Cost per tonne (Rs) Consumption (tonnes) Expenditure/day (Rs) Additional revenue potential (selling price per tonne, Rs) Firewood 2,400 5,000 10 50,000 Briquettes 3,800–4,400 1,000 6 6,000 4,000–5,000 Savings from innovation 4,000 44,000 Source: Pilot field measurements from the KCDS and NInC, 2013.
- 138. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 7:InnovationClustersInitiative 114 Notes 1 For a description of the National Innovation Council, see http://www.innovationcouncil. gov.in/ and http://reports.weforum.org/ social-innovation-2013/view/the-national- innovation-council-india/. 2 Internal KPMG (www.kpmg.com) report on cluster initiatives submitted to the Planning Commission, Government of India, FY 2010– 2011. 3 This study is cited courtesy of Prof. V. K. Nangia, Dr Rajat Agarwal, and Dr Vinay Sharma of the Department of Management Studies, IIT Roorkee. 4 Further information on the Faridabad MSME cluster and association is available at http://www.fsiaindia.com/, http://www. iamsmeofindia.com/services/innovation- cluster, and http://www.sidbi.com/sites/ default/files/products/Cluster%20Profile%20 Report%20-%20Faridabad%20(Mixed)%20 Cluster.pdf. 5 FY 2011–12 data are based on a compilation of industry cluster presentations made by industry associations to Chairman and members of NInC staff at the Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, in 2012. 6 CSIR, Annual Report 2009–2010. 7 See Sachan, Munagala, and Chakravarty, 2013; Sachan et al., 2013. 8 This case study is based on Sachan, Munagala, and Chakravarty, 2013. 9 This case study is based on Sachan et al. 2013. 10 See the DSIR, Fruits and Vegetable Sector Report: An Overview, available at http://www. dsir.gov.in/reports/ittp_tedo/agro/AF_Farm_ Fruits_Vegetables_Intro.pdf. References BIS (Bank for International Settlements). 2012. ‘Strengthening SMEs Capabilities for Global Competitiveness’. Address by K. C. Chakrabarty, Deputy Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, Interactive Session, Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Mumbai, 8 October 2012. Available at http:// www.bis.org/review/r121010h.pdf. Clara, M., F. Russo, and M. Gulati. 2000. ‘Cluster Development and BDS Promotion: UNIDO’s Experience in India’. Paper presented at the Business Services for Small Enterprises in Asia: Developing Markets and Measuring Performance International Conference, 3–6 April 2000, Hanoi, Viet Nam. Available at http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/ Services/PSD/Clusters_and_Networks/ publications/cluster_and_BDS_development. pdf. CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 2010. CSIR Annual Report 2009–10. New Delhi: CSIR. Available at http://www.csir.res.in. DSIR (Department of Scientific & Industrial Research, Government of India). Fruits and Vegetable Sector Report: An Overview. Available at http:// www.dsir.gov.in/reports/ittp_tedo/agro/ AF_Farm_Fruits_Vegetables_Intro.pdf. FISME (Federation of Indian Micro and Small & Medium Enterprises). 2009. ‘Analysis of Schemes Involving Industry Associations & Suggestions for Effective Implementation’. Working Paper commissioned by German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), August. New Delhi: FISME. Available at http://www.fisme. org.in/FISME_Capable/Study.pdf. GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH), Small and Medium Enterprises Financing and Development. ‘Umbrella Programme for the Promotion of Micro. Small and Medium Enterprises, 2006–14’. Programme description, available at http://www.giz.de/themen/en/11163.htm. Ministry of MSME (Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Government of India). 2012. Annual Report, 2011–12. New Delhi: Government of India, Ministry of MSME. NInC (National Innovation Council, Government of India). 2011. Report to the People 2011: First Year. New Delhi: NInC. Available at http://www.innovationcouncil. gov.in/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=96:-report-to-the- people-2011&catid=8:report&Itemid=10. ———. 2012. Report to the People 2012: Second Year. New Delhi: NInC. Available at http://innovationcouncil.gov.in/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&i d=252:release-of-the-report-to-the-people- 2012&catid=8:report&Itemid=10. OECD and UNIDO (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and United Nations Industrial Development Organization). 2004. Effective Policies for Small Business: A Guide for the Policy Review Process and Strategic Plans for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development. Vienna and Paris: UNIDO and OECD. Available at http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/media/ documents/pdf/Business_Environment/ l5hvghso.pdf.pdf. Rajan, Y. S. 2012. ‘Shaping the National Innovation System: The Indian Perspective’. In The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth, Chapter 7. Fontainebleau: INSEAD and WIPO. Rao, A. S., M. Gulati, T. Sarkar, R. Singh, K. L. Kala, S. Gargav, and A. Khanna. 2013. Promoting Innovation in Clusters. New Delhi: Foundation for MSME Clusters. Sachan, N., V. Munagala, and S. Chakravarty. 2013. ‘Innovation Cluster in the Brassware Industry at Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh: A Case Study Based on the Innovation Cluster Initiative of the National Innovation Council’. Indian School of Business (ISB), January 2013. Available at http://innovationcouncil.gov.in/ index.php?option=com_content&view=articl e&id=51&Itemid=33. Sachan, N., V. Munagala, S. Chakravarty, and N. Sharma. 2013. ‘Innovation Cluster in the Food Processing Industry at Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu: A Case Study Based on the Innovation Cluster Initiative of the National Innovation Council’. Indian School of Business (ISB), January 2013. Available at http://innovationcouncil.gov.in/ index.php?option=com_content&view=articl e&id=51&Itemid=33. Wunsch-Vincent, S. 2012. ‘Accounting for Science- Industry Collaboration in Innovation: Existing Metrics and Related Challenges’. In The Global Innovation Index 2012: Stronger Innovation Linkages for Global Growth, Chapter 4. Fontainebleau: INSEAD and WIPO.
- 139. 115 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics:TheUruguayanExperience Fernando Amestoy, Pando Technology Pole, Universidad de la República, Uruguay Salvador, it exhibits the highest levels of social equality in Latin America.4 Its literacy rate ties with that of Chile and Cuba, at 98.5%, as the highest in Latin America,5 and the govern- ment offers free education—includ- ing graduate and post-graduate stud- ies—to all citizens. It was the first Latin American country to grant free access to the Internet in nearly 100% of the educational public cen- tres by implementing Plan Ceibal, an adaptation of the One Laptop per Child programme created by profes- sors of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The country’s research & development (R&D) expenditure in 2010 was 0.4% of GDP (equiv- alent to US$47.4 per inhabitant).6 The Uruguayan economy has been historically based on cattle produc- tion, agriculture, agroindustry, and services in sectors such as tourism, finance, and—more recently—the software industry. In 2007, for the first time, Uruguay incorporated into its polit- ical agenda the systematic develop- ment of a national system of inno- vation in order to promote pro- ductive and social development. Under these policies, the Innovation Cabinet was created to lead the sys- tem and the National Research and Innovation Agency (ANII) to develop the instruments to be used and administer the resources needed to execute the policies. The results obtained thus far are encouraging: the capacity to generate endogenous knowledge has been strengthened, as demonstrated by the creation of a national researchers system, the funding of access to international scientific publications databases, the creation of a national postgraduate studies scholarship system, and sup- port for new technical careers at the university and tertiary non-univer- sity level. Nonetheless, the impact of these policies is analysed from the perspective of local development and innovation dynamics. Uruguay’s approach to regional innovation: The public-sector role The Universidad de la República (UDELAR) is a public institution that offers a wide range of free career training programmes; it also has the highest number of students, teach- ers, and researchers in the coun- try (UDELAR employs 77% of the country’s researchers). Within the UDELAR system, the major- ity of career offerings are central- ized in the capital city, Montevideo, whereas the system in the rest of the country is characterized by its weak management capabilities and the lack of autonomy to make its own decisions.7 In 1986, a UDELAR centre in the northern part of the country was established—the first in the process of decentralizing educa- tion. In 2007, this process was con- tinued with the creation of three new regional centres (in the coastal northwest, the northeast, and the The present chapter analyses some of the results of innovation policies implemented in Uruguay since 2007 and their effects on the generation of regional innovation environments and local development. This anal- ysis should be of interest to other Latin American countries where the development of regional systems of innovation is even more relevant because their socioeconomic dispar- ity and environmental heterogeneity are more pronounced than they are in the Uruguayan situation. Innovation emerges as one of the variables that account for regional economic growth in local and endogenous development models.1 These processes are characterized by know-how obtained through tech- nological imitation and technologi- cal creation, along with significant cooperation and learning.2 From this perspective, human capital, knowl- edge, and infrastructure are the most important determinants of regional growth,3 and public policies are the instruments that activate, mobilize, and catalyse the relations among local stakeholders, which do not occur spontaneously. Uruguay has a continental terri- tory of 176.215 square kilometres; in 2012 it had 3.29 million inhabitants and a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$15,300. It leads the rankings, together with Argentina and Chile, of Latin American coun- tries in human development and, together with Venezuela and El chapter 8
- 140. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics 116 Figure 1: Location of the Pando Science and Technology Park and UDELAR regional centres Pando Science andTechnology Park UDELAR regional centre facility, coastal northwest UDELAR regional centre facility, northeast centre UDELAR regional centre facility, east centre east—see Figure 1) with a commit- ment to provide research, education, and outreach.8 The development of these centres, with multidisciplinary teaching groups, was based on the- matic priority axes that addressed regional demands for education in specific areas such as tourism, agroindustry, and natural resource management.9 The process of decentralization, which is still in its development stage, has exhibited some weak- nesses in its management and gov- ernance. In particular, some ten- sions have emerged from disciplin- ary approaches and institutional matters as well as some difficulties regarding the roles to be played and the responsibilities and tasks to be assumed by the teachers.10 With the support of ANII, the Universidad del Trabajo of Uruguay—another public educa- tional institution—has increased its technicaleducationalofferingsacross the country to meet the demands of the productive sector in different regions. For example, tertiary non- university careers are now offered in agro-energy, chemistry, fisheries, informatics, intensive vegetable pro- duction, meat technology, mechan- ics, renewable energies, ship mainte- nance, and sustainable tourism. In 2013, the Technological University was created as a public entity with a mandate to bring ter- tiary education to the regions outside the capital. This university shares the same goals of decentralizing the uni- versity system so that the productive sector has sufficient resources avail- able in terms of a skilled workforce and technical capabilities. Since ANII’s launch in 2007, several programmes—such as the National Researchers System and the National System of Scholarships— have been executed to increase the development of human capital and research capacities and direct them to meet the needs of the productive sector by providing sectoral funds, subsidies to support innovation in enterprises, and seed capital for start- ups. These programmes are also intended to satisfy social demands, such as projects of social innovation and support for activities intended to make science and technology part of the national culture. According to information presented by ANII in its annual reports, investment in research and development (R&D) increased between 2004 and 2011— from 0.32% of GDP to 0.41%. The links between research institutions and enterprises are very weak, with only the 35% of research investment coming from the private sector.11 The instruments created by ANII to promote links between academia and industry are difficult to execute and expensive to implement because these associations are not generated spontaneously. The National System of Scholarships provides sequential Note: UDELAR = Universidad de la República.The coastal northwest, northeast, and east regional centres each have two facilities.
- 141. 117 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics support to research capacity build- ing that begins with support for graduate MSc and PhD degrees to promote new research. There are a number of instruments intended to provide funding for National Researchers System grant holders. Subsidies are determined by a pro- cess of evaluation that categorizes the grant holder at different levels according to training, merit, and scientific production. This system allows access to a monthly stipend contingent on the production of sci- entific publications and the training of younger researchers, thus allow- ing the recipient to pursue otherwise non-income-generating research. Together the linked National System of Scholarships and the National Researchers System pro- mote the formation of advanced human capital, but they have been shown to be ill designed for reach- ing researchers in the private sector. The professionals working in pri- vate companies’ R&D departments are barely included in the National Researchers System because of the barriers they face in publishing their own scientific work—personal publication is not always consis- tent with the interests of employers, who protect innovations made by their employees under confidential- ity agreements. On the other hand, the National System of Scholarships requires that the tutors/mentors of the grant holders be members of the National Researchers System, thus almost entirely excluding company professionals from participating in the process of training researchers, despite their practical experience in R&D. This could explain ANII’s finding, in its study of applications of the National Researchers System, of low participation rates of compa- nies in the system and in research activities.12 Between 2008 and 2011, ANII injected resources into the Uruguayan productive sector by means of 10 horizontal instruments of subsidy, directed to all the com- panies in the formal sector of the country’s economy. An analysis of the ANII reports shows that the subsidies to promote innovation are being given to the most dynamic companies that already have a strong innovative profile. Furthermore, the beneficiaries are centralized in the capital city and have a less significant presence in the interior of the coun- try.13 The innovation policies are attracting winners that do not need policy support—more evidence of the strong need to advance towards a new generation of instruments that are more innovative and designed to facilitate an increase in the compet- itiveness, internationalization, and technological adequacy of compa- nies.14 The observations listed above seem to indicate that current inno- vation policies may not be aligned with industrial policies, and that more selective interventions need to be developed that promote innova- tion in sectors and areas identified as priority by the Productive Cabinet (which is coordinated the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mining, or MIEM). Since 2007, scientific produc- tion (as measured by the number of publications indexed in the Science Citation Index) has increased by almost 50%. However, patent- based indicators—particularly the self-sufficiency rate (patent applica- tions by residents versus total pat- ent applications) and the coefficient of invention (patent applications by residents per 100,000 inhabitants)— decreased between 2010 and 2011.15 This indicates that the growth of the National Researchers System is not yet reflected in an increase in the generation of value measured by the production of appropriable knowl- edge. This gap shows the weakness, previously mentioned, in academic- company relationships. It also possi- bly points out the predominant cul- ture of the researchers, who histori- cally have considered research to be a public good and not an intangible asset with a market value. Further, it shows how little the concept of intel- lectual property has spread, despite the efforts made over the last several years by MIEM’s National Office of Industrial Property. Instruments created by innova- tion policies intended to strengthen the interface between academic institutions and companies comprise a valuable contribution that could transform the knowledge generated in universities into economic, social, and/or environmental value, bridg- ing the gap between the offerings of research and the demands of the pro- ductive sector. Some initiatives— such as the Network of Intellectual Property—and the process initi- ated by MIEM with the support of the World Intellectual Property Organization to create Offices of Transference of Research Results point to this objective.16 Spreading the use of patent databases by science students as a source of technologi- cal information is a key measure to enhance their knowledge of the lat- est technological developments and bring scientists closer to fully under- standing the concepts and system of intellectual property.17 The barriers that institutions face because of the lack of profes- sionals experienced in technologi- cal transference have led even the most developed countries, to con- tinue helping the universities to cre- ate greater capacity in intellectual property management. For exam- ple, both Denmark and Germany invested several million euros to spur the development of technology
- 142. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics 118 transfer offices clustered around cer- tain regions or in certain sectors, such as biotechnology.18 Cimoli, Ferraz, and Primi (2009) state that a well-designed innovation policy alone is not enough if the goal is productive development. There should also be integration between innovation and development policy. The instruments launched by ANII suggest that, in the case of Uruguay, so far this process has not taken place. Neither the applications for compet- itive funds (where the only require- ment was that a researcher presented a project, not that the project had a clear application related to national innovation or the development of the goals of the policies) nor the sectoral funds instruments (which were weakly targeted because too many research priorities were set for very limited resources) seemed to show significant impacts related to the priorities defined by produc- tive policies. A capacity gap has resulted from asymmetries between central and sub-national authorities. This gap is related to regional weaknesses in terms of innovation strategy design, on one hand, and the limited ability of the central government to iden- tify relevant regional innovation projects without consulting sub- national actors, on the other hand. The decentralization of supporting funds for regional innovation proj- ects that use local knowledge and experience will allow projects that will have a direct impact in local communities to be selected. The country needs to generate high eco- nomic value and social impact if it is to significantly accelerate the devel- opment of companies and projects in all regions. So far no instruments have been developed in Uruguay that can decentralize innovation processes, nor have resources and capabilities been transferred to departmental and local governments to lead those processes. In order to overcome the asymmetries, this process must begin by strengthening local man- agement capacities. Environments of innovation that are linked to local development within the frame of existing indus- trial policies is the missing link that must now be established to consol- idate all previous efforts and give them a chance to succeed. A practical example: The Pando Science and Technology Park The Pando Science and Technology Park originated as the result of the coordination, led by UDELAR since 2008, of the development pol- icies implemented by national (ANII and MIEM) and local (the govern- ment’s Department of Canelones) innovation actors.19 It is located in an industrial zone, 40 kilometres from the capital, and was supported by Uruguay INNOVA, the European Commission’s international coop- eration programme, in its founda- tional stage.20 The Department of Canelones is located near the city of Montevideo. The second most populated depart- ment in the country, it has more than 520,000 inhabitants. The city of Pando constitutes an important industrial and commercial conglom- erateintheDepartmentofCanelones nearthemetropolitanarea.Thisinno- vation hub extends from Carrasco International Airport, where a sci- ence park (supported by a phar- maceutical group, Mega Pharma, to promote the creation, capture, and development of knowledge- and innovation-based companies) is located near to Pando, 15 kilometres away, where the Pando Science and Technology Park is situated, along with the UDELAR’s Technology Pole, School of Chemistry.21 This micro-region hosts three industrial parks and numerous com- panies from the chemical, pharma- ceutical, food technology, paper, textile, and cardboard industries. It hosts most of the department’s industries, with the chemical indus- try (including rubber, plastic, and others, which comprise 42% of the industry in the micro-region) and the manufacture of food products (30%) being the main activities. Together these activities account for almost 75% of total local industry. Local industries in the pharmaceu- tical and medical sector account for a further 4% of the total at the local level.22 It is clear that both private and public investment is favourable for the development of an innovation environment. However, public poli- cies are necessary to promote coordi- nation among stakeholders and con- solidate a regional innovation sys- tem. An assessment made in 2008,23 before the creation of the Science and Technology Park, showed that the Technology Pole of the School of Chemistry (UDELAR) had poor relationships with the community in the region even though it was a fairly new project—it had been cre- ated within the past decade. This confirms the notion that interaction among stakeholders is a decisive fac- tor in the development of regional innovation systems, but interaction does not appear spontaneously and must be generated through appro- priate instruments. In order to orga- nize a process of this kind, it is nec- essary to have skilled professionals who are prepared to manage local development, the governance of the process, the communication with stakeholders, and the coordination of projects.24
- 143. 119 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics Following the creation of the Pando Science and Technology Park, the links between the R&D genera- tors from the university and the busi- ness sector have been strengthened, thus promoting local development. This model is driven and guided by the governance of the park, where the university, the Chamber of Industries, the Ministry of Industry, and the Department of Canelones Uruguay are in partnership. Although the Pando Science and Technology Park was established by law, a mechanism to encourage busi- nesses to participate in this ecosys- tem and instruments to promote academia-business links or intellec- tual property were not defined. It was expected that the park would generate resources from its interven- tion in the market by selling services to companies. However, the expe- rience of countries such as Spain, which has developed several science and technology parks, shows that these organizations reach a break- even point in the medium to long term (8 to 10 years), before which they require public support. Comparing Uruguay’s experience with that of other regions Nieto (2010) analysed the experi- ence of the Basque region of Spain and highlighted the importance of the design and implementation of active public policies that promote the generation and use of knowledge to systematically increase the com- petitiveness of production. Despite the constraints men- tioned earlier, interactions between the services of technology plat- forms from UDELAR’s School of Chemistry and the private sector have increased significantly in the last year. The Pando Science and Technology Park has provided the technologycentrewithaprofessional innovation management system, which allows it to focus on R&D processes. The innovation policies did not coordinate with UDELAR’s efforts in creating regional centres in the interior of the country. To generate the necessary synergies, the inter- ventions must promote commu- nication among academic institu- tions, enterprises, and government. They must simultaneously promote the professionalization of manage- ment, focusing the installed capaci- ties on the priorities established by the national and departmental gov- ernments, for local development. The above weaknesses can be found in most Latin American coun- tries. A case in point is a study by the Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean,25 which brings together standardized data on 53 clusters located in 19 states in Brazil, one cluster in Colombia, and one in Peru. Among its findings, it identifies problems of coordina- tion among agents and highlights the formation of networks and consortia as drivers of these mechanisms. The education and science and technol- ogy sectors are cornerstones in the process of building industrial com- petitiveness, although the evidence indicates that the mere existence of knowledge does not guarantee innovation—to foster innovation, knowledge should be integrated into development policies. In the case of Chile, for example, Von Baer (2009) analyses regional innovation systems and concludes that, regarding regional produc- tive development and/or innova- tion agendas for competitiveness, no explicit mention has been made of the mechanisms for linking the areas of productive development and innovation. He proposes address- ing both processes together by con- structing spaces for interaction and communication, and for strength- ening the relationship between aca- demia and businesses. In 2012, the Corporation of Promotion of the Production of Chile developed a pilot program to decentralize the instruments of innovation by trans- ferring the resources to three regions and, if it is successful, plans to repli- cate it in throughout the country.26 Some policy and strategic implications for local innovation strategies From the experience of managing local innovation clusters, the follow- ing considerations can be empiri- cally extracted: • Environments of regional inno- vation need public policies to support them during the ini- tial stages when they are get- ting established, thus generating structures of governance link- ing the academy, companies, and governments. • Selective interventions for the promotion of these structures are needed because the enterprise- academy-government relation- ships are not generated spontane- ously. • The local governments must be firmly involved in the centres and in the construction of their agendas. • The area where policies are developed must be separated from the area where they are executed (politicians are not necessarily good managers). • The management of the cen- tres must be carried out by pro- fessional management person- nel in professional management structures. The managers must be trained in business admin- istration (not in research or
- 144. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics 120 teaching—professors are not nec- essarily good managers). • A systemic approach must be promoted from the political envi- ronment to improve communi- cation among all the associates. The quality policies, the infor- mation systems, and sharing stra- tegic plans among the actors are some of the instruments that can be employed to achieve this goal. • Mechanisms to evaluate the impacts of the centres and a clear commitment with management that defines short-, medium-, and long-term goals in accordance with the goals of the regional and national governments must be established. Public support for these environments must be directly tied to the fulfilment of the above-mentioned commit- ments. • The innovation environments must generate ties with local companies in general and with the social local actors where the centre is located. • The regional centres of inno- vation are dynamic structures where the generation of ties with other actors of the national inno- vation system must be promoted. • The creation of public-private alliances must be encouraged. • Strategic leadership at the regional and local levels is necessary. This chapter has presented evi- dence that innovation policies have to focus on social and productive priorities defined at the national level by industrial development pol- icies and at the regional level accord- ing to the productive specificities and socioeconomic particularities of each regional unit. In this con- text, it is particularly important to generate innovation environments. It is also essential that the govern- ment become involved as a catalyst for interaction among stakeholders, particularly in regard to the mecha- nisms that lead to a closer relation- ship between academia and busi- nesses, the promotion of the best intellectual property management practices at universities and techni- cal institutes, and actions that pro- mote an increase in the number of patents. Instead of focusing on finding or establishing a leader of collaborative networks, the idea of shared leader- ship becomes the primary focus. In this context, leadership is the abil- ity to be a ‘process catalyst’ and the emphasis is on building trust and new ways of working together.27 Hence the challenge of all stakehold- ers is to coordinate and lead to align actions, programs, instruments with the objectives of the national inno- vation and development policies. Notes 1 Ogawa, 2000; Love and Stephen, 2001; Cheshire and Malecki, 2003. 2 Bramanti and Maggioni, 1997; Maillat, 1998. 3 McCann and Shefer, 2003. 4 CEPAL, 2012. 5 CEPAL, 2012. 6 ANII, 2011. 7 De la Cuesta and Heinzen, 2012. 8 Arocena, 2009. 9 UDELAR, 2008. 10 De la Cuesta and Heinzen, 2012. 11 ANII, 2011. 12 ANII, 2011. 13 ANII, 2011. 14 ANII, 2011. 15 ANII, 2011. 16 For details about the Network of Intellectual Property, see www.redpi.uy. 17 WIPO, 2007. 18 Cervantes, 2013. 19 For further detail about the Pando Science and Technology Park, see www.pctp.org.uy. 20 For more information about Uruguay INNOVA, see http://eeas.europa.eu/ delegations/uruguay/projects/list_of_ projects/19040_en.htm. 21 For details about UDELAR’s Technology Pole, School of Chemistry, see www. polotecnologico.fq.edu.uy. 22 Barrenechea, Rodriguez, and Troncoso, 2008. 23 Barrenechea, Rodriguez, and Troncoso, 2008. 24 Garofoli, 2009. 25 Teixeira and Ferraro, 2009. 26 For more information about decentralizing the instruments of innovation, see http:// www.pmgdescentralizacion.gov.cl/. 27 Mandell and Keast, 2009. References ANII (Agencia Nacional de Investigación e Innovación). 2011. Informe año 2011. Available at http://www.anii.org.uy/web/?q=node/106. Arocena, R. 2009. ‘La Universidad en el interior’. Hacia la Reforma Universitaria No. 7. Uruguay: Rectorado. Universidad de la República. Available at http://www. universidad.edu.uy/renderPage/index/ pageId/810#heading_3567. Barrenechea, P., A. Rodriguez, and C. Troncoso. 2008. Microregion 6 del Departamento de Canelones. Estudio de vocacion industrial tecnologica para identificar oportunidades de intervension que fomenten desarrollo local. Programa de Desarrollo y Gestion Municipal IV [Microregion 6 of the Department of Canelones. Study of industrial vocation technology to identify intervention opportunities that foster local development]. Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto. Bramanti, A. and M. A. Maggioni. 1997. ‘The Dynamics of Milieux: The Network Análisis Approach’. In The Dynamics of Innovative Regions, R. Ratti, A. Bramanti, and R. Gordon, eds. Aldershot: Ashgate. CEPAL (Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe). 2000. ‘El Tratado de Libre Comercio de Norteamérica y el desempeño en la economía de México’ [The North America free trade agreement and the performance in the economy of Mexico], June. Available at http://www.eclac.org/cgi-bin/getProd. asp?xml=/publicaciones/xml/1/9571/P9571. xml&xsl=/mexico/tpl/p9f.xsl&base=/mexico/ tpl/top-bottom.xsl. ———. 2012. Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2012. Santiago, Chile: United Nations Publication. Available at http://www.eclac.cl/publicaciones/ xml/4/48864/AnuarioEstadistico2012_ing.pdf.
- 145. 121 THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 8:CreatingLocalInnovationDynamics Cervantes, M. 2013. ‘Academic Patenting: How Universities and Public Research Organizations Are Using their Intellectual Property to Boost Research and Spur Innovative Start-Ups’. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization), Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises E-Newsletter. Available at http://www.wipo.int/sme/en/ documents/academic_patenting.html. Cheshire, P. C. and E. J. Malecki. 2003. “Growth, Development, and Innovation: A Look Backward and Forward’. Papers in Regional Science 83 (1): 249–67. Cimoli, M., J. C. Ferraz, and A. Primi. 2009. ‘Science, Technology and Innovation Policies in Global Open Economies: The Case of Latin America and the Caribbean’. Revista Globalización, Competitividad y Gobernabilidad 3 (1): 32–60. De la Cuesta, P. and M. Heinzen. 2012. El proceso de descentralización universitaria en Uruguay. Polo Salud comunitaria. [The process of decentralization of the university in Uruguay. Polo Community Health]. III Seminario Internacional Universidad-Sociedad y Estado ‘A 400 años de la Universidad en la región’. Univ. Nal de Córdoba y Asoc. Univ. Grupo Montevideo (AUGM). 25 and 26 October. Garofoli, G. 2009. ‘Las experiencias de desarrollo económico local en Europa: las enseñanzas para América Latina’ [‘The experiences of local economic development in Europe: Lessons for Latin America’]. Seminario de lanzamiento del Programa URB-AL III, San José, Costa Rica, 4–7 May. Available at http:// www.urb-al3.eu/uploads/documentos/ Desarrollo_economico_local_en_Europa_ GAROFOLI_1.pdf. Love, J. H. and R. Stephen. 2001. ‘Outsourcing in the Innovation Process: Locational and Strategic Determinants’. Papers in Regional Science 80 (3): 317–36. Maillat, D. 1998. ‘Interaction between Urban Systems and Localized Productive Systems’. European Planning Studies 6: 117–29. Mandell, M. and R. L. Keast. 2009. ‘A New Look at Leadership in Collaborative Networks: Process Catalysts’. In Public Sector Leadership: International Challenges and Perspectives, J. Raffel, P. Leisink, and A. Middlebrooks, eds. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 163–78. McCann, P. and D. Shefer. 2003. ‘Location, Agglomeration and Infrastructure’. Papers in Regional Science 83 (1): 177–96. MCT (Ministério de Ciência, Tecnolgia e Inovação). 2013. Plano de Ação 2007–2010. Available at http://www.mct.gov.br/index.php/content/ view/66226.html. Nieto, A. 2010. El Sistema Vasco de Innovación: Un caso de estudio para Uruguay [The Basque country innovation system: A case study for Uruguay]. Montevideo, Uruguay: Letraeñe Ediciones. Ogawa, H. 2000. ‘Spatial Impact of Information Technology Development’. The Annals of Regional Science 34 (4): 537–51. Teixeira, F. and C. Ferraro. 2009. Aglomeraciones productivas locales en Brasil: formación de recursos humanos y resultados de la experiencia [Local productive agglomerations in Brazil: Human resources training and experience´s results]. Santiago, Chile: CEPAL. UDELAR (Universidad de la República). 2008. ‘Programas Regionales de Enseñanza Terciaria: 2008–2010 y su proyección 2020’ [Regional programmes in tertiary education: 2008-2010 and its projection to 2020]. Serie Doc. Trab. CCI No. 1. Montevideo, Uruguay: Comisión Coordinadora Interior. Available at http://www.cci.edu.uy/sites/default/ files/Programa%20Regionales%20de%20 Ense%C3%B1anza%20Terciaria.%202008- 2010%20y%20su%20proyecci%C3%B3n%20 al%202020.pdf. Von Baer, H., ed. 2009. Pensando Chile desde sus regiones [Planning Chile from its regions]. Tamuco, Chile: Ediciones Universidad de La Frontera. WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). 2007. Developing Frameworks to Facilitate University-Industry Technology Transfer: A Checklist of Possible Actions. Available at http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/uipc/ en/partnership/pdf/ui_checklist.pdf.
- 147. Appendices
- 151. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 127 Thefollowingtablesprovidedetailed profiles for each of the 142 econo- mies in the Global Innovation Index 2013. They are constructed around three sections. 1 Five key indicators at the beginning of each profile are intended to put the economy into context.They present the population in millions,1 GDP in US$ billions, and GDP per capita in PPP current inter- national dollars.2 The fourth indicator categorizes the economy into income group and the fifth indicates its geo- graphical region.3 2 The next section pro- vides the economy’s scores and rankings on the Global Innovation Index (GII), the Innovation Input Sub-Index, the Innovation Output Sub- Index, and the Innovation Efficiency Ratio. The GII ranking for the 2012 edition comes next. Three economies were added in 2013, and two were excluded. For that reason, and because of adjustments made to the GII framework every year and other technical factors not directly related to actual performance (miss- ing data, updates of data, etc.), the GII rankings are not directly com- parable from one year to the next. Please refer to Annex 2 of Chapter 1 for details. Scores are normalized in the [0, 100] range except for the Innovation Efficiency Ratio, for which scores revolve around the number 1 (this indexiscalculatedastheratiobetween the Output and Input Sub-Indices). The Innovation Input Sub-Index score is calculated as the simple aver- age of the scores in the first five pil- lars, while the Innovation Output Sub-Index is calculated as the simple average of the last two pillars. 3 Pillars are identified by single- digit numbers, sub-pillars by two- digit numbers, and indicators by three-digit numbers. For example, indicator 1.3.1, Ease of starting a busi- ness, appears under sub-pillar 1.3, Business environment, which in turn appears under pillar 1, Institutions. The 2013 GII includes 84 indicators and three types of data. Composite indicators are identified with an aster- isk (*), survey questions from the World Economic Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey are identified with a dagger (†), and the remaining indi- cators are all hard data series. For hard data, the origi- nal value is provided (except for indicators 7.3.1, 7.3.2, and 7.3.4, for which the raw data were provided under the condition that only the nor- malized scores be published). Normalized scores in the [0, 100] range are provided for everything else (index and survey data, sub-pillars, pil- lars, and indices). When data are either not avail- able or out of date (the cutoff year is 2003), ‘n/a’ is used. The year of each data point is indicated in the Data Tables shown in Appendix II. For further details, see Appendix III, Sources and Definitions, and Appendix IV, Technical Notes. Country/EconomyProfiles THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013I:Country/EconomyProfiles 130 NOTE: indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions).............................................................................................................3.3 GDP (US$ billions)................................................................................................................12.4 GDP per capita, PPP$......................................................................................................7,975.9 Income group........................................................................................... Lower-middle income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142)................................. 30.9 93 Innovation Output Sub-Index ..................................................................................22.7 118 Innovation Input Sub-Index.....................................................................................39.1 77 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 129 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework)................................30.4 90 1 Institutions....................................................58.9 73 1.1 Political environment..........................................................................53.9 76 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................59.5 83 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*............................................................32.9 81 1.1.3 Press freedom*........................................................................................69.1 81 1.2 Regulatory environment..................................................................59.8 89 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*..............................................................................56.9 64 1.2.2 Rule of law*...............................................................................................33.9 93 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks........................20.8 97 1.3 Business environment........................................................................62.9 73 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*............................................................91.4 23 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*........................................................42.6 59 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*..........................................................................54.7 114 2 Human capital & research..........................27.1 84 2.1 Education...................................................................................................41.8 98 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI.............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap.....................................13.2 89 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.........................................................11.3 98 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science.............................384.3 64 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary......................................................15.2 72 2.2 Tertiary education.................................................................................37.1 51 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross............................................................43.9 54 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %..................................13.8 83 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................1.1 79 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %......................................7.7 7 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................2.4 93 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..........................................541.0 68 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................0.2 90 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*...........................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................31.1 75 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs)........25.4 97 3.1.1 ICT access*.................................................................................................35.9 90 3.1.2 ICT use*.......................................................................................................12.5 90 3.1.3 Government’s online service*.......................................................42.5 89 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................10.5 94 3.2 General infrastructure.........................................................................26.7 92 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap.....................................................2,368.8 71 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap......................................1,770.6 75 3.2.3 Logistics performance*.....................................................................44.3 78 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP...................................................24.3 53 3.3 Ecological sustainability....................................................................41.2 31 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq....................11.8 5 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................65.9 15 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP ........0.4 88 4 Market sophistication.................................56.8 32 4.1 Credit.............................................................................................................58.4 29 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*.......................................................................81.3 22 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP.............................39.3 82 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP ..................................................7.1 6 4.2 Investment ................................................................................................38.4 30 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*.........................................................76.7 17 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition...........................................................................73.6 92 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %........................................5.1 80 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %....................0.1 23 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................47.6 124 5 Business sophistication..............................21.4 128 5.1 Knowledge workers.............................................................................29.1 118 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................9.3 95 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms....................................19.9 90 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP..........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, % ...........................................................3.3 77 5.1.5 GMAT mean score..............................................................................516.8 63 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34............................................145.4 38 5.2 Innovation linkages .............................................................................10.5 136 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†........................21.3 131 5.2.2 State of cluster development† .....................................................19.1 136 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................7.4 47 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption......................................................................24.6 81 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports.........0.6 96 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................4.4 114 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %.......................3.0 88 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP......................................................................10.6 12 6 Knowledge & technology outputs...........19.2 108 6.1 Knowledge creation...............................................................................2.1 136 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................0.1 104 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................0.1 72 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................0.0 61 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP............................4.8 110 6.1.5 Citable documents H index............................................................34.0 128 6.2 Knowledge impact...............................................................................27.7 90 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................1.0 83 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................1.0 62 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.......................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.5 59 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %....................14.6 63 6.3 Knowledge diffusion...........................................................................19.3 102 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports ..............0.5 52 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.6 85 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.......................4.8 81 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP.....................................................................0.3 67 7 Creative outputs ..........................................26.1 121 7.1 Intangible assets....................................................................................26.8 127 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..........................11.7 78 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................0.1 57 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................51.4 91 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†......................................47.9 88 7.2 Creative goods & services................................................................23.9 104 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 57 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69................................3.1 98 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................0.3 83 7.3 Online creativity.....................................................................................26.8 69 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69...............2.2 87 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69............................................19.8 78 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69.......................1,150.4 64 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69.................................78.7 41 Albania 1 3 4 2 Tocome
- 152. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 128 4 To the far right of each col- umn, a solid circle indicates that an indicator is one of the strengths of the country/economy in question, and a hollow circle indicates that it is a weakness. All top ranks (of 1) are high- lighted as strengths; for the remain- ing indicators, strengths and weak- nesses of a particular economy are based on the percentage of econo- mies with scores that fall below its score (i.e., percent ranks). For a given economy, strengths (l) are those scores with percent ranks greater than the 10th largest percent rank among the 84 indica- tors in that economy. Similarly, for that economy, weaknesses ( ) are those scores with percent ranks lower than the 10th smallest percent rank among the 84 indicators in that economy. Percent ranks embed more infor- mationthanranksandallowforcom- parisons of ranks of series with miss- ing data and ties in ranks. Examples from Australia illustrate this point: 1. Strengths for Australia are all indicators with percent ranks above 0.94 (10th largest percent rank for Australia); weaknesses are all indicators with percent ranks below 0.52 (10th smallest percent rank). 2. Australia ranks 9th out of 142 in 1.2.2 Rule of law; with a percent rank of 0.94, this indicator is a strength for Australia. 3. Australia also ranks 9th in 2.1.4 Assessment in reading, math- ematics, and science, but with a percent rank of 0.88 (because only 70 countries are covered by that indicator), this indicator is not a strength for Australia. 4. In spite of its high rank of 4 in 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit, the percent rank of Australia is only 0.93 because eight other econo- mies are tied with Australia at position 4; thus this indicator is not a strength for Australia. 5. The rank of 77 (percent rank of 0.45) in 6.3.3 Communications, computer and information ser- vices exports (% of total ser- vices exports) is a weakness for Australia. By contrast, the rank of 87 for Lesotho in that same indicator is a strength for Lesotho (percent rank of 0.37, above the cutoff for strengths for Lesotho, which is 0.36). Percent ranks are not reported in the Country/Economy Profiles but are presented in the Data Tables (Appendix II). Notes 1 Data are from the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision. 2 Data for GDP and GDP per capita are from the International Monetary Fund World Economic Outlook 2012 database. 3 Income groups are based on the World Bank Income Group Classification (July 2012): LI = low income; LM = lower-middle income; UM = upper-middle income; and HI = high income. Geographical regions are based on the United Nations Classification (11 February 2013): EUR = Europe; NAC = Northern America; LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean; CSA = Central and Southern Asia; SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania; NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia; and SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa.
- 153. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 129 IndexofCountry/EconomyProfiles Country/Economy Page Albania................................................... 130 Algeria.................................................... 131 Angola.................................................... 132 Argentina.............................................. 133 Armenia................................................. 134 Australia................................................. 135 Austria.................................................... 136 Azerbaijan............................................ 137 Bahrain................................................... 138 Bangladesh......................................... 139 Barbados............................................... 140 Belarus.................................................... 141 Belgium................................................. 142 Belize....................................................... 143 Benin....................................................... 144 Bolivia, Plurinational St................. 145 Bosnia and Herzegovina............. 146 Botswana.............................................. 147 Brazil........................................................ 148 Brunei Darussalam.......................... 149 Bulgaria.................................................. 150 Burkina Faso....................................... 151 Cambodia............................................ 152 Cameroon............................................ 153 Canada................................................... 154 Cape Verde.......................................... 155 Chile......................................................... 156 China....................................................... 157 Colombia.............................................. 158 Costa Rica............................................. 159 Côte d’Ivoire....................................... 160 Croatia.................................................... 161 Cyprus.................................................... 162 Czech Republic................................. 163 Denmark............................................... 164 Dominican Republic..................... 165 Ecuador................................................. 166 Country/Economy Page Egypt....................................................... 167 El Salvador........................................... 168 Estonia.................................................... 169 Ethiopia................................................. 170 Fiji.............................................................. 171 Finland................................................... 172 France..................................................... 173 Gabon..................................................... 174 Gambia.................................................. 175 Georgia.................................................. 176 Germany............................................... 177 Ghana..................................................... 178 Greece.................................................... 179 Guatemala........................................... 180 Guinea.................................................... 181 Guyana................................................... 182 Honduras.............................................. 183 Hong Kong (China)........................ 184 Hungary................................................ 185 Iceland.................................................... 186 India......................................................... 187 Indonesia.............................................. 188 Iran, Islamic Rep............................... 189 Ireland.................................................... 190 Israel......................................................... 191 Italy........................................................... 192 Jamaica.................................................. 193 Japan....................................................... 194 Jordan..................................................... 195 Kazakhstan.......................................... 196 Kenya...................................................... 197 Korea, Rep............................................ 198 Kuwait..................................................... 199 Kyrgyzstan............................................ 200 Latvia....................................................... 201 Lebanon................................................ 202 Lesotho.................................................. 203 Country/Economy Page Lithuania............................................... 204 Luxembourg....................................... 205 Macedonia, FYR................................ 206 Madagascar......................................... 207 Malawi.................................................... 208 Malaysia................................................. 209 Mali........................................................... 210 Malta....................................................... 211 Mauritius............................................... 212 Mexico.................................................... 213 Moldova, Rep..................................... 214 Mongolia.............................................. 215 Montenegro....................................... 216 Morocco................................................ 217 Mozambique...................................... 218 Namibia................................................. 219 Nepal....................................................... 220 Netherlands........................................ 221 New Zealand...................................... 222 Nicaragua............................................. 223 Niger........................................................ 224 Nigeria.................................................... 225 Norway.................................................. 226 Oman...................................................... 227 Pakistan................................................. 228 Panama.................................................. 229 Paraguay............................................... 230 Peru.......................................................... 231 Philippines........................................... 232 Poland.................................................... 233 Portugal................................................. 234 Qatar........................................................ 235 Romania................................................ 236 Russian Fed......................................... 237 Rwanda.................................................. 238 Saudi Arabia....................................... 239 Senegal.................................................. 240 Country/Economy Page Serbia...................................................... 241 Singapore............................................. 242 Slovakia.................................................. 243 Slovenia................................................. 244 South Africa........................................ 245 Spain....................................................... 246 Sri Lanka................................................ 247 Sudan...................................................... 248 Swaziland............................................. 249 Sweden.................................................. 250 Switzerland.......................................... 251 Syrian Arab Rep................................ 252 Tajikistan............................................... 253 Tanzania, United Rep.................... 254 Thailand................................................. 255 Togo......................................................... 256 Trinidad and Tobago..................... 257 Tunisia.................................................... 258 Turkey..................................................... 259 Uganda.................................................. 260 Ukraine................................................... 261 United Arab Emirates................... 262 United Kingdom.............................. 263 United States of America........... 264 Uruguay................................................. 265 Uzbekistan........................................... 266 Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep.......... 267 Viet Nam............................................... 268 Yemen.................................................... 269 Zambia................................................... 270 Zimbabwe........................................... 271
- 154. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 130 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................3.3 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................12.4 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................7,975.9 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 30.9 93 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................22.7 118 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................39.1 77 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 129 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................30.4 90 1 Institutions.....................................................58.9 73 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................53.9 76 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................59.5 83 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................32.9 81 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................69.1 81 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................59.8 89 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................56.9 64 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................33.9 93 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................20.8 97 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................62.9 73 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................91.4 23 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................42.6 59 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................54.7 114 2 Human capital & research...........................27.1 84 2.1 Education....................................................................................................41.8 98 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................13.2 89 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.3 98 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................384.3 64 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................15.2 72 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................37.1 51 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................43.9 54 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................13.8 83 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.1 79 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................7.7 7 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................2.4 93 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................541.0 68 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 90 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................31.1 75 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........25.4 97 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................35.9 90 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................12.5 90 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................42.5 89 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................10.5 94 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................26.7 92 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................2,368.8 71 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,770.6 75 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................44.3 78 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................24.3 53 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................41.2 31 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................11.8 5 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................65.9 15 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.4 88 4 Market sophistication..................................56.8 32 l 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................58.4 29 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................81.3 22 l 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................39.3 82 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................7.1 6 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................38.4 30 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................76.7 17 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................73.6 92 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................5.1 80 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.1 23 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................47.6 124 5 Business sophistication...............................21.4 128 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................29.1 118 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %........................................9.3 95 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................19.9 90 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %............................................................3.3 77 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................516.8 63 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................145.4 38 l 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................10.5 136 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................21.3 131 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................19.1 136 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................7.4 47 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................24.6 81 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.6 96 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................4.4 114 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.0 88 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP.......................................................................10.6 12 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............19.2 108 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................2.1 136 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.1 104 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 72 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.0 61 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................4.8 110 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................34.0 128 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................27.7 90 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.0 83 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................1.0 62 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................6.5 59 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................14.6 63 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................19.3 102 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.5 52 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.6 85 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.8 81 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.3 67 7 Creative outputs...........................................26.1 121 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................26.8 127 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................11.7 78 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.1 57 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................51.4 91 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................47.9 88 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................23.9 104 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 57 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................3.1 98 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.3 83 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................26.8 69 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.2 87 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................19.8 78 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,150.4 64 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................78.7 41 l Albania
- 155. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 131 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................36.8 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................206.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................7,521.7 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 23.1 138 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................14.6 141 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................31.6 112 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.5 141 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................24.4 124 1 Institutions.....................................................47.1 118 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................39.0 127 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................33.0 129 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................20.4 113 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................63.5 101 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................51.7 113 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................19.3 136 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................24.9 114 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................17.3 82 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................50.8 113 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................69.0 115 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................44.8 56 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................38.6 133 2 Human capital & research...........................29.1 79 2.1 Education....................................................................................................58.9 50 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.6 61 l 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................20.8 94 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................27.1 79 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................32.1 74 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................25.0 24 l 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.5 91 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.6 90 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................1.4 107 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................419.8 70 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.1 100 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................25.7 93 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........19.6 111 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................35.3 92 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................12.5 92 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................25.5 125 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................5.3 111 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................30.7 62 l 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................1,284.5 87 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,026.3 93 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................35.3 120 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................38.1 7 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................26.7 85 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................6.6 57 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................48.6 83 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.3 102 4 Market sophistication..................................38.4 114 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................24.3 110 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................14.8 133 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................27.8 59 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................55.6 70 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................63.2 118 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................8.6 113 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.2 32 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................35.8 136 5 Business sophistication...............................17.7 139 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................27.0 121 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................19.1 68 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................17.3 93 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................456.0 107 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34...................................................3.0 137 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................10.7 135 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................14.2 136 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................20.5 135 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 75 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................15.4 124 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.7 90 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................9.6 55 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................1.0 125 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.4 110 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............17.6 115 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................5.1 107 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.4 90 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 88 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.7 87 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................74.0 80 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................25.3 102 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.0 84 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.2 93 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.0 119 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................16.2 120 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.1 86 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.0 122 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.0 80 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.3 69 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................11.6 140 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................11.4 137 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..............................7.2 85 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.0 65 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................23.0 136 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................18.6 136 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................8.7 130 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 63 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................14.0 40 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 120 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................14.9 116 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.4 121 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................2.2 121 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................214.4 106 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................55.8 104 Algeria
- 156. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 132 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................20.2 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................114.8 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................6,244.1 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 23.5 135 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................22.7 117 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................24.2 140 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 22 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................22.2 135 1 Institutions.....................................................40.0 136 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................42.4 122 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................58.0 87 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*................................................................7.0 137 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................62.2 105 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................35.6 135 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................20.8 135 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................14.0 133 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................31.0 130 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................42.0 134 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................59.9 130 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*............................................................9.4 137 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................56.7 110 2 Human capital & research...........................14.0 126 2.1 Education....................................................................................................20.9 135 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.6 79 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................11.3 100 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................10.2 113 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................38.7 126 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................21.3 97 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross................................................................3.7 129 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................11.9 89 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................9.9 18 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.4 107 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................18.2 129 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........14.9 125 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................18.6 128 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................5.3 112 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................33.3 109 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................2.6 116 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................12.2 140 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................275.5 114 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................247.9 114 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................32.0 127 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................11.7 138 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................27.6 78 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.7 44 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................47.6 87 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.0 133 4 Market sophistication..................................36.9 121 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................17.3 135 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................21.1 115 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.0 85 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................29.5 50 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................58.9 56 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................64.1 115 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................7.4 102 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.5 57 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................36.1 135 5 Business sophistication...............................11.8 141 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................19.5 137 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................23.5 83 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................370.0 137 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34...................................................2.6 138 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................11.0 134 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................17.8 133 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................23.6 132 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 102 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption..........................................................................5.0 141 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.0 122 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................2.3 98 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP.......................................................................–2.9 142 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............27.2 62 l 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................0.6 142 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................0.3 141 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................23.0 138 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................29.4 87 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................0.1 97 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.3 134 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................38.2 26 l 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............3.6 18 l 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.4 76 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................2.0 31 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................18.3 137 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................30.3 120 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................27.3 134 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................33.3 127 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................0.7 140 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.4 128 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................11.7 124 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.2 128 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................0.4 132 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................47.1 122 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................46.0 118 Angola
- 157. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 133 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................42.2 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................474.8 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................18,205.1 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 37.7 56 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................36.6 43 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................38.8 78 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 20 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................34.4 70 1 Institutions.....................................................50.7 106 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................59.8 59 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................71.0 57 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................34.0 80 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................74.3 45 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................43.2 127 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................30.4 123 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................32.1 101 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................30.3 127 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................49.1 117 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................69.8 113 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................33.3 84 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................44.1 127 2 Human capital & research...........................36.7 51 2.1 Education....................................................................................................58.0 55 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.7 25 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................18.8 64 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................16.4 15 l 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................395.7 60 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................10.9 32 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................29.4 75 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................74.8 14 l 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................13.5 84 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.3 115 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................22.5 36 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,831.6 38 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.6 51 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................39.9 31 l 3 Infrastructure................................................35.0 63 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........41.3 57 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................56.6 55 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................26.7 56 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................52.9 59 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................29.0 52 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................30.4 64 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................3,099.8 63 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................2,904.5 62 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................51.3 48 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................24.2 55 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................33.4 57 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.8 42 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................56.5 49 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.1 57 4 Market sophistication..................................37.3 120 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................22.8 121 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................62.5 68 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................16.6 127 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.0 87 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................17.0 113 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................47.4 102 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................................9.8 91 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.6 79 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 61 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................72.2 99 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................6.2 93 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.3 40 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................51.2 114 5 Business sophistication...............................34.2 55 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................48.3 52 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................19.0 69 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................63.6 9 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.1 53 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................22.3 62 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................597.7 3 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................31.2 102 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................16.9 115 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................46.0 55 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................39.9 87 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................0.6 82 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 104 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.1 45 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................37.4 26 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports.......10.6 7 l 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................13.3 26 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................6.2 41 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.6 107 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............25.6 74 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................16.3 56 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................1.4 60 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................10.3 73 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................206.0 35 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................26.4 97 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.9 60 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.5 87 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 68 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................6.6 57 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................29.6 47 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.2 34 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................2.4 57 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................13.3 27 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.3 65 7 Creative outputs...........................................47.5 29 l 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................51.3 38 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................51.4 92 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................51.3 77 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................47.9 26 l 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................2.1 7 l 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................3.6 42 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................4.2 90 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.2 89 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................39.2 40 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................3.7 71 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................61.6 17 l 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................2,203.1 50 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................78.8 40 Argentina
- 158. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 134 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................3.2 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................10.6 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................5,637.2 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 37.6 59 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................34.8 47 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................40.4 71 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 42 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................34.5 69 1 Institutions.....................................................65.7 57 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................57.3 63 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................63.8 75 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................36.0 74 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................72.0 61 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................70.2 51 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................56.4 65 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................36.4 81 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................11.0 45 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................69.6 49 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................94.7 12 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................44.2 57 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................69.9 68 2 Human capital & research...........................31.5 71 2.1 Education....................................................................................................56.8 59 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................16.3 75 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................12.0 85 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................6.7 2 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................31.3 66 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................48.9 48 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................15.9 71 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................3.0 47 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................2.0 53 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................6.5 74 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,796.4 40 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.3 71 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................25.5 97 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........22.2 102 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................40.7 79 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................15.5 82 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................32.7 111 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................0.0 129 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................28.6 77 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................2,100.6 77 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,606.4 79 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................39.0 98 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................30.7 21 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................25.6 89 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................6.2 65 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................47.5 89 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 110 4 Market sophistication..................................50.0 48 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................54.5 35 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................75.0 38 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................35.0 90 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................6.8 7 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................17.2 111 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................68.9 27 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................................0.4 107 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.0 107 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................78.3 56 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................2.3 45 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.1 24 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................47.5 126 5 Business sophistication...............................29.3 84 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................48.3 51 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................30.4 65 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................490.1 85 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................210.7 29 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................18.4 113 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................31.6 117 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.6 75 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................4.2 61 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 39 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................21.3 97 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports.........n/a n/a 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................5.9 95 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................1.7 112 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................6.5 29 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............28.3 58 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................26.2 37 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................7.1 23 l 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.4 40 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................2.5 15 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................40.7 17 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................98.0 61 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................29.1 88 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................3.8 29 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................1.1 58 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.9 95 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %........................5.8 84 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................28.5 50 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports..............n/a n/a 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.6 86 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................12.3 30 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.8 53 7 Creative outputs...........................................41.3 53 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................45.4 59 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................88.9 8 l 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.3 25 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................57.2 68 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................53.2 65 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................41.3 49 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.5 22 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................2.3 56 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................2.0 106 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................3.0 18 l 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.8 58 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................33.0 52 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................1.7 91 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................32.4 54 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................3,962.7 39 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................75.1 59 Armenia
- 159. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 135 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................23.8 GDP (US$ billions)............................................................................................................1,542.1 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................42,354.2 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.............................................................................................South East Asia and Oceania Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 53.1 19 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................42.0 32 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................64.1 11 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 116 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................51.9 23 1 Institutions.....................................................89.4 11 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................86.1 14 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................87.4 29 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................86.1 10 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................84.8 24 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................94.5 14 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................96.3 8 l 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................95.2 9 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................11.3 47 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................87.5 11 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................97.9 3 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................85.7 17 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................78.9 37 2 Human capital & research...........................57.8 11 2.1 Education....................................................................................................60.0 47 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.8 48 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................19.2 60 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................19.6 2 l 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................518.8 9 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.........................................................n/a n/a 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................44.3 29 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................79.9 9 l 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................16.6 65 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %...........................................................21.2 6 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.7 86 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................69.1 7 l 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................2.4 13 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................84.0 4 l 3 Infrastructure................................................52.7 16 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........73.9 13 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................76.6 19 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................56.4 19 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................86.3 9 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................76.3 8 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................49.4 11 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap................................................... 10,431.0 12 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................9,792.5 13 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................68.3 18 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................28.4 27 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................34.7 54 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.0 50 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................56.6 47 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........2.1 41 4 Market sophistication..................................72.7 9 l 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................77.1 12 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................93.8 4 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................127.8 19 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................52.7 13 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................57.4 65 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................86.9 17 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................90.4 11 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 26 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................88.2 5 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.9 42 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.6 58 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................80.9 5 l 5 Business sophistication...............................48.2 18 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................73.5 3 l 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................42.9 7 l 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.4 15 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................61.9 9 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................591.7 6 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................188.2 33 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................37.6 36 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................68.3 12 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................53.9 34 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................1.6 74 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 19 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.9 21 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................33.6 43 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........6.7 19 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................13.6 25 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.4 74 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.9 43 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............30.9 46 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................33.4 28 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................2.6 47 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................1.8 25 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................1.3 23 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................45.2 13 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................481.0 11 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................34.5 66 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................0.3 93 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................6.2 19 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 30 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................10.6 44 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................22.0 48 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................26.1 63 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.8 26 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................2.1 60 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.3 77 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................2.2 29 7 Creative outputs...........................................53.1 17 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................43.8 65 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................46.5 36 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.0 28 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................68.7 27 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................64.3 27 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................54.0 15 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.4 27 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................2.7 51 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................15.1 32 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................6.1 6 l 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.8 59 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................70.6 9 l 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............91.6 7 l 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................69.4 15 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................6,109.7 27 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................85.9 15 Australia
- 160. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 136 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................8.8 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................391.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................42,477.5 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 51.9 23 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................43.2 27 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................60.6 17 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 98 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................53.1 22 1 Institutions.....................................................88.5 13 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................89.9 9 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................95.3 11 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................83.9 14 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................90.6 10 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................95.6 9 l 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................86.5 17 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................96.0 7 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................80.0 22 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................79.5 86 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................88.4 12 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................72.1 57 2 Human capital & research...........................58.7 10 l 2.1 Education....................................................................................................66.8 24 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.8 24 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................29.4 9 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................15.6 27 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................486.8 29 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................10.0 26 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................55.2 9 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................68.2 21 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................29.0 13 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %...........................................................19.6 9 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................2.5 38 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................54.2 14 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................7,090.0 8 l 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................2.8 9 l 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................45.2 26 3 Infrastructure................................................50.3 21 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........62.4 24 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................78.8 15 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................59.7 15 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................74.5 26 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................36.8 41 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................44.0 19 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................7,426.6 27 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................8,433.7 16 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................72.3 11 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................23.0 70 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................44.3 22 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................9.4 21 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................68.9 7 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........2.8 36 4 Market sophistication..................................60.1 24 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................68.9 18 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................81.3 22 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................119.8 23 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................29.0 55 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................51.9 85 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................19.7 71 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................9.3 44 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.1 25 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................82.4 23 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................80.5 6 l 5 Business sophistication...............................45.2 29 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................60.1 31 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................25.5 46 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.9 10 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................44.6 33 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................579.9 14 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................210.2 30 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................43.3 23 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................64.8 21 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................62.3 16 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................15.5 22 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 63 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................2.0 12 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................32.3 46 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........3.9 37 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................9.9 50 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................7.0 39 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................3.8 63 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............36.8 30 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................37.6 22 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................11.1 14 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................3.7 12 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................1.8 19 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................33.7 25 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................355.0 16 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................40.5 46 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.5 72 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.6 84 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.6 11 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................11.8 41 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................36.5 25 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................32.8 39 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.3 32 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................10.5 24 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................6.5 65 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................6.1 9 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................49.5 18 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................46.3 50 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................21.9 62 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................2.9 7 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................67.3 32 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................57.7 48 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................43.6 41 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 47 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................8.8 18 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................32.5 9 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.8 49 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.9 36 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................61.9 19 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............55.6 16 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................72.3 8 l 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................6,634.8 22 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................81.2 35 Austria
- 161. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 137 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................9.5 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................71.0 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................10,685.0 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 29.0 105 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................22.9 114 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................35.1 92 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 117 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................30.4 89 1 Institutions.....................................................52.7 99 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................40.4 123 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................52.2 100 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................16.8 121 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................52.3 125 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................52.0 111 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................39.2 104 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................23.6 119 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................21.7 99 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................65.7 63 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................89.3 33 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................33.1 85 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................74.6 52 2 Human capital & research...........................25.5 94 2.1 Education....................................................................................................41.6 99 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................2.9 94 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................13.6 87 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.8 91 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................388.6 62 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................9.0 16 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................23.9 83 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................19.6 91 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................16.2 66 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................2.8 50 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.2 71 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................11.1 63 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,217.8 48 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 73 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................18.7 51 l 3 Infrastructure................................................25.1 99 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........29.1 84 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................46.3 69 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................20.2 69 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................36.6 101 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................13.2 84 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................21.0 118 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................2,067.4 78 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,604.6 80 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................37.0 110 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................19.4 101 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................25.1 91 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................6.8 52 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................43.1 106 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 112 4 Market sophistication..................................48.4 55 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................35.3 77 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................18.0 123 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................2.8 20 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................34.3 36 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................68.5 30 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................75.7 77 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................3.9 68 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 7 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................47.1 127 5 Business sophistication...............................23.7 118 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................29.9 115 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................20.3 62 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................10.5 101 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.1 66 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................24.8 59 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................521.8 55 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................49.2 83 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................15.3 121 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................40.5 80 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................46.5 59 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................0.1 87 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 92 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................25.9 77 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.3 109 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................11.2 38 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................2.1 102 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................7.1 24 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............13.7 126 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.0 118 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................2.3 49 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 78 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.1 54 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................5.1 104 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................41.0 120 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................17.9 118 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %.........................................–1.3 112 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.6 80 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.3 110 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %........................6.8 82 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................14.3 127 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 111 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.2 105 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................2.7 107 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.8 49 7 Creative outputs...........................................32.1 94 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................41.6 79 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.0 62 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................64.5 40 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................60.0 38 l 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................20.7 114 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.....................................22.5 4 l 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................1.8 109 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................0.9 82 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 117 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................24.5 79 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................3.8 70 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................16.6 84 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................2,049.2 52 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................65.9 85 Azerbaijan
- 162. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 138 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................1.4 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................26.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................28,182.1 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 36.1 67 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................27.7 90 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................44.5 47 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 123 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................41.1 41 1 Institutions.....................................................69.9 46 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................48.0 93 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................50.4 103 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................56.3 43 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................37.3 134 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................81.8 29 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................70.5 37 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................56.5 51 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................80.0 22 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................76.6 97 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................70.4 25 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................93.0 7 l 2 Human capital & research...........................27.8 82 2.1 Education....................................................................................................33.5 118 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.0 91 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................13.3 88 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.4 46 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.........................................................n/a n/a 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................43.9 33 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................29.8 76 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................17.9 58 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %...........................................................20.5 7 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................4.7 16 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................6.1 77 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................6.1 64 3 Infrastructure................................................39.8 45 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........66.1 22 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................69.4 31 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................43.0 31 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................86.3 9 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................65.8 19 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................42.7 25 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap................................................... 10,500.0 11 l 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................9,813.0 12 l 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................51.3 48 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................26.6 34 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................10.6 125 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................2.7 115 3.3.2 Environmental performance*..........................................................n/a n/a 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.3 53 4 Market sophistication..................................47.6 59 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................39.3 64 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................75.9 43 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................24.5 78 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................54.8 75 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................89.0 15 l 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................1.3 71 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................79.0 49 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................3.6 61 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.6 90 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................72.9 31 5 Business sophistication...............................37.5 43 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................47.0 57 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................20.7 60 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................464.2 99 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................116.2 48 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................47.4 17 l 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................33.7 112 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................56.0 26 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.7 1 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................18.0 113 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports.........n/a n/a 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................7.7 73 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.1 85 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................0.7 127 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............26.1 72 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................2.6 133 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.0 114 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 76 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................3.5 118 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................36.0 126 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................27.7 91 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %.........................................–1.7 113 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.4 22 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................6.0 62 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................36.2 31 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports..............n/a n/a 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.0 119 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................20.6 12 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................1.5 41 7 Creative outputs...........................................29.4 111 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................33.7 107 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................13.5 75 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.1 58 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................66.8 34 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................59.3 39 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................21.1 112 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................20.7 21 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 115 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................29.3 63 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................6.1 55 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................22.7 72 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,997.7 53 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................76.9 54 Bahrain
- 163. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 139 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..........................................................................................................153.5 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................118.7 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................2,036.2 Income group............................................................................................................Low income Region................................................................................................Central and Southern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 24.5 130 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................22.4 119 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................26.6 135 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 46 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................26.1 112 1 Institutions.....................................................45.3 127 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................34.1 136 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................29.4 134 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................15.0 127 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................58.0 116 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................40.9 130 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................28.4 127 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................27.8 109 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................31.0 129 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................60.9 81 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................82.6 73 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................27.8 106 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................72.2 56 l 2 Human capital & research...........................11.7 138 2.1 Education....................................................................................................18.6 137 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................1.8 108 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................10.7 102 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years............................................................n/a n/a 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................28.3 114 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................10.9 122 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................10.6 106 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................13.4 85 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.1 105 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.1 132 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................5.4 81 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................5.4 65 l 3 Infrastructure................................................22.6 109 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........18.2 114 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................19.1 122 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................1.3 130 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................44.4 85 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................7.9 99 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................24.6 103 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................284.8 113 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................278.9 111 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................43.5 83 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................25.8 39 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................25.1 92 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.1 48 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................42.6 110 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.1 127 4 Market sophistication..................................35.6 126 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................34.9 78 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................48.8 68 l 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................2.5 21 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................22.7 86 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................69.3 26 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................21.0 69 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................16.2 33 l 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................49.1 136 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................13.0 132 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................4.4 134 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................61.0 82 5 Business sophistication...............................17.8 138 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................27.8 120 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %........................................7.3 99 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................492.5 82 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................11.1 124 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................18.4 112 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................26.3 124 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................44.3 67 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 100 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption..........................................................................7.3 140 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.2 112 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................0.6 134 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................0.7 126 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............24.5 80 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................5.8 100 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.1 106 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................4.1 113 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................89.0 68 l 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................25.9 101 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................3.9 28 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.1 98 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 73 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.6 124 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................32.6 40 l 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 100 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................17.3 18 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.0 107 7 Creative outputs...........................................20.4 131 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................31.0 116 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.2 90 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................49.7 98 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................42.6 109 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................7.7 134 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 61 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.7 85 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................1.5 110 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................11.7 123 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.5 116 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................0.7 131 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................75.8 114 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................45.4 120 Bangladesh
- 164. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 140 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................0.3 GDP (US$ billions)...................................................................................................................4.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................25,509.6 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 40.5 47 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................34.3 49 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................46.7 42 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 91 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework)..................................n/a n/a 1 Institutions.....................................................79.3 22 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................88.2 12 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................97.9 5 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................78.6 19 1.1.3 Press freedom*...........................................................................................n/a n/a 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................77.1 40 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................65.5 44 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................75.1 28 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................16.0 77 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................72.5 38 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................83.1 71 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................69.3 26 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................65.0 89 2 Human capital & research...........................40.1 38 2.1 Education....................................................................................................71.2 11 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................7.2 9 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................31.7 5 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................16.6 13 l 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................14.6 66 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................49.2 18 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................61.8 32 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................15.0 80 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %...........................................................13.8 14 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................6.3 12 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................18.0 131 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........40.2 59 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................71.5 27 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................49.2 27 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................37.3 99 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................2.6 116 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................11.9 141 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap...............................................................n/a n/a 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap................................................n/a n/a 3.2.3 Logistics performance*........................................................................n/a n/a 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................16.3 122 3.3 Ecological sustainability........................................................................2.1 130 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.......................n/a n/a 3.3.2 Environmental performance*..........................................................n/a n/a 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.3 96 4 Market sophistication..................................46.1 69 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................52.2 40 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................102.9 31 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................23.0 85 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................30.4 136 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP......................................................124.1 6 l 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................3.3 58 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................63.0 119 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................14.8 137 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 15 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................64.3 70 5 Business sophistication...............................49.9 15 l 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................64.4 22 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.3 32 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................511.0 68 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................339.5 15 l 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................48.7 16 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................54.6 36 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................47.0 57 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................4.8 5 l 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................36.8 31 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.6 56 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.3 54 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................9.1 16 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............30.5 47 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................29.9 33 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.1 99 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP......................................23.6 1 l 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................9.7 75 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................46.0 112 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................38.3 50 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.5 74 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................6.1 61 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................23.0 88 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.2 70 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................2.3 113 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................8.3 7 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................38.0 67 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................38.4 92 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP..............................3.2 89 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................59.2 61 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................54.1 62 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................43.5 42 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................23.8 18 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................32.0 54 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............14.2 40 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................21.2 74 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,613.7 57 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................83.1 25 Barbados
- 165. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 141 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................9.8 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................58.2 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................16,008.3 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 34.6 77 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................29.8 79 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................39.5 75 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 82 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................32.9 78 1 Institutions.....................................................50.4 107 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................39.7 124 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................59.1 84 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*................................................................8.4 133 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................51.7 126 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................45.3 122 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................18.0 137 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................18.2 130 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................21.7 99 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................66.2 61 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................91.7 20 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................46.1 52 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................60.7 97 2 Human capital & research...........................38.1 43 2.1 Education....................................................................................................52.2 74 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.0 43 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................25.0 28 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................15.3 33 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.........................................................n/a n/a 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................49.4 17 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................85.2 6 l 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................26.5 16 l 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.7 61 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................4.3 20 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................12.7 55 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................2,134.8 35 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.6 46 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................7.7 59 3 Infrastructure................................................31.1 74 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........35.5 70 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................61.3 48 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................31.7 49 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................41.2 93 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................7.9 99 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................32.7 53 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................3,677.0 56 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................3,563.5 54 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................40.3 91 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................32.5 15 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................25.2 90 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................4.3 95 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................53.9 63 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.4 89 4 Market sophistication..................................50.4 47 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................34.1 81 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................50.0 93 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................42.0 77 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................26.9 66 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................53.7 79 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................90.2 2 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................2.1 43 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.8 64 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.......................................................n/a n/a 5 Business sophistication...............................27.3 100 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................49.0 48 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.3 33 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................44.4 39 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.3 39 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................28.8 54 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................560.3 30 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................54.5 78 5.2 Innovation linkages.................................................................................7.8 139 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†...........................n/a n/a 5.2.2 State of cluster development†........................................................n/a n/a 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................8.5 42 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 99 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 62 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................25.1 80 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.8 52 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................3.5 121 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.1 58 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................7.3 23 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............29.1 54 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................34.1 27 l 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................12.6 10 l 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 70 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................7.2 7 l 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................7.5 84 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................96.0 64 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................34.1 69 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................5.1 15 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.9 66 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.2 116 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................14.5 64 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................21.6 94 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.4 60 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................1.2 73 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................8.8 48 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 86 7 Creative outputs...........................................30.4 102 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................35.0 101 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................69.5 19 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.9 15 l 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†.....................................................n/a n/a 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.........................................n/a n/a 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................28.3 91 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 55 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.1 100 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................25.4 15 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.3 81 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................23.4 84 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................1.6 93 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................4.3 113 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................2,704.7 49 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................72.1 68 Belarus
- 166. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 142 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................11.4 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................476.8 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................38,089.4 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 52.5 21 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................45.5 22 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................59.5 22 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 75 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................54.3 20 1 Institutions.....................................................88.2 15 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................86.3 13 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................87.7 27 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................84.1 13 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................87.1 19 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................92.1 16 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................82.3 22 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................86.3 20 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................86.3 13 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................94.3 13 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................94.0 7 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................70.6 64 2 Human capital & research...........................54.0 20 2.1 Education....................................................................................................72.9 6 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................6.4 16 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................29.3 10 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................16.5 14 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................509.3 14 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................6.5 1 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................39.6 47 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................70.6 19 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................16.1 68 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................8.1 19 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.8 58 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................49.4 18 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................5,239.5 17 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................2.0 17 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................62.0 15 3 Infrastructure................................................44.1 31 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........53.1 37 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................77.2 18 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................57.3 18 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................64.7 39 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................13.2 84 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................43.9 20 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................8,050.5 22 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................8,005.3 19 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................74.5 7 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................21.2 79 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................35.2 50 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................6.5 60 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................63.0 24 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.7 45 4 Market sophistication..................................57.9 27 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................52.8 39 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................62.5 68 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................92.6 35 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................37.9 31 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................72.2 21 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................44.8 44 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................20.9 30 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 32 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................83.1 18 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................82.7 3 l 5 Business sophistication...............................53.3 8 l 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................65.2 18 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................31.8 27 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.4 16 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................58.6 13 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................592.8 5 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................178.6 35 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................42.3 25 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................75.4 6 l 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................61.2 19 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................12.1 30 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 54 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................1.4 17 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................52.4 4 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.8 54 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................8.6 61 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................8.3 20 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP.......................................................................19.9 1 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............41.8 20 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................48.0 15 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................6.4 26 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................2.9 16 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................41.8 16 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................428.0 13 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................41.0 42 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.0 87 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................3.0 37 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.7 8 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................7.8 50 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................32.8 30 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................39.4 25 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............2.6 22 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................8.5 27 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................10.5 36 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP...................................................................15.8 4 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................49.2 20 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................45.6 57 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................40.4 43 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.7 20 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................67.8 30 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................64.0 29 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................46.2 31 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.6 17 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................6.3 24 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................17.9 26 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.7 50 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.9 38 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................59.6 22 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............26.8 28 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................71.2 12 l 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................9,627.1 9 l 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................84.6 19 Belgium
- 167. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 143 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................0.3 GDP (US$ billions)...................................................................................................................1.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................8,357.8 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 30.0 102 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................25.2 102 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................34.7 95 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 93 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................32.5 80 1 Institutions.....................................................62.2 65 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................48.1 92 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................67.6 67 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................28.6 89 1.1.3 Press freedom*...........................................................................................n/a n/a 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................67.0 69 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................35.5 111 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................33.6 96 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.3 23 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................71.5 40 l 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................70.6 112 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................68.1 28 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................75.9 44 l 2 Human capital & research...........................25.1 96 2.1 Education....................................................................................................52.1 75 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.1 40 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................22.1 46 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.1 72 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................16.3 77 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................23.3 88 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................21.4 88 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................2.6 34 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................18.1 130 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........29.1 83 3.1.1 ICT access*....................................................................................................n/a n/a 3.1.2 ICT use*..........................................................................................................n/a n/a 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................39.9 95 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................18.4 72 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................16.9 137 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap...............................................................n/a n/a 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap................................................n/a n/a 3.2.3 Logistics performance*........................................................................n/a n/a 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................19.0 104 3.3 Ecological sustainability........................................................................8.1 126 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.......................n/a n/a 3.3.2 Environmental performance*..........................................................n/a n/a 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.1 58 4 Market sophistication..................................39.9 107 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................27.3 105 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................60.3 54 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.0 38 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................22.4 87 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................44.8 108 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................70.0 105 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................6.4 94 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.0 73 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................53.7 106 5 Business sophistication...............................28.3 93 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................51.8 45 l 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................20.4 61 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................494.8 80 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................247.2 26 l 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................12.7 131 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................24.2 127 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................26.5 130 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................20.5 102 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.2 76 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................4.8 111 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.2 80 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................6.3 31 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............15.8 122 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................6.6 92 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.4 83 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.7 34 l 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................4.8 108 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................24.0 137 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................17.1 119 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................4.5 24 l 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.4 106 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................19.0 104 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.7 44 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.1 114 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.0 95 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.0 94 7 Creative outputs...........................................34.7 85 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................28.1 124 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................32.8 130 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................23.3 135 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................13.5 125 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69................................n/a n/a 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 113 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................69.2 11 l 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69..........100.0 1 l 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................74.8 6 l 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................3,235.7 44 l 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................83.1 26 l Belize
- 168. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 144 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................9.4 GDP (US$ billions)...................................................................................................................7.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................1,658.0 Income group............................................................................................................Low income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 25.1 127 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................20.4 130 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................29.8 121 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 106 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................24.4 125 1 Institutions.....................................................53.3 96 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................56.7 69 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................72.7 54 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................25.7 98 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................71.7 65 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................63.4 78 l 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................40.7 98 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................27.4 111 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................11.6 51 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................39.9 136 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................60.3 129 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................22.2 117 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................37.1 134 2 Human capital & research...........................15.6 123 2.1 Education....................................................................................................36.4 111 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.7 50 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................17.0 72 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.............................................................9.4 117 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................23.9 101 2.2 Tertiary education.....................................................................................9.9 124 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................10.6 105 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %......................................9.2 96 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.5 101 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.4 115 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................123.3 89 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................22.5 110 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........13.8 130 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................23.6 115 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................4.0 116 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................19.6 133 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................7.9 99 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................21.1 117 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap.............................................................16.9 125 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap..............................................99.2 122 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................46.3 66 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................19.1 102 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................32.6 58 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................3.4 106 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................50.4 77 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP........n/a n/a 4 Market sophistication..................................28.0 140 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................24.3 112 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................24.5 108 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.8 25 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................16.9 115 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................33.7 129 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................42.7 140 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................15.4 139 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................4.7 136 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................57.9 90 5 Business sophistication...............................29.6 83 l 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................39.9 85 l 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................32.4 57 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................467.0 96 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................20.4 116 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................19.6 104 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................34.1 111 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................29.6 127 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 56 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................29.2 58 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.6 97 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................8.5 19 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.6 105 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............11.6 134 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................7.4 84 l 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.7 74 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................14.9 56 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................45.0 114 6.2 Knowledge impact...................................................................................1.4 140 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.7 122 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................24.0 83 l 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 113 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................8.7 51 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP...................................................................–0.3 120 7 Creative outputs...........................................29.2 112 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................50.2 43 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................58.9 62 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................41.5 114 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................1.4 137 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 71 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................1.1 117 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................15.2 115 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.5 115 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................1.0 129 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69.................................n/a n/a 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................44.1 121 Benin
- 169. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 145 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................10.3 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................26.7 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................5,016.9 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 30.5 95 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................28.5 86 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................32.5 106 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 37 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................25.8 114 1 Institutions.....................................................33.0 140 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................49.3 89 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................53.8 97 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................27.0 92 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................67.2 87 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................12.5 140 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................30.1 124 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................20.1 125 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................82.3 138 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................37.1 139 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................55.9 133 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................41.9 61 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................13.4 141 2 Human capital & research...........................26.7 90 2.1 Education....................................................................................................55.4 62 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................7.2 10 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................17.9 69 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.5 66 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................18.2 90 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................23.2 89 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................38.6 64 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.0 79 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................1.6 105 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................199.2 78 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 88 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................25.2 98 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........25.9 94 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................32.3 101 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................9.0 100 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................41.2 93 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................21.1 64 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................20.6 123 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................693.3 102 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................616.4 104 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................40.3 91 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................19.9 92 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................29.3 71 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................5.9 70 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................54.6 60 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.9 63 4 Market sophistication..................................46.3 67 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................53.8 37 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................40.9 79 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP................................................13.5 1 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................12.5 137 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................41.9 116 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................17.2 77 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.1 101 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................72.6 97 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................5.4 84 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 11 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................45.1 130 5 Business sophistication...............................31.3 72 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................41.0 74 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................14.3 85 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................57.1 17 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %............................................................0.5 84 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................501.1 74 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................29.2 103 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................28.8 56 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................39.1 86 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................40.1 85 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................18.6 17 l 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 82 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................n/a n/a 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................24.0 87 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.3 73 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................10.1 48 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.7 73 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................3.6 65 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............21.9 91 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................5.5 102 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................3.1 122 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................57.0 94 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................26.9 95 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................2.7 43 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.5 86 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 63 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................3.5 78 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................25.2 73 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.9 39 l 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.5 89 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................11.1 34 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.0 108 7 Creative outputs...........................................35.0 83 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................43.1 71 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................42.0 125 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................44.3 98 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................34.9 67 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.2 40 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................4.2 34 l 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................2.6 103 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.6 64 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................19.0 99 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................3.9 69 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................11.4 97 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................394.8 95 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................58.4 100 Bolivia(PlurinationalStateof)
- 170. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 146 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................3.9 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................16.6 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................8,260.7 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 36.2 65 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................29.9 78 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................42.5 58 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 103 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................34.2 72 1 Institutions.....................................................57.2 82 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................44.9 105 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................44.0 116 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................17.6 119 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................73.1 55 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................70.6 50 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................48.5 76 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................38.7 76 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................9.2 32 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................56.1 94 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................71.4 107 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................38.2 75 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................58.8 103 2 Human capital & research...........................38.2 42 l 2.1 Education....................................................................................................70.5 14 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.6 63 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................12.5 49 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................42.2 39 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................38.1 66 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................4.8 33 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................4.2 21 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................2.0 96 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................781.4 58 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.0 107 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................28.2 84 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........26.2 93 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................46.7 67 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................20.7 67 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................37.3 99 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................0.0 129 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................27.9 79 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................4,554.3 49 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................3,109.8 59 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................49.8 55 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................18.8 105 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................30.4 67 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................4.3 94 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................36.8 116 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........4.7 23 l 4 Market sophistication..................................48.1 58 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................40.2 60 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................62.5 68 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................54.8 60 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................3.1 19 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................26.1 67 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................52.2 82 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................77.9 59 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.8 40 l 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 20 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................43.4 132 5 Business sophistication...............................41.0 37 l 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................62.6 29 l 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................66.5 6 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................450.2 109 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................47.7 85 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................22.9 82 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................48.3 46 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................38.6 96 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 90 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................37.6 25 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.9 85 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................4.8 109 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %.....................15.7 2 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.1 88 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............30.3 50 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................7.0 88 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................1.4 61 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.3 52 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.4 41 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................13.2 63 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................40.0 121 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................46.2 27 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................2.0 57 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.7 77 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................35.4 8 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................26.0 66 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.0 37 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................1.6 68 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................10.5 37 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 82 7 Creative outputs...........................................29.6 108 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................26.8 126 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................11.3 81 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.4 42 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................48.0 102 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................46.9 90 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................34.4 70 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................2.5 54 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................6.7 72 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.3 82 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................30.3 58 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.4 83 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................24.7 67 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................2,752.0 48 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................78.2 44 BosniaandHerzegovina
- 171. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 147 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................2.1 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................17.6 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................16,792.9 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 31.1 91 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................21.1 125 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................41.2 65 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.5 136 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................31.4 85 1 Institutions.....................................................71.5 42 l 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................73.9 34 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................91.6 18 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................53.1 47 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................77.1 36 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................68.1 63 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................62.7 48 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................64.9 41 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................21.7 102 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................72.5 37 l 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................71.0 109 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................69.0 27 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................77.4 41 l 2 Human capital & research...........................32.5 63 2.1 Education....................................................................................................62.5 39 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................7.6 7 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................27.9 14 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.8 90 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................13.9 60 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................29.0 76 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross................................................................7.4 118 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................4.2 37 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................3.6 27 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................6.1 76 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................923.4 55 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.5 57 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................27.7 88 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........21.4 106 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................35.0 93 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................12.0 93 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................36.0 104 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................2.6 116 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................26.4 94 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................227.4 116 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,586.4 81 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................46.0 68 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................25.8 38 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................35.3 48 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................11.0 9 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................53.7 64 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 116 4 Market sophistication..................................44.2 80 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................39.2 65 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................24.3 109 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................18.7 103 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................63.0 39 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................23.7 65 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.8 75 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................74.6 84 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................5.2 82 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.2 80 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................63.3 74 5 Business sophistication...............................30.0 82 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................39.6 86 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................17.1 77 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................51.9 26 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.1 60 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................445.4 111 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................54.1 80 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................23.3 80 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................44.6 62 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.5 76 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 79 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................27.1 70 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.3 72 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................6.1 43 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................3.4 66 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............22.7 88 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.7 110 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................5.6 100 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................54.0 99 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................33.1 75 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................9.4 9 l 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.6 126 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................21.4 96 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 95 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.5 75 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.0 106 7 Creative outputs...........................................19.5 134 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................30.2 121 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.1 55 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................47.0 106 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................41.6 113 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................1.5 136 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.9 119 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................16.0 110 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.4 117 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................3.8 115 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................376.7 97 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................57.8 102 Botswana
- 172. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 148 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..........................................................................................................201.5 GDP (US$ billions)............................................................................................................2,425.1 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................12,038.5 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 36.3 64 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................31.8 68 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................40.8 67 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 69 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................36.6 58 1 Institutions.....................................................53.8 95 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................56.9 67 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................65.2 71 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................38.2 69 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................67.3 86 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................67.9 64 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................53.9 68 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................47.6 60 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................15.4 72 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................36.6 140 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................53.0 138 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................17.7 125 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................39.1 132 2 Human capital & research...........................30.3 75 2.1 Education....................................................................................................51.0 78 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.4 31 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................20.1 54 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.2 49 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................401.0 56 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................16.7 81 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................12.7 116 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................25.6 82 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................11.3 94 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.2 99 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.1 138 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................27.2 33 l 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,189.6 49 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................1.2 31 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................46.5 24 l 3 Infrastructure................................................37.2 51 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........48.3 44 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................53.5 61 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................22.4 61 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................67.3 32 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................50.0 31 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................27.9 80 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................2,645.5 67 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................2,383.7 67 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................53.3 45 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................20.2 91 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................35.3 47 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.4 46 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................60.9 29 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.5 49 4 Market sophistication..................................44.9 76 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................26.2 107 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................50.0 93 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................61.4 53 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.1 72 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................33.1 40 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................55.9 68 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................49.6 37 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................38.8 28 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 49 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................75.3 81 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................7.6 105 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.4 47 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................69.0 45 5 Business sophistication...............................38.0 42 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................48.1 53 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................19.3 67 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................52.9 22 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.4 36 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................45.4 29 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................564.3 26 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................35.3 101 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................31.8 47 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................51.7 42 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................54.5 31 l 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 83 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.1 42 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................34.2 42 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........4.3 33 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................14.8 19 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.6 48 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.9 72 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............26.5 67 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................14.6 59 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................1.2 62 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.2 56 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.9 31 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................14.6 57 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................285.0 22 l 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................35.6 63 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.4 76 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................2.4 44 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 58 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................12.3 39 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................39.0 22 l 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................23.2 86 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.5 29 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................3.9 44 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................1.4 129 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP...................................................................–0.0 116 7 Creative outputs...........................................37.2 72 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................47.1 49 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................21.9 61 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................66.8 33 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................62.1 32 l 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................22.6 108 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 62 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.7 83 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................6.3 79 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.0 42 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.3 87 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................31.9 55 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.2 88 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................43.0 44 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................941.4 72 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................77.1 51 Brazil
- 173. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 149 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................0.4 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................16.9 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................50,526.4 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.............................................................................................South East Asia and Oceania Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 35.5 74 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................28.0 89 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................43.1 54 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 119 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................37.7 53 1 Institutions.....................................................74.4 34 l 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................73.5 35 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................93.6 13 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................62.4 35 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................64.6 99 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................87.8 21 l 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................80.2 25 l 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................71.0 33 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................61.9 75 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................52.6 139 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................50.5 42 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................82.7 29 l 2 Human capital & research...........................31.9 65 2.1 Education....................................................................................................45.9 87 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................2.0 106 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................13.1 90 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................15.1 35 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................9.9 25 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................48.0 20 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................19.6 92 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................20.7 42 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................5.6 30 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................9.6 1 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................1.9 99 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................685.5 61 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.0 105 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................36.1 55 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........52.0 39 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................64.6 42 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................36.3 42 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................59.5 44 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................47.4 34 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................24.6 102 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................9,655.0 14 l 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................8,756.9 15 l 3.2.3 Logistics performance*........................................................................n/a n/a 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................13.9 130 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................31.6 61 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................5.6 75 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................62.5 26 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.0 60 4 Market sophistication..................................43.9 84 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................28.5 104 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................31.8 94 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................23.7 81 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................47.4 102 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................79.3 44 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................4.1 72 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.4 52 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................63.8 71 5 Business sophistication...............................29.1 86 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................37.0 98 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................28.4 41 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.0 83 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %............................................................1.6 81 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................491.4 84 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................62.1 73 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................29.6 54 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................47.8 48 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................48.9 52 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................6.6 50 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 31 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................n/a n/a 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................20.6 100 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.5 99 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................1.1 124 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................7.4 22 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............14.3 125 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.0 120 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................3.1 123 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................37.0 123 6.2 Knowledge impact...................................................................................6.5 129 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................3.2 82 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................27.2 57 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports..............n/a n/a 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................2.4 112 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.2 78 7 Creative outputs...........................................41.7 51 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................56.3 19 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................56.8 69 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................55.8 56 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................26.8 96 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................14.7 36 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................27.3 67 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................3.3 73 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................21.8 73 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,119.8 66 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................77.4 50 BruneiDarussalam
- 174. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 150 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................7.7 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................50.8 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................14,234.6 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 41.3 41 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................38.7 38 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................44.0 50 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 35 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................40.7 43 1 Institutions.....................................................68.0 51 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................61.2 56 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................73.6 51 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................38.7 67 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................71.4 71 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................77.2 39 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................64.2 45 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................44.7 65 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................65.5 64 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................90.9 28 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................34.3 82 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................71.3 60 2 Human capital & research...........................35.7 55 2.1 Education....................................................................................................55.4 63 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.4 57 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................26.6 19 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.0 53 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................432.1 43 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................12.1 44 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................42.5 37 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................56.9 41 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................19.8 49 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................3.5 43 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................4.8 15 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................9.4 69 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,948.8 36 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.6 54 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................40.0 43 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........35.5 71 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................59.7 49 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................30.4 50 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................49.0 71 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................2.6 116 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................35.2 44 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................6,103.1 36 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................4,471.3 45 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................55.3 36 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................24.1 57 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................49.2 18 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................4.9 84 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................56.3 51 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........9.2 8 l 4 Market sophistication..................................43.9 83 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................40.7 58 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................75.0 38 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................72.1 47 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.3 33 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................17.0 114 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................60.4 54 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................15.4 83 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.5 85 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................74.0 88 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................55.5 98 5 Business sophistication...............................32.2 65 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................45.2 59 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................23.5 50 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................30.7 64 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.3 41 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................30.2 52 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................578.7 16 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................358.7 12 l 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................19.9 100 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................33.4 114 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.2 79 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................8.4 43 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 73 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.1 49 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................31.4 50 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.9 48 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................7.8 70 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................7.6 28 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.8 46 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............35.0 36 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................17.0 54 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................2.8 45 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.3 50 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................2.0 18 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................20.5 47 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................129.0 44 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................55.7 8 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................5.5 7 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................7.2 17 l 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 37 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................49.5 1 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................15.6 59 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................23.4 85 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.2 68 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................3.8 48 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................9.7 43 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.4 60 7 Creative outputs...........................................42.4 49 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................44.7 61 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................79.0 16 l 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................2.3 13 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................51.1 94 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................46.5 92 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................41.6 47 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.5 25 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................2.7 50 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................19.9 23 l 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.5 64 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.4 44 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................38.5 41 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............25.9 29 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................23.1 70 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................4,822.0 31 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................77.1 52 Bulgaria
- 175. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 151 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................17.5 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................10.3 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................1,384.2 Income group............................................................................................................Low income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 27.0 116 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................23.8 109 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................30.2 119 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 64 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................24.6 122 1 Institutions.....................................................57.1 83 l 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................51.0 83 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................52.8 98 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................23.8 100 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................76.3 41 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................68.3 61 l 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................45.8 85 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................37.5 80 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................10.5 43 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................52.1 109 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................71.7 106 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................29.7 102 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................54.9 113 2 Human capital & research...........................17.7 117 2.1 Education....................................................................................................30.5 123 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.4 83 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................24.6 32 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.............................................................6.9 126 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................26.5 112 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................20.9 100 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross................................................................3.9 128 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................17.8 59 l 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................3.6 41 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.2 126 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................1.6 104 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..............................................69.5 98 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 84 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................13.5 139 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........16.2 120 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................18.2 130 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................1.4 129 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................29.4 122 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................15.8 79 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................24.0 109 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap...............................................................n/a n/a 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap................................................n/a n/a 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................33.0 125 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................18.0 113 3.3 Ecological sustainability........................................................................0.2 138 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.......................n/a n/a 3.3.2 Environmental performance*..........................................................n/a n/a 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.0 130 4 Market sophistication..................................34.4 129 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................22.8 120 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................19.8 120 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.6 29 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................18.5 104 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................37.0 124 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................61.8 121 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................8.8 115 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.2 101 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................54.3 102 5 Business sophistication...............................28.4 91 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................26.1 126 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................24.8 79 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................11.9 68 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................414.8 125 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................12.7 122 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................41.7 29 l 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................36.1 102 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................28.8 128 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................59.6 2 l 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................17.4 118 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.0 124 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................5.9 94 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.7 47 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................0.1 135 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............21.3 93 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.4 116 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.1 107 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.1 52 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................12.0 68 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................58.0 92 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................26.1 99 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.4 78 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.1 96 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.2 113 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................25.0 75 l 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.1 78 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.1 108 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................16.6 21 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.4 61 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................26.4 118 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................42.4 74 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................47.5 105 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................37.4 125 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................12.9 127 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.5 91 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.4 130 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 110 7.3 Online creativity.........................................................................................7.7 134 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.0 137 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................0.2 137 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................35.5 127 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................30.5 132 BurkinaFaso
- 176. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 152 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................14.5 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................14.2 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................2,398.5 Income group............................................................................................................Low income Region.............................................................................................South East Asia and Oceania Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 28.1 110 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................26.1 101 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................30.0 120 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 39 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................23.4 129 1 Institutions.....................................................48.0 116 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................43.8 111 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................55.3 93 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................17.9 118 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................58.2 115 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................52.9 109 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................37.8 108 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................19.5 127 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................19.4 91 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................47.2 128 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................54.9 135 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................14.5 133 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................72.1 57 l 2 Human capital & research...........................12.5 131 2.1 Education....................................................................................................26.3 131 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................1.6 111 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................10.3 104 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.0 105 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................23.9 100 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................11.2 121 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................14.5 97 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................12.5 88 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.1 109 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.3 117 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................20.5 116 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........12.7 134 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................25.3 107 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................6.5 107 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................19.0 135 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................0.0 129 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................21.5 116 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap.............................................................70.3 122 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................146.1 118 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................39.0 98 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................23.5 64 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................27.2 82 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................5.5 76 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................55.3 57 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 108 4 Market sophistication..................................42.0 93 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................60.1 26 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 l 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................28.3 102 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP................................................13.7 1 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................28.4 57 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................56.7 66 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................37.7 141 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................9.9 121 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................9.2 142 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................63.5 72 5 Business sophistication...............................27.1 102 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................25.6 127 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %........................................2.5 104 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................48.4 34 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................378.4 133 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34...................................................5.7 131 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................36.3 40 l 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................42.0 70 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................50.4 46 l 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 50 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................n/a n/a 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................19.4 109 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.0 81 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................3.8 120 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................2.8 92 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................7.0 26 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............21.3 94 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................6.0 98 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................4.9 107 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................45.0 114 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................33.8 71 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................4.4 23 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.2 91 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.4 131 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................16.5 117 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.1 88 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.1 112 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.5 74 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.2 72 7 Creative outputs...........................................31.0 99 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................39.0 89 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................16.7 71 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................55.7 77 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................51.9 74 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................32.0 82 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................1.4 65 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.6 122 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.5 69 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................13.9 118 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.3 127 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................2.1 122 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................128.6 111 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................52.4 110 Cambodia
- 177. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 153 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................20.6 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................24.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................2,345.3 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 25.7 125 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................23.4 110 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................28.0 131 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 47 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................25.0 121 1 Institutions.....................................................46.9 119 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................43.5 112 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................51.1 102 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................14.3 130 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................65.2 98 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................54.7 107 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................28.9 126 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................19.2 129 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................15.3 71 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................42.5 133 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................77.8 94 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................15.3 131 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................34.4 136 2 Human capital & research...........................18.6 113 2.1 Education....................................................................................................31.4 122 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.0 93 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................11.2 101 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.5 96 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................24.1 103 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................23.4 87 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................12.4 99 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................21.0 40 l 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.4 72 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.0 75 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.9 110 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................243.2 76 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................18.4 126 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........12.9 133 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................17.7 131 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................1.2 131 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................30.1 118 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................2.6 116 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................19.2 130 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................301.0 112 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................271.4 112 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................38.3 104 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................19.7 98 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................23.2 100 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................5.7 74 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................43.0 107 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 115 4 Market sophistication..................................34.1 131 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................21.6 123 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................50.0 93 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................14.9 132 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.9 39 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................21.9 88 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................43.7 114 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................58.9 127 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................15.0 138 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.3 44 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................56.9 94 5 Business sophistication...............................22.0 125 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................35.1 106 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................25.5 76 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................434.8 116 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................39.8 94 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................20.7 92 l 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................37.1 96 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................36.6 105 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 72 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................10.1 137 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.7 91 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.........................................n/a n/a 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................1.0 128 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.4 112 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............17.4 117 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................6.7 91 l 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.6 77 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................11.1 70 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................68.0 86 l 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................20.6 115 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.4 77 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 74 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.5 127 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %........................1.9 95 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................19.4 101 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 99 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %..........................................n/a n/a 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................3.6 99 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP...................................................................–0.2 118 7 Creative outputs...........................................29.5 110 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................45.9 53 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................48.9 99 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................42.8 105 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................15.3 122 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................1.8 60 l 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.7 121 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.3 66 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %..................................................................n/a n/a 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................10.9 125 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.7 111 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................9.9 103 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................28.3 130 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................32.8 129 Cameroon
- 178. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 154 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................36.1 GDP (US$ billions)............................................................................................................1,770.1 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................41,506.9 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.............................................................................................................Northern America Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 57.6 11 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................50.4 13 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................64.8 9 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 68 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................56.9 12 1 Institutions.....................................................93.3 5 l 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................89.3 11 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................91.6 17 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................89.1 7 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................87.3 18 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................95.0 11 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................93.5 10 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................94.5 12 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................10.0 38 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................95.4 2 l 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................99.1 2 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................96.1 4 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................91.1 9 2 Human capital & research...........................49.4 25 2.1 Education....................................................................................................65.2 29 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.7 52 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years............................................................n/a n/a 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................526.6 7 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................12.6 50 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................20.3 102 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross...............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................2.0 54 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................62.8 10 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................1.7 23 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................86.2 3 l 3 Infrastructure................................................53.0 15 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........71.6 15 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................75.4 22 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................53.9 22 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................88.9 6 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................68.4 15 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................58.0 2 l 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap................................................... 18,462.1 4 l 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.................................... 15,473.8 6 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................71.3 12 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................23.7 62 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................29.5 70 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................4.8 86 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................58.4 36 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.2 56 4 Market sophistication..................................78.8 4 l 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................71.0 14 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................81.3 22 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................128.2 18 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................75.1 4 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................90.0 4 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP......................................................109.8 10 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................87.6 12 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.3 2 l 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................90.2 1 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................0.9 6 l 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.2 29 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................77.1 17 5 Business sophistication...............................49.3 16 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................70.0 10 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................42.4 9 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.9 24 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................46.5 26 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................560.0 31 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.........................................1,101.5 6 l 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................43.6 22 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................68.2 14 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................63.6 14 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................6.4 53 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 12 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................1.1 19 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................34.3 41 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........9.1 8 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................12.1 32 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.4 51 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.3 82 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............44.4 17 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................47.9 16 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................3.4 38 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................1.9 24 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................37.8 18 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................621.0 5 l 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................46.9 25 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................0.6 91 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................7.6 15 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.8 3 l 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................5.1 65 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................35.2 27 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................40.1 24 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............5.2 12 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................6.3 32 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................11.2 33 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................2.8 22 7 Creative outputs...........................................56.5 11 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................51.6 37 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................26.9 58 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................71.0 22 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................68.7 13 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................51.2 18 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................2.9 5 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................3.4 45 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................15.2 31 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.9 43 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.9 56 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................71.7 7 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69..........100.0 1 l 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................60.0 21 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................6,608.3 23 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................88.4 9 Canada
- 179. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 155 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................0.5 GDP (US$ billions)...................................................................................................................1.9 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................4,126.2 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 29.7 103 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................21.6 122 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................37.8 84 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.6 130 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework)..................................n/a n/a 1 Institutions.....................................................58.4 76 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................70.3 45 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................83.6 33 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................41.5 59 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................85.7 23 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................56.0 105 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................51.4 72 l 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................59.0 49 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................29.5 125 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................49.1 118 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................82.0 77 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*............................................................0.0 142 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................65.3 85 2 Human capital & research...........................31.0 73 l 2.1 Education....................................................................................................47.8 85 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.9 45 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................16.7 74 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.0 73 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................17.2 83 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................45.2 28 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................20.4 90 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.4 73 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................9.0 5 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................35.5 58 l 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........26.8 91 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................31.3 103 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................8.3 102 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................43.8 86 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................23.7 59 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................44.1 19 l 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap...............................................................n/a n/a 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap................................................n/a n/a 3.2.3 Logistics performance*........................................................................n/a n/a 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................33.9 14 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.......................................................................n/a n/a 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.......................n/a n/a 3.3.2 Environmental performance*..........................................................n/a n/a 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP........n/a n/a 4 Market sophistication..................................40.1 105 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................39.6 62 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................50.0 93 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................64.5 51 l 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................21.0 93 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................41.9 116 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................59.7 128 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................11.6 129 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.1 75 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................50.3 119 5 Business sophistication...............................23.9 116 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................18.2 144 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................16.6 94 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................368.0 138 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34...................................................7.1 128 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................22.7 84 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................35.5 106 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................32.6 120 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP..................n/a n/a 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................30.7 54 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.1 117 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................12.9 30 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.4 53 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.9 44 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs.............. 9.6 136 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................3.6 123 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................5.1 105 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................11.0 142 6.2 Knowledge impact...................................................................................6.9 128 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................3.4 80 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................15.3 126 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 114 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.0 124 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.8 82 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 88 7 Creative outputs...........................................33.6 88 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................54.9 24 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................58.2 66 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................51.7 76 7.2 Creative goods & services....................................................................1.1 140 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 69 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69................................n/a n/a 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 124 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................23.6 82 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.4 82 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................17.2 81 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,009.0 70 l 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................68.8 79 CapeVerde
- 180. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 156 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................17.8 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................268.3 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................18,354.1 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 40.6 46 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................34.4 48 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................46.7 41 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 88 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................42.7 39 1 Institutions.....................................................72.2 40 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................74.7 33 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................79.8 41 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................70.6 27 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................73.8 51 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................74.0 45 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................89.7 14 l 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................84.1 21 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................27.4 118 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................68.0 56 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................87.3 52 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................32.5 88 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................84.1 23 l 2 Human capital & research...........................31.5 70 2.1 Education....................................................................................................45.4 90 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.3 62 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................15.8 78 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.9 38 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................439.3 42 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................21.9 97 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................31.1 67 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................66.1 23 l 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................20.0 47 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.0 80 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.6 92 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................18.1 44 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................552.4 67 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.4 65 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................40.8 30 3 Infrastructure................................................41.0 40 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........54.4 33 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................54.2 60 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................22.6 60 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................75.2 24 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................65.8 19 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................33.3 50 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................3,802.5 54 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................3,557.0 55 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................54.3 39 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................25.7 40 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................35.2 51 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................7.6 45 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................55.3 56 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........2.1 40 4 Market sophistication..................................52.5 40 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................36.2 73 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................71.2 49 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.7 45 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................38.8 29 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................65.6 34 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP......................................................108.7 11 l 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................22.9 29 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 52 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................82.6 21 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................4.0 70 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.3 36 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................71.0 37 5 Business sophistication...............................36.4 50 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................55.4 40 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.6 29 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................57.5 16 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.2 51 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................35.4 47 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................572.5 21 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................110.8 50 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................28.0 60 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................53.4 37 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................55.0 28 l 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................15.7 21 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 81 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 58 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................25.8 78 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........3.8 39 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................9.2 59 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................1.7 110 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................7.0 27 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............26.3 70 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................11.3 66 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................1.1 66 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.4 44 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.2 45 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................17.4 48 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................181.0 37 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................41.1 41 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................5.5 8 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................4.1 29 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 40 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................12.2 40 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................21.7 49 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................19.0 106 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.6 49 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.7 83 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................2.1 115 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................4.0 18 l 7 Creative outputs...........................................42.6 47 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................54.3 26 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................59.1 29 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................67.8 29 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................61.9 33 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................24.2 103 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................1.8 59 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................4.2 89 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................0.6 87 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.3 79 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................37.5 43 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................3.6 72 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................48.0 40 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................3,339.8 42 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................79.2 38 Chile
- 181. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 157 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions).......................................................................................................1,374.0 GDP (US$ billions)............................................................................................................8,250.2 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................9,146.4 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.............................................................................................South East Asia and Oceania Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 44.7 35 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................44.1 25 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................45.2 46 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................1.0 14 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................45.4 34 1 Institutions.....................................................48.3 113 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................39.2 126 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................49.0 106 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................41.7 58 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................26.9 138 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................50.3 116 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................44.3 89 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................34.8 87 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................27.4 118 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................55.5 98 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................67.5 118 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................38.5 73 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................60.5 98 2 Human capital & research...........................40.6 36 2.1 Education....................................................................................................68.7 20 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................11.9 88 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................576.8 1 l 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................15.2 70 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................11.7 120 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................26.8 80 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.3 98 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.5 100 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................41.5 24 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,302.9 46 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................1.8 21 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................74.9 9 3 Infrastructure................................................39.8 44 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........32.9 75 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................41.2 77 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................16.6 77 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................52.9 59 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................21.1 64 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................48.7 13 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................3,118.7 62 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................2,942.3 61 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................63.0 24 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................47.8 2 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................37.9 38 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................3.7 101 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................42.2 111 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........7.3 11 4 Market sophistication..................................54.2 35 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................41.5 55 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................62.5 68 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................127.0 20 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.2 59 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................46.5 21 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................50.4 96 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................46.3 38 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP........................................104.8 7 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 37 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................74.7 83 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................4.0 71 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.5 129 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................71.7 35 5 Business sophistication...............................42.9 33 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................62.9 28 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %........................................7.4 98 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................84.8 1 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.3 17 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................71.7 4 l 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................591.0 7 l 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................183.5 34 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................27.9 61 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................56.2 33 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................59.7 22 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................1.3 75 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 55 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.3 30 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................38.0 24 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........6.2 21 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................22.3 5 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................2.1 105 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................3.0 70 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............56.4 2 l 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................66.5 3 l 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................36.8 1 l 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................1.5 28 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.......................51.4 1 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................14.4 59 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................353.0 17 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................65.5 2 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................8.8 3 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.4 27 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................29.0 15 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................43.1 16 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................42.1 21 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.5 55 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................28.5 3 l 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................7.6 60 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.7 54 7 Creative outputs...........................................31.9 96 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................42.8 72 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................82.0 12 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.2 52 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................62.0 48 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................60.9 35 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................34.4 69 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 54 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.6 87 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................11.7 49 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................0.6 86 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %................................................................15.4 1 l 7.3 Online creativity.........................................................................................7.4 136 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.4 80 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................27.1 62 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................44.6 123 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69.....................................0.0 142 China
- 182. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 158 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................48.1 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................365.4 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................10,729.0 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 37.4 60 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................32.3 65 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................42.5 59 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 79 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................35.5 65 1 Institutions.....................................................62.9 62 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................47.7 95 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................35.4 124 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................45.1 56 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................62.5 104 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................66.0 73 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................58.8 60 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................40.1 73 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................16.7 79 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................74.9 30 l 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................84.1 68 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................80.9 20 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................59.7 101 2 Human capital & research...........................26.8 87 2.1 Education....................................................................................................36.8 110 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.3 84 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................15.9 77 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.6 60 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................398.6 58 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................25.6 109 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................31.0 68 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................42.9 57 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................22.3 36 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.5 95 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................12.7 54 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................347.5 73 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 89 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................32.5 36 3 Infrastructure................................................42.2 36 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........54.6 32 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................41.7 75 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................18.5 75 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................84.3 16 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................73.7 11 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................25.4 97 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................1,226.6 89 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,012.4 95 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................46.8 64 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................23.1 69 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................46.6 20 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................12.2 3 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................62.3 27 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........2.8 35 4 Market sophistication..................................45.8 70 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................34.1 82 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................62.5 68 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................45.0 74 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.9 24 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................31.4 46 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................86.3 8 l 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................60.4 25 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................8.2 47 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 73 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................71.9 100 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................8.9 116 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.1 25 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................61.9 78 5 Business sophistication...............................34.9 54 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................47.7 54 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................21.6 57 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................65.2 8 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.0 72 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................22.1 63 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................514.0 65 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................84.7 59 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................19.8 102 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................49.8 45 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................45.5 64 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................4.2 62 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 87 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 56 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................37.0 28 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........4.4 31 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................17.5 12 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................4.6 61 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.0 58 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............25.3 76 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................6.3 95 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.4 87 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 62 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.5 37 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.0 96 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................122.0 48 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................36.1 59 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................3.1 36 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................1.8 47 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 65 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................21.0 21 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................22.4 45 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................24.0 81 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............1.2 35 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.8 80 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................6.4 67 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................2.4 28 7 Creative outputs...........................................39.2 60 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................43.3 70 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................27.7 54 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................58.3 65 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................56.1 54 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................36.9 62 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.7 12 l 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.6 88 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................3.8 95 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.7 26 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.4 74 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................33.3 51 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................4.5 63 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................51.5 34 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,140.1 65 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................70.7 72 Colombia
- 183. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 159 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................4.9 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................44.9 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................12,558.6 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 41.5 39 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................42.0 31 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................41.1 66 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................1.0 9 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................36.3 60 1 Institutions.....................................................64.3 60 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................72.3 40 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................80.9 38 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................48.0 53 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................87.9 16 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................69.5 57 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................61.3 51 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................59.7 48 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................18.7 88 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................51.2 112 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................66.5 121 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................24.6 113 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................62.6 94 2 Human capital & research...........................26.7 89 2.1 Education....................................................................................................53.6 71 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................6.2 18 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................18.7 65 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.5 64 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................427.5 45 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................14.9 69 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................20.6 101 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................43.0 56 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................11.4 93 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.4 69 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.4 102 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................5.9 78 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................763.7 59 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.5 55 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................35.2 61 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........38.9 62 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................52.8 62 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................21.7 62 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................49.7 67 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................31.6 47 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................24.3 104 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................2,056.7 79 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,855.1 73 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................43.8 81 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................20.9 85 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................42.3 29 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................10.4 11 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................69.0 5 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.3 52 4 Market sophistication..................................41.9 94 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................26.3 106 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................47.6 70 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.2 62 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................15.0 129 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................31.9 133 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................................3.5 104 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.1 99 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 48 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................84.4 14 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................2.4 50 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 19 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................65.9 60 5 Business sophistication...............................37.2 44 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................45.6 58 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................22.2 55 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................54.7 20 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.1 55 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................28.7 55 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................503.2 72 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................79.7 63 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................19.3 107 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................55.9 34 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................51.0 41 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................1.7 72 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 97 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................46.8 9 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........3.2 44 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................21.4 6 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................7.3 35 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................5.3 39 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............41.0 22 l 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.7 112 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.3 92 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 71 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.2 48 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.7 86 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................97.0 63 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................46.0 28 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................2.2 52 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.....................................................17.6 1 l 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 51 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................3.3 81 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................54.1 8 l 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.2 75 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................24.7 5 l 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................31.2 8 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 79 7 Creative outputs...........................................43.0 44 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................55.8 21 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................83.4 11 l 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................62.3 47 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................58.4 42 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................30.6 86 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 74 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................1.2 70 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................11.3 52 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.7 25 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.1 48 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................29.8 61 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............16.1 35 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................22.8 71 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................1,530.6 60 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................71.4 71 CostaRica
- 184. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 160 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................20.7 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................24.3 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................1,696.1 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 23.4 136 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................19.9 132 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................27.0 133 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 89 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................22.6 134 1 Institutions.....................................................46.1 123 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................35.8 134 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................31.5 131 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*................................................................5.8 139 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................70.2 76 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................55.0 106 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................27.1 128 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................13.2 138 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................13.1 59 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................47.6 126 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................53.5 137 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................40.5 67 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................48.8 121 2 Human capital & research...........................15.3 124 2.1 Education....................................................................................................35.7 113 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.3 58 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years............................................................n/a n/a 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.........................................................n/a n/a 2.2 Tertiary education.....................................................................................9.8 125 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross................................................................8.3 115 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.1 78 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.3 113 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.5 114 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................133.0 87 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................19.8 121 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........19.8 110 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................25.9 106 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................6.7 106 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................33.3 109 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................13.2 84 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................16.2 138 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................303.6 111 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................209.6 115 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................43.3 84 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................12.1 137 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................23.4 98 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................3.5 104 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................53.5 65 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 111 4 Market sophistication..................................33.4 132 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................17.8 132 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................43.8 110 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................18.1 122 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.3 57 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................11.6 139 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................33.7 129 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................26.1 56 l 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.5 83 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................70.8 102 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................7.3 101 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.1 76 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................62.0 77 l 5 Business sophistication...............................20.2 133 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................31.7 112 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................19.1 91 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................456.6 105 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................27.4 108 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................12.8 130 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................22.8 130 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................28.5 129 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................16.2 123 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.8 89 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................6.6 85 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.3 79 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.4 111 6 Knowledge & technology outputs.............. 9.7 135 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.5 115 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.2 94 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 86 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.0 97 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................64.0 90 6.2 Knowledge impact...................................................................................0.7 141 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %.........................................–8.3 118 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.1 117 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................21.2 97 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 97 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................1.6 67 l 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................11.0 35 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 83 7 Creative outputs...........................................30.1 104 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................48.2 45 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................53.6 84 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................42.8 107 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................10.8 128 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 72 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................1.8 108 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.0 107 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................13.1 120 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.4 123 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................2.6 119 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69...............................42.3 126 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................49.3 111 Côted’Ivoire
- 185. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 161 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................4.6 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................57.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................18,098.8 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 41.9 37 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................37.8 41 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................46.1 43 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 50 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................40.7 42 1 Institutions.....................................................69.1 48 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................68.8 46 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................79.3 45 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................53.6 45 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................73.4 54 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................71.9 48 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................64.1 46 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................52.0 54 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................15.1 70 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................66.7 60 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................87.9 48 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................32.6 87 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................79.6 35 2 Human capital & research...........................34.9 58 2.1 Education....................................................................................................58.4 53 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.2 64 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................24.5 34 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.1 51 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................474.0 35 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................8.1 8 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................31.6 65 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................54.1 46 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................20.1 46 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.6 90 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................2.5 36 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................14.8 51 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................2,745.0 30 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.7 44 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................7.1 62 3 Infrastructure................................................43.3 32 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........49.7 42 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................66.7 35 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................39.2 35 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................64.1 40 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................29.0 52 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................30.5 63 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................3,167.2 60 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................3,808.3 51 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................54.0 42 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................21.8 77 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................49.7 15 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................8.4 31 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................64.2 20 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........6.2 19 l 4 Market sophistication..................................46.5 64 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................36.3 72 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................75.0 38 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................73.8 45 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.0 86 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................23.3 82 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................41.9 116 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................34.9 50 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................1.5 68 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 40 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................80.0 40 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.2 9 l 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.4 48 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................50.7 117 5 Business sophistication...............................36.7 48 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................43.7 66 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.1 35 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................28.0 68 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.3 40 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................38.8 43 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................489.6 87 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................128.5 44 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................23.1 81 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................40.9 78 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.2 81 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................9.9 39 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 69 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.1 41 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................43.3 14 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........7.5 15 l 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................8.3 63 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %.....................13.7 3 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.0 91 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............33.9 39 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................20.6 44 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................3.1 42 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.4 43 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................1.2 27 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................42.1 14 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................132.0 42 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................52.0 16 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................4.8 18 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................2.4 43 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................26.7 18 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................22.6 90 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.2 72 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................7.4 30 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................5.2 78 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.1 93 7 Creative outputs...........................................41.6 52 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................43.4 69 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................65.2 24 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.9 16 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................55.9 74 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................50.5 81 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................37.5 59 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 44 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................2.8 49 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................12.7 46 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.9 55 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................42.1 38 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............12.7 44 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................44.3 43 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................5,818.7 28 l 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................77.7 48 Croatia
- 186. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 162 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................1.2 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................22.4 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................26,908.3 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 49.3 27 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................45.6 20 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................53.1 30 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 43 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................47.9 28 1 Institutions.....................................................84.1 18 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................82.0 20 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................79.4 43 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................80.3 18 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................86.2 22 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................89.3 19 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................81.4 24 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................75.8 27 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................81.0 19 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................88.1 47 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................75.2 23 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................79.7 34 2 Human capital & research...........................45.3 31 2.1 Education....................................................................................................71.9 8 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................6.9 13 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................37.0 3 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................14.0 52 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................9.8 22 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................56.4 6 l 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................48.3 50 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................13.3 86 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %...........................................................31.9 5 l 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %....................................40.5 1 l 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................7.6 70 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,555.3 43 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.5 59 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................38.5 46 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........41.2 58 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................64.6 43 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................36.3 43 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................56.2 51 3.1.4 E-participation*..........................................................................................7.9 99 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................30.8 61 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................6,725.0 31 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................6,425.9 28 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................56.0 35 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................13.3 133 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................43.5 25 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................8.5 27 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................57.2 43 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........4.5 24 4 Market sophistication..................................65.3 18 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................84.4 6 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................298.4 1 l 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................33.0 41 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................64.8 37 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................11.6 90 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................2.0 63 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.1 17 l 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................78.6 53 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................69.1 43 5 Business sophistication...............................32.1 66 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................36.3 101 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................16.3 80 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.1 58 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................15.7 67 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................518.9 58 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................220.4 27 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................37.5 37 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................45.1 61 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................51.3 40 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................12.1 32 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 24 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.8 24 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................22.7 92 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.2 75 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................7.7 72 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.9 71 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.4 52 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............37.5 27 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................26.7 35 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................2.1 52 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................2.0 23 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................36.6 21 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................79.0 73 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................56.3 5 l 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.3 79 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.....................................................24.7 1 l 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................31.3 12 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................12.4 67 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................24.0 82 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 104 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................12.9 20 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................1.4 131 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................3.5 20 7 Creative outputs...........................................53.7 16 l 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................61.1 8 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................60.7 27 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................7.7 1 l 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................58.5 63 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................52.0 72 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................35.1 66 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.1 52 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................3.6 43 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................12.4 47 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................3.1 17 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.4 73 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................57.4 23 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............85.8 10 l 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................37.7 50 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................4,444.4 33 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................80.4 36 Cyprus
- 187. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 163 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................11.0 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................193.5 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................27,164.8 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 48.4 28 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................43.3 26 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................53.4 27 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 53 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................49.7 27 1 Institutions.....................................................76.1 31 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................83.2 18 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................93.5 14 l 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................66.3 30 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................89.8 14 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................76.9 41 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................82.2 23 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................74.5 30 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................20.2 93 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................68.1 54 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................79.3 88 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................60.1 32 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................64.9 90 2 Human capital & research...........................45.7 30 2.1 Education....................................................................................................58.7 51 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.1 68 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................22.1 45 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................15.8 22 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................490.5 26 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................11.0 34 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................43.7 34 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................63.5 28 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................23.4 28 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................8.0 20 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.7 60 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................34.7 28 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................4,357.3 22 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................1.8 19 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................29.1 38 3 Infrastructure................................................49.0 24 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........45.6 48 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................65.3 39 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................36.6 39 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................54.3 53 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................26.3 55 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................37.6 36 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................8,249.2 21 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................6,275.6 29 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................53.5 44 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................24.1 58 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................63.7 3 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................5.9 71 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................64.8 18 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP......15.6 1 l 4 Market sophistication..................................48.9 53 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................46.8 47 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................55.4 58 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................18.3 106 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................51.9 85 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................17.7 76 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................7.1 49 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 70 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................81.7 28 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................78.5 12 l 5 Business sophistication...............................47.5 20 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................63.0 27 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.5 31 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................70.7 4 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.1 20 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................46.9 25 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................572.1 24 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................44.5 87 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................31.5 48 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................59.0 27 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................50.6 43 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................15.2 23 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 93 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.2 33 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................47.9 8 l 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........5.1 27 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................17.3 13 l 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %.....................11.5 6 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.5 78 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............38.3 25 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................34.1 26 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................3.3 41 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.6 36 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................5.6 8 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................33.2 26 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................223.0 31 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................44.2 37 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.0 85 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................2.8 38 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 36 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................44.6 4 l 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................26.6 36 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................34.6 36 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.5 54 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................16.3 12 l 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................10.0 41 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.5 57 7 Creative outputs...........................................48.2 25 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................43.7 66 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................88.6 10 l 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................1.3 26 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................54.8 80 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................49.3 85 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................54.3 14 l 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.8 9 l 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................5.6 29 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................14.3 39 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.2 36 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %................................................................10.7 6 l 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................51.2 29 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............14.0 43 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................66.5 16 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................7,024.0 21 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................83.4 24 CzechRepublic
- 188. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 164 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................5.8 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................309.2 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................37,738.1 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 58.3 9 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................50.4 14 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................66.3 8 l Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 78 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................59.9 7 1 Institutions.....................................................95.3 1 l 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................94.7 2 l 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................93.3 15 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................97.9 2 l 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................92.9 5 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................99.7 1 l 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*............................................................................100.0 1 l 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................98.9 3 l 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................8.0 1 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................91.6 5 l 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................92.4 18 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................92.3 10 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................90.0 11 2 Human capital & research...........................60.4 7 l 2.1 Education....................................................................................................67.6 21 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................8.1 6 l 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................34.8 4 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................13.2 68 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................499.2 19 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.........................................................n/a n/a 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................42.3 38 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................74.4 15 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................19.3 53 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................7.5 21 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................1.6 62 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................71.2 5 l 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................9,861.2 3 l 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................3.1 6 l 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................68.0 13 3 Infrastructure................................................53.9 13 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........73.3 14 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................83.7 9 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................68.6 9 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................85.6 13 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................55.3 28 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................39.1 30 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................6,293.7 34 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................6,068.4 31 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................75.5 5 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................17.3 116 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................49.2 17 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................10.3 13 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................63.6 21 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........4.8 21 4 Market sophistication..................................74.6 7 l 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................90.7 5 l 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................81.3 22 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP...........................208.4 1 l 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................53.0 12 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................65.2 36 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................53.8 35 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP...........................................45.1 23 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.3 6 l 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................80.1 38 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................73.7 27 5 Business sophistication...............................47.5 19 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................67.4 13 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................34.0 20 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.......................................n/a n/a 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................2.1 7 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................60.2 11 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................557.1 33 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................117.6 46 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................45.3 20 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................65.3 20 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................61.4 18 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................8.7 41 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 14 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................1.7 14 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................29.9 55 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.8 55 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................11.2 37 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................5.3 55 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................3.9 61 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............41.9 19 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................49.9 13 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................16.4 8 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................6.8 7 l 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.8 33 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................64.2 4 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................399.0 14 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................43.9 38 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................1.5 73 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................4.6 23 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.6 14 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................7.3 53 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................38.6 23 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................36.0 32 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............4.1 16 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................9.3 25 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.0 96 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................4.1 17 7 Creative outputs...........................................58.8 8 l 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................53.5 29 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................50.5 34 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................2.7 8 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................72.7 16 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................69.6 12 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................62.1 5 l 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.6 20 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.....................................10.9 12 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................24.5 16 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................4.9 9 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................3.0 26 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................66.0 15 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............61.1 15 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................78.5 4 l 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69........................6,310.1 26 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................87.8 11 Denmark
- 189. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 165 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................10.3 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................59.1 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................9,645.2 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 33.3 79 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................31.6 69 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................35.0 93 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 28 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................30.9 86 1 Institutions.....................................................52.8 98 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................54.3 73 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................68.0 66 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................23.3 105 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................71.7 66 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................49.6 117 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................44.5 88 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................26.8 112 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................26.2 114 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................54.6 102 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................81.1 82 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................10.2 135 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................72.5 55 l 2 Human capital & research...........................20.3 108 2.1 Education....................................................................................................43.2 93 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................12.3 83 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................28.7 115 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................17.8 110 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................34.0 71 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.4 109 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.0 123 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop................................................n/a n/a 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP...............................................n/a n/a 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................30.5 77 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........36.6 66 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................33.7 95 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................11.8 94 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................53.6 55 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................47.4 34 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................21.0 120 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................1,602.4 83 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,442.2 84 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................42.5 86 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................17.2 118 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................33.9 56 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq.....................10.0 14 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................52.4 69 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.5 84 4 Market sophistication..................................42.9 90 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................25.8 109 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................22.5 113 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.2 35 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................25.8 71 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................51.5 90 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................77.1 68 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................6.1 91 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.4 50 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................66.7 56 5 Business sophistication...............................28.4 92 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................44.1 65 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................13.7 87 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................53.3 21 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................450.7 108 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................49.7 82 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................21.3 90 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................39.0 87 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................43.7 70 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 105 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................19.7 106 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.9 51 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................5.2 102 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.2 81 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................4.1 57 l 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............16.0 120 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................1.9 137 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 80 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................0.6 140 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................39.0 122 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................30.9 81 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................2.5 44 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................1.0 63 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................1.8 97 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion...............................................................................8.2 131 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports..............n/a n/a 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................1.6 66 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.5 86 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP.....................................................................n/a n/a 7 Creative outputs...........................................47.1 30 l 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................59.9 11 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................61.4 51 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................58.4 40 l 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................45.9 33 l 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................1.0 76 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................3.9 94 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................3.4 21 l 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................22.8 88 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.9 76 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................16.7 83 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................414.1 94 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................69.1 78 DominicanRepublic
- 190. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 166 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................15.1 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................70.8 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................8,841.5 Income group............................................................................................ Upper-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 32.8 83 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................31.8 67 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................33.8 100 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.9 21 l Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................28.5 98 1 Institutions.....................................................43.3 131 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................45.7 102 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................48.3 110 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................23.4 104 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................65.3 97 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................36.0 134 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................23.0 134 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................16.5 131 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................31.8 131 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................48.3 123 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................63.2 127 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................19.7 121 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................61.9 95 2 Human capital & research...........................29.1 80 2.1 Education....................................................................................................63.7 32 l 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.7 53 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap........................................n/a n/a 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years............................................................n/a n/a 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................10.9 33 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................21.4 95 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................39.8 62 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................12.8 87 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.8 83 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................2.3 94 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop...........................................186.6 80 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.3 72 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................31.8 70 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........31.9 78 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................41.6 76 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................16.7 76 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................45.8 81 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................23.7 59 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................28.0 78 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................1,222.4 91 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,055.0 90 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................44.0 80 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................28.8 26 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................35.5 46 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................8.6 26 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................60.6 30 l 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.9 64 4 Market sophistication..................................41.1 101 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................38.0 66 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................33.0 92 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................4.1 15 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................11.5 140 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................41.9 116 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................................8.8 94 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.2 96 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................73.8 90 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................6.0 88 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.3 42 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................54.9 100 5 Business sophistication...............................23.8 117 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................41.8 72 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................18.1 75 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................65.9 7 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.0 73 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %............................................................8.5 71 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................484.8 91 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................43.3 89 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................14.7 125 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................40.3 82 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.4 77 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %................................................................0.5 83 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 89 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................14.9 126 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.1 62 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................9.5 57 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................0.6 133 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................0.9 124 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............20.4 99 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................4.0 119 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.0 113 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.3 46 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................0.2 50 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................2.7 129 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................78.0 75 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................34.7 65 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................3.6 30 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64.......................................................n/a n/a 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.3 56 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................8.6 49 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................14.0 66 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................14.3 128 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports..............n/a n/a 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.3 101 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................10.2 39 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP.....................................................................n/a n/a 7 Creative outputs...........................................43.3 42 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................51.6 36 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................92.9 7 l 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................52.8 87 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................50.1 82 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................45.5 34 l 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................5.2 2 l 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................6.8 71 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................1.6 62 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.1 101 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................24.4 80 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................2.8 77 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................19.2 79 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................864.4 76 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................70.6 73 Ecuador
- 191. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 167 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................84.6 GDP (US$ billions)...............................................................................................................255.0 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................6,557.4 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.....................................................................................Northern Africa andWestern Asia Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 28.5 108 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................23.1 112 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................33.8 101 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 108 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................27.9 103 1 Institutions.....................................................43.9 130 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................35.9 133 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................34.6 125 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................21.9 108 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................51.3 127 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................40.2 131 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................40.9 97 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................35.9 83 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................36.8 134 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................55.6 97 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................88.6 42 l 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................19.5 122 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................58.6 104 2 Human capital & research...........................28.3 81 2.1 Education....................................................................................................52.3 73 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI..............................n/a n/a 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................17.7 70 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................12.4 81 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................13.5 54 l 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................19.8 103 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................32.4 73 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %.....................................n/a n/a 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.9 57 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.2 129 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................12.7 56 l 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................1,017.5 51 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 82 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*.........................26.0 45 l 3 Infrastructure................................................33.7 66 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........47.4 46 l 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................41.8 74 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................19.3 74 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................60.1 42 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................68.4 15 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................23.6 110 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................1,809.6 81 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................1,607.9 78 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................49.5 56 l 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................17.2 117 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................30.1 68 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................6.1 66 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................55.2 58 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........1.0 59 4 Market sophistication..................................35.8 125 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................23.4 117 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................56.3 80 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................31.3 97 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................0.1 71 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................20.7 95 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................54.4 77 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................21.2 67 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................9.6 43 l 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 65 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................63.2 117 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................8.1 107 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.8 94 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................50.4 118 5 Business sophistication...............................27.4 99 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................43.5 67 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................30.3 34 l 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................21.7 85 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %...........................................................n/a n/a 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................477.7 93 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................42.4 91 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................25.1 74 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................28.1 122 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................41.3 78 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %...............................................................n/a n/a 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 32 l 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................13.6 132 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........1.5 69 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................5.3 100 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................3.4 76 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP.......................................................................–0.2 139 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............18.0 113 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................10.4 69 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................1.2 63 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.1 73 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................12.5 66 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................122.0 48 l 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................21.0 114 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %.........................................–0.7 107 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.1 95 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP.........................................0.2 67 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................4.0 70 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................19.9 53 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................18.9 108 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.6 48 l 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.3 102 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.2 90 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.3 70 7 Creative outputs...........................................28.2 114 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................33.9 106 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................0.0 60 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................50.2 96 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................50.8 79 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................28.2 92 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.5 89 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................8.0 66 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................0.8 83 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.9 53 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................17.0 108 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................1.9 90 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................1.5 128 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................267.1 104 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................63.3 91 Egypt
- 192. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 168 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................6.4 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................24.0 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................7,734.2 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.....................................................................................Latin America and the Caribbean Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 31.3 88 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................27.0 96 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................35.6 88 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 80 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................29.5 93 1 Institutions.....................................................57.9 78 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................60.5 58 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................69.0 64 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................35.5 75 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................77.1 34 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................57.5 99 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................62.3 50 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................27.6 110 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................22.9 105 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................55.7 95 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................78.5 92 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................34.8 79 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................53.9 116 2 Human capital & research...........................19.1 112 2.1 Education....................................................................................................33.2 120 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................3.2 88 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................11.3 99 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................12.2 84 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................24.3 104 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................23.4 86 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................24.6 83 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................23.1 32 l 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................0.5 95 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.4 110 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................0.7 112 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..............................................83.3 96 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.1 99 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................30.7 76 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........43.2 53 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................37.2 89 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................13.1 89 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................67.3 32 l 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................55.3 28 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................17.6 135 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap..........................................................966.1 94 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap...........................................855.2 97 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................40.0 93 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................14.5 128 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................31.4 63 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................8.8 24 l 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................52.1 72 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 104 4 Market sophistication..................................41.3 98 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................34.5 79 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................68.8 51 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................39.6 81 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.6 28 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................10.4 141 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................30.0 139 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP.........................................................23.7 64 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................0.3 89 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................79.0 46 l 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................5.5 85 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................0.0 16 l 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................65.4 64 5 Business sophistication...............................29.1 87 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................40.4 82 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................10.0 94 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................61.0 13 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP...........................................n/a n/a 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %............................................................0.7 83 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................485.7 90 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34................................................55.4 77 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................19.5 106 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................38.0 90 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................38.7 94 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................11.3 35 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 114 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 57 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................27.5 66 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........3.6 41 l 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................7.7 74 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................7.8 26 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................1.1 120 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............13.0 129 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................1.4 140 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP...........................n/a n/a 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................0.0 92 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................n/a n/a 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................0.9 139 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................34.0 128 6.2 Knowledge impact...................................................................................5.7 132 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %...........................................n/a n/a 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.5 88 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................4.1 69 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.......................n/a n/a 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................26.1 62 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 98 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................4.2 43 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %.....................15.2 24 l 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP......................................................................0.0 103 7 Creative outputs...........................................41.0 56 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................52.5 34 l 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................53.2 86 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................51.8 75 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................37.7 58 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %..............................n/a n/a 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69........................................0.3 97 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................7.3 69 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %.....................................n/a n/a 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.2 45 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................21.2 93 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................1.6 94 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................12.8 91 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69............................618.9 85 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................67.0 83 ElSalvador
- 193. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 169 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................1.4 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................21.4 GDP per capita, PPP$.....................................................................................................21,226.6 Income group...........................................................................................................High income Region..............................................................................................................................Europe Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 50.6 25 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................45.5 21 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................55.7 25 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.8 51 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................55.3 19 1 Institutions.....................................................78.2 26 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................80.9 21 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................80.6 39 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................71.4 25 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................90.7 9 l 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................86.3 23 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................86.0 19 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................78.9 25 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................12.9 55 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................67.3 58 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................90.4 29 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................41.4 64 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................70.1 66 2 Human capital & research...........................47.2 28 2.1 Education....................................................................................................67.2 23 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................5.4 33 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................27.2 17 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................16.0 20 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science..............................513.6 12 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary..........................................................8.8 14 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................39.6 48 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross.............................................................64.3 27 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................20.6 43 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %..............................................................1.8 59 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................3.7 25 2.3 Research & development (R&D)...................................................34.9 27 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop.......................................5,585.5 15 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................2.4 14 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................8.2 58 3 Infrastructure................................................55.2 11 l 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........70.2 17 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................72.0 26 3.1.2 ICT use*........................................................................................................50.2 26 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................82.4 18 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................76.3 8 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................37.0 38 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap......................................................9,621.6 15 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap.......................................6,182.1 30 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................46.5 65 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................25.2 42 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................58.3 9 l 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................4.3 93 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................56.1 52 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP......13.1 1 l 4 Market sophistication..................................51.0 42 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................57.1 30 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................75.0 38 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................84.7 40 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP..................................................n/a n/a 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................15.5 125 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................57.8 64 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP............................................................7.3 96 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP..............................................1.1 72 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 74 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................80.6 34 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %.........................................1.6 11 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................2.3 102 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................75.0 23 5 Business sophistication...............................46.8 23 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................70.0 9 l 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................35.2 18 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................69.3 5 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................1.5 12 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................53.2 16 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................574.7 19 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34.............................................217.7 28 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................33.4 46 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................56.9 32 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................46.0 62 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................12.0 33 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.1 33 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.3 32 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................37.0 30 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........2.0 63 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %.......................................13.0 29 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................9.9 9 l 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.0 93 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............33.7 40 6.1 Knowledge creation.............................................................................30.2 32 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................3.4 39 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP.........................................1.2 30 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................3.0 11 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP..........................50.2 9 l 6.1.5 Citable documents H index..........................................................119.0 51 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................50.9 18 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................2.0 59 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................8.1 11 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP...........................30.6 13 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................19.7 54 6.3 Knowledge diffusion............................................................................18.3 112 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.4 59 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %........................................12.9 21 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................8.8 49 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP...................................................................–6.8 124 7 Creative outputs...........................................57.3 10 l 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................56.9 18 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP...........................76.3 17 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP.......................2.4 11 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................75.8 6 l 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................70.2 11 l 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................48.7 22 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.3 34 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.....................................13.5 7 l 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69..............................21.9 19 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.8 21 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................1.5 42 7.3 Online creativity......................................................................................66.8 14 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69.............23.0 32 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69.............................................58.8 22 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69..................... 16,734.4 2 l 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................88.1 10 l Estonia
- 194. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 170 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)............................................................................................................86.9 GDP (US$ billions).................................................................................................................41.9 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................1,159.9 Income group............................................................................................................Low income Region...........................................................................................................Sub-Saharan Africa Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 24.8 129 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................21.1 126 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................28.5 126 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.7 87 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................23.3 131 1 Institutions.....................................................46.6 121 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................37.9 128 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................26.1 137 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................27.3 91 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................60.4 110 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................51.7 112 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................23.8 131 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................27.9 108 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks.........................19.1 90 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................50.2 114 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................55.2 134 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................28.2 105 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................67.2 80 2 Human capital & research...........................12.2 135 2.1 Education....................................................................................................20.7 136 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................2.9 97 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................20.3 53 l 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years.............................................................9.1 119 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................40.3 127 2.2 Tertiary education..................................................................................14.1 115 2.2.1 Tertiary enrolment, % gross................................................................7.6 117 2.2.2 Graduates in science & engineering, %...................................15.2 79 2.2.3 Tertiary inbound mobility, %.............................................................n/a n/a 2.2.4 Gross tertiary outbound enrolment, %.......................................0.1 140 2.3 Research & development (R&D)......................................................1.9 97 2.3.1 Researchers, headcounts/mn pop..............................................87.8 95 2.3.2 Gross expenditure on R&D, % GDP................................................0.2 75 2.3.3 QS university ranking, average score top 3*............................0.0 68 3 Infrastructure................................................22.0 113 3.1 Information & communication technologies (ICTs).........24.6 98 3.1.1 ICT access*..................................................................................................16.4 135 3.1.2 ICT use*...........................................................................................................0.8 135 3.1.3 Government’s online service*........................................................47.1 77 3.1.4 E-participation*.......................................................................................34.2 44 l 3.2 General infrastructure..........................................................................20.4 124 3.2.1 Electricity output, kWh/cap.............................................................60.0 123 3.2.2 Electricity consumption, kWh/cap..............................................54.3 125 3.2.3 Logistics performance*......................................................................31.0 133 3.2.4 Gross capital formation, % GDP....................................................26.2 36 l 3.3 Ecological sustainability.....................................................................21.1 111 3.3.1 GDP/unit of energy use, 2000 PPP$/kg oil eq........................2.3 117 3.3.2 Environmental performance*........................................................52.7 67 3.3.3 ISO 14001 environmental certificates/bn PPP$ GDP.........0.2 117 4 Market sophistication..................................39.3 110 4.1 Credit..............................................................................................................23.7 114 4.1.1 Ease of getting credit*........................................................................50.0 93 4.1.2 Domestic credit to private sector, % GDP..............................17.8 125 4.1.3 Microfinance gross loans, % GDP...................................................1.4 32 l 4.2 Investment.................................................................................................36.8 33 l 4.2.1 Ease of protecting investors*..........................................................44.8 108 4.2.2 Market capitalization, % GDP...........................................................n/a n/a 4.2.3 Total value of stocks traded, % GDP.............................................n/a n/a 4.2.4 Venture capital deals/tr PPP$ GDP.................................................0.0 45 l 4.3 Trade & competition............................................................................57.5 130 4.3.1 Applied tariff rate, weighted mean, %......................................10.5 124 4.3.2 Non-agricultural mkt access weighted tariff, %.....................1.6 88 4.3.3 Intensity of local competition†.....................................................43.2 133 5 Business sophistication...............................22.2 123 5.1 Knowledge workers..............................................................................24.6 128 5.1.1 Knowledge-intensive employment, %.....................................12.6 90 5.1.2 Firms offering formal training, % firms.....................................38.2 46 l 5.1.3 R&D performed by business, % GDP............................................0.0 69 5.1.4 R&D financed by business, %.........................................................10.8 69 5.1.5 GMAT mean score...............................................................................437.4 115 5.1.6 GMAT test takers/mn pop. 20–34...................................................3.5 136 5.2 Innovation linkages..............................................................................27.9 62 l 5.2.1 University/industry research collaboration†.........................36.8 99 5.2.2 State of cluster development†......................................................35.1 112 5.2.3 R&D financed by abroad, %.............................................................30.0 10 l 5.2.4 JV–strategic alliance deals/tr PPP$ GDP.....................................0.0 106 5.2.5 Patent families filed in 3+ offices/bn PPP$ GDP...................0.0 69 5.3 Knowledge absorption.......................................................................14.3 127 5.3.1 Royalty & license fees payments, % service imports..........0.0 121 5.3.2 High-tech imports less re-imports, %..........................................5.2 101 5.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services imports, %........................2.9 89 5.3.4 FDI net inflows, % GDP..........................................................................2.1 89 6 Knowledge & technology outputs............14.8 123 6.1 Knowledge creation................................................................................7.5 83 6.1.1 Domestic resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP............................0.2 96 6.1.2 PCT resident patent ap/bn PPP$ GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.1.3 Domestic res utility model ap/bn PPP$ GDP..........................1.2 28 l 6.1.4 Scientific & technical articles/bn PPP$ GDP.............................6.4 90 6.1.5 Citable documents H index.............................................................68.0 86 6.2 Knowledge impact................................................................................29.6 86 6.2.1 Growth rate of PPP$ GDP/worker, %............................................4.3 24 l 6.2.2 New businesses/th pop. 15–64........................................................0.0 105 6.2.3 Computer software spending, % GDP........................................n/a n/a 6.2.4 ISO 9001 quality certificates/bn PPP$ GDP..............................0.3 132 6.2.5 High- & medium-high-tech manufactures, %.....................10.9 74 6.3 Knowledge diffusion...............................................................................3.8 135 6.3.1 Royalty & license fees receipts, % service exports...............0.0 106 6.3.2 High-tech exports less re-exports, %...........................................0.2 104 6.3.3 Comm., computer & info. services exports, %........................4.1 93 6.3.4 FDI net outflows, % GDP.....................................................................n/a n/a 7 Creative outputs...........................................27.3 117 7.1 Intangible assets.....................................................................................42.0 76 7.1.1 Domestic res trademark reg/bn PPP$ GDP.............................n/a n/a 7.1.2 Madrid trademark registrations/bn PPP$ GDP......................n/a n/a 7.1.3 ICT & business model creation†...................................................43.3 122 7.1.4 ICT & organizational model creation†.......................................40.7 118 7.2 Creative goods & services.................................................................21.4 111 7.2.1 Audio-visual & related services exports, %...............................0.0 75 7.2.2 National feature films/mn pop. 15–69.......................................n/a n/a 7.2.3 Paid-for dailies, circulation, % pop. 15–69.................................0.2 133 7.2.4 Printing & publishing manufactures, %......................................2.7 24 l 7.2.5 Creative goods exports, %...................................................................0.1 95 7.3 Online creativity.........................................................................................3.9 142 7.3.1 Generic top-level domains (TLDs)/th pop. 15–69................0.1 136 7.3.2 Country-code TLDs/th pop. 15–69................................................0.3 133 7.3.3 Wikipedia monthly edits/mn pop. 15–69..................................6.9 135 7.3.4 Video uploads on YouTube/pop. 15–69..................................15.2 141 Ethiopia
- 195. THEGLOBALINNOVATIONINDEX2013 I:Country/EconomyProfiles 171 Note: l indicates a strength; a weakness; * an index; † a survey question. Key indicators Population (millions)..............................................................................................................0.9 GDP (US$ billions)...................................................................................................................3.9 GDP per capita, PPP$.......................................................................................................4,791.2 Income group............................................................................................ Lower-middle income Region.............................................................................................South East Asia and Oceania Score (0–100) or value (hard data) Rank Global Innovation Index (out of 142).................................. 30.5 97 Innovation Output Sub-Index...................................................................................20.6 129 Innovation Input Sub-Index......................................................................................40.3 72 Innovation Efficiency Ratio.........................................................................................0.5 137 Global Innovation Index 2012 (based on GII 2012 framework).................................27.9 101 1 Institutions.....................................................58.6 75 1.1 Political environment...........................................................................50.9 84 1.1.1 Political stability*....................................................................................66.6 69 1.1.2 Government effectiveness*.............................................................18.8 117 1.1.3 Press freedom*.........................................................................................67.3 85 1.2 Regulatory environment...................................................................63.1 80 1.2.1 Regulatory quality*...............................................................................36.4 109 1.2.2 Rule of law*................................................................................................22.8 122 1.2.3 Cost of redundancy dismissal, salary weeks............................9.7 35 l 1.3 Business environment.........................................................................61.9 77 1.3.1 Ease of starting a business*.............................................................67.3 120 1.3.2 Ease of resolving insolvency*.........................................................48.4 44 l 1.3.3 Ease of paying taxes*...........................................................................69.9 68 2 Human capital & research...........................35.0 57 2.1 Education....................................................................................................46.5 86 2.1.1 Current expenditure on education, % GNI...............................4.2 66 2.1.2 Public expenditure/pupil, % GDP/cap......................................21.3 49 2.1.3 School life expectancy, years..........................................................15.7 24 l 2.1.4 PISA scales in reading, maths, & science...................................n/a n/a 2.1.5 Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary.......................................................26.5 111 2.2 Tertiary edu