![will be the state of Europe in times coming'—What did you mean, Professor, by that
phrase 'One shepherd and one herd'? Did you mean to convey that one state powerfully
armed would be a sort of international policeman, strong enough to keep the peace
among other nations? Did you have in mind a Germany whose mission would be to
shepherd the people of the world?"
"Absolutely not," replied Professor Stein; "by one shepherd I meant the imperialism of
the white race. White imperialism will divide the world between the white states. The
Western European and American cultural systems will rule. My idea is not the United
States of Europe, but the united cultural system of the white race."
"And when will that be possible, Professor?"
"As soon as nationalism has been thoroughly saturated, and conscious internationalism
has been achieved, and that will probably be within a hundred years."
"And meanwhile?" I asked.
"Alas! The world of to-day cannot be ruled with oil of roses, but only with blood."
THE END
Transcriber's Notes
Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
Errors in German phrases and the diacritic of "Liége" were not corrected.
The illustrations are low-resolution thumbnails; to see high-resolution images, click on the thumbnails.
The captions of the illustrations on P. 182 did not refer to the correct illustrations and were corrected
The following words appear both with and without hyphens and have not been changed: "candle[-]light",
"co[-]operation", "make[-]shift", "semi[-]circle", "sign[-]board", "track[-]side".
P. 48: "couse" changed to "course" (Of course, I suggested going with him).
P. 107: "soshes" changed to "sloshes" (the liquid ground sloshes).
P. 140: "have" changed to "leave" (the soldiers leave pits here).
P. 145: "repeal" changed to "repel" (We only use machine guns to repel).
P. 158: "chipping" changed to "clipping" (clipping their hair to the scalp).
P. 175: "Coloned" changed to "Colonel" (the Lieutenant Colonel confirmed).
P. 190: "Turkos" changed to "Turcos" (Here were the Turcos).
P. 211: "to" changed to "with" (We went with Von Stietencron).
P. 225: "center" changed to "canter" (A Uhlan on patrol passed at a canter).
P. 325: "Profesosr" changed to "Professor" (such an apostle of peace as Professor Stein).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/24307-250513082458-f58756eb/85/Grid-Application-Systems-Design-1st-Edition-April-J-Wells-37-320.jpg)
Grid Application Systems Design 1st Edition April J. Wells
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- 9. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-2997-5 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the conse- quences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wells, April J. Grid application systems design / April J. Wells. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8493-2997-5 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Computational grids (Computer systems) 2. Application software--Development. 3. System design. I. Title. QA76.9.C58W43 5 2007 004’.36--dc22 2007024790 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
- 10. v Contents Preface .......................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................xix PART I: IN THE BEGINNING 1 History..................................................................................................3 Computing ..................................................................................................3 Methodology ...............................................................................................4 Paradigm .....................................................................................................4 Data Directed Programming...................................................................5 Procedural Programming........................................................................5 C ........................................................................................................7 C++ (C plus plus)................................................................................7 BASIC (Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)..............8 COBOL..............................................................................................9 FORTRAN......................................................................................10 Perl ...................................................................................................10 Structured Programming ......................................................................11 Ada...................................................................................................12 Pascal................................................................................................12 Unstructured Programming..................................................................13 Imperative Programming ......................................................................15 ALGOL............................................................................................16 Modula 2..........................................................................................17 Modula 3..........................................................................................18 Oberon .............................................................................................19 Declarative Programming .....................................................................19 Functional Programming......................................................................20 Flow-Driven Programming ...................................................................20
- 11. vi N Contents Event-Driven Programming ..................................................................20 Class-Based Programming ....................................................................21 Java...................................................................................................21 C# ....................................................................................................22 Prototype-Based Programming .............................................................23 Component-Oriented Programming.....................................................23 Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) ................................................25 Component Object Model (COM) .......................................................25 Concept-Oriented Programming...........................................................26 Programming Paradigms and Grid............................................................26 2 Definition and Components..........................................................29 Definition..................................................................................................29 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Computing...................................................................31 Napster..................................................................................................31 Gnutella ................................................................................................32 Types .........................................................................................................33 Computational Grid..............................................................................33 Distributed Servers and Computation Sites ..................................... 34 Remote Instrumentation.................................................................. 34 Data Archives ...................................................................................35 Networks..........................................................................................36 Portal (User Interface) ......................................................................36 Security ............................................................................................37 Brokers .............................................................................................37 User Profiles......................................................................................38 Searching for Resources....................................................................38 Batch Job Submittal..........................................................................39 Credential Repository...................................................................... 40 Scheduler..........................................................................................41 Data Management............................................................................41 Data Grid............................................................................................. 42 Storage Mechanism Neutrality ........................................................ 42 Policy Neutrality...............................................................................43 Compatibility with Other Grid Infrastructures................................43 Storage Systems ................................................................................43 Access or Collaboration Grids.............................................................. 44 Large Format Displays..................................................................... 44 Presentation Environments.............................................................. 44 Interfaces to Grid Middleware......................................................... 44 Other Components...........................................................................45 Scavenging Grid....................................................................................45
- 12. Contents N vii Grid Scope.................................................................................................47 Project Grid, Departmental Grid, or Cluster Grid ................................47 Enterprise Grid or Campus Grid...........................................................47 Global Grid...........................................................................................47 3 Early Adopters...................................................................................49 Computational and Experimental Scientists ..............................................49 Bioinformatics.......................................................................................50 Corporations..............................................................................................50 Academia...................................................................................................50 University of Houston, Texas, United States. ........................................50 University of Ulm, Germany.................................................................51 The White Rose University Consortium, United Kingdom...................51 Science.......................................................................................................52 Particle Physics......................................................................................52 Industry.....................................................................................................53 Gaming.................................................................................................53 Financial ...............................................................................................54 Wachovia..........................................................................................55 RBC Insurance.................................................................................55 Charles Schwab ................................................................................55 Life Sciences ..............................................................................................56 American Diabetes Association .............................................................56 North Carolina Genomics and Bioinformatics Consortium..................57 Spain’s Institute of Cancer Research......................................................58 Petroleum ..................................................................................................58 Royal Dutch Shell.................................................................................58 Utilities......................................................................................................58 Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc..............................................................58 Manufacturing...........................................................................................58 Ford Motor Company...........................................................................58 Saab Automobile ...................................................................................59 Motorola Semiconductor.......................................................................59 Project MegaGrid ..................................................................................... 60 Southern Partnership for Advanced Computational Infrastructure (SPACI)...............................................................................61 Chicago Stock Exchange............................................................................62 Ohio Savings Bank ....................................................................................62 Governmental Agencies .............................................................................62 NASA....................................................................................................63 U.S. Department of Defense.................................................................63
- 13. viii N Contents European Union................................................................................... 64 Flemish Government............................................................................ 64 Benefits......................................................................................................65 Virtualization........................................................................................65 PART II: THE PARTS AND PIECES 4 Security..............................................................................................71 Security......................................................................................................71 Authentication ......................................................................................71 Passwords and Personal Identification Numbers...............................72 Public Key Infrastructure and Digital Certificates............................73 Tokens..............................................................................................73 Biometrics.........................................................................................75 Geography........................................................................................76 Passwords .........................................................................................78 Private Key Cryptography.................................................................78 Block Ciphers .................................................................................. 80 Stream Ciphers ................................................................................ 80 Public Key Cryptography ................................................................ 80 Digital Signature ............................................................................. 84 Authorization....................................................................................88 Delegation of Authority....................................................................88 Accounting.......................................................................................89 Audit ................................................................................................89 Access Control..................................................................................89 Usage Control...................................................................................92 Cryptography........................................................................................92 Block Cipher.....................................................................................93 Stream Ciphers .................................................................................93 Data Integrity...................................................................................97 Capability Resource Management ..................................................100 Database Security................................................................................102 Inference.........................................................................................102 5 Hardware......................................................................................... 115 Computers............................................................................................... 115 Blade Servers.......................................................................................120 Storage.....................................................................................................121 I/O Subsystems........................................................................................123 Underlying Network................................................................................124
- 14. Contents N ix Operating Systems...................................................................................124 Visualization Environments.....................................................................124 People ......................................................................................................125 6 Metadata..........................................................................................127 Defining Metadata...................................................................................127 Grid Metadata.....................................................................................131 Data Metadata ....................................................................................132 Physical Metadata...........................................................................133 Domain-Independent Metadata .....................................................133 Content-Dependent Metadata ........................................................133 Content-Independent Metadata......................................................134 Domain-Specific Metadata.............................................................134 Ontology.............................................................................................134 User Metadata ................................................................................134 Application Metadata .....................................................................134 External Metadata ...................................................................................135 Logical Metadata.....................................................................................135 User .........................................................................................................136 Data.........................................................................................................136 Resources.................................................................................................136 Metadata Services ....................................................................................136 Context ...............................................................................................136 Content...............................................................................................137 Structure .............................................................................................137 Defining Data Granularity..................................................................137 XML...............................................................................................137 Database.........................................................................................139 Access ......................................................................................................139 Metadata Formatting...............................................................................139 XML...................................................................................................140 What is XML?................................................................................140 Application.....................................................................................144 MCAT.....................................................................................................145 Conclusion...............................................................................................146 7 Drivers .............................................................................................147 Business ...................................................................................................149 Accelerated Time to Results ................................................................149 Operational Flexibility ........................................................................150 Leverage Existing Capital Investments................................................151 Better Resource Utilization .................................................................152
- 15. x N Contents Enhanced Productivity........................................................................152 Better Collaboration............................................................................153 Scalability............................................................................................154 Return on Investment (ROI)...............................................................155 Reallocation of Resources....................................................................156 Total Cost of Ownership (TCO).........................................................157 Technology ..............................................................................................158 Infrastructure Optimization................................................................158 Increase Access to Data and Collaboration..........................................158 Resilient, Highly Available Infrastructure ...........................................159 Most Efficient Use of Resources ..........................................................159 Services-Oriented Approach................................................................161 Batch-Oriented Approach ...................................................................161 Object-Oriented Approach..................................................................162 Supply and Demand............................................................................162 Open Standards ..................................................................................162 Corporate IT Spending Budgets..........................................................163 Cost, Complexity, and Opportunity ...................................................163 Better, Stronger, Faster........................................................................164 Efficiency Initiatives............................................................................165 PART III: APPLICATIONS IN THE GRID 8 Virtualization..................................................................................169 Definition................................................................................................172 Why Virtualization Matters................................................................172 How to Virtualize ...............................................................................175 Problems .............................................................................................176 ABI/API Emulation........................................................................177 9 Strategy and Planning..................................................................183 Introduction ............................................................................................183 Design .....................................................................................................186 Inputs and Outputs .................................................................................186 Parallelism versus Fragmentation ........................................................187 Data-Based Parallelism...................................................................189 Processing ...........................................................................................190 Data Storage........................................................................................190 Signoff.................................................................................................191 Implementation...................................................................................191 Launching Solution..............................................................................192
- 16. Contents N xi Technical Documentation ..............................................................194 User Documentation ......................................................................194 Evaluation and Maintenance...............................................................195 Services ...............................................................................................196 Analysis of a System.................................................................................197 Types of Systems .................................................................................198 Investigations ......................................................................................201 10 Programming .................................................................................205 Grid Programming ..................................................................................205 Parallel Programming..............................................................................205 Multi-Threaded Programming.................................................................212 Web Services............................................................................................213 SOAP..................................................................................................214 WSDL.................................................................................................214 WS-Inspection ....................................................................................215 11 Wrapping It Up.............................................................................. 217 Index.............................................................................................219
- 18. xiii Preface Computing and computer programming have come a long way since their begin- nings. Many of us have seen complete transformations in the technology of com- puting in our lifetimes. This author is relatively young when one looks at the history of computing, and has seen punch cards, programs stored on cassette tapes, dumb terminals, mainframes, PCs getting smaller and more powerful, and hand-held devices. This author has seen numbered Basic on an Apple IIe, DOS Qbasic, COBOL, highly structured and cryptic C, and Java. Nearly all of us can remember the rise in popularity of the World Wide Web and how the information superhighway first started to impact our lives. In the beginning, it consisted of loosely connected text files with very few pictures and even fewer sound and video files. In fact, this author can remember being frustrated when using a LYNX browser to search for information for classes, finding graphics in the text, and thinking that they were simply an intrusion. Graphics loaded slowly with the limited bandwidth of the network and often added little or nothing to the content. Look at where we are now. Streaming video, MP3s, games, and chat are daily parts of many millions of lives, along with the convenience of our cellular phones. In preschool, our kids are learning to mouse, type, and interact with mom, dad, and grandma through e-mail and chat. Places where we can reach out and touch our fellow man, such as MySpace, are becoming the new coffee shops and diners. The Web has become such a necessary part of many house- holds and many lives in one way or another that we often take it for granted as much as we do the television or the telephone. This is just another step on the road to utility computing. It is so necessary to doing what we need to do (paying bills in bed, watching movies in the backyard, reading the latest novels with our laptops on our laps) that we miss it greatly when it becomes unavailable for some reason. Internet cafés have become essential for many tourist locations and we often look for the wireless Internet “Free WiFi” sign on the door before choosing a cof- fee shop or restaurant (even McDonald’s and interstate rest areas have these signs). Housing areas are offering free Internet access or at the very least intranet access, and hotel chains have begun to have to offer free WiFi to attract clientele. In fact, the
- 19. xiv N Preface only place I have seen where there is true escape from the convenience of technology in keeping us connected is at the bottom of the Grand Canyon on a river raft trip. We are standing now, looking over the precipice into yet another paradigm shift, another breaking technology that promises to completely change how we think about computing: Grid computing. It has been suggested that the Grid may be even bigger than the Web; but when we look at the fact that much of the interac- tion with the Grid will be through Web interfaces, this is easy to explain. For most of us, the adventure is just beginning. For those of us who have done our time programming for the mainframe and then for open systems and client–server sys- tems, it is just another new model to learn; for others, it is a very big change. I, for one, look forward to the adventure. I am strapping on my technological parachute and pre- paring to free-dive off the edge and let the winds of change carry me where they may. Goals of This Book The main goal in writing this book, Grid Application Design, is to provide the reader with information on the Grid, its beginning, its design, background, and compo- nents, and to provide an idea of how these components will impact applications and how those applications can be designed to best fit into this new computing model. Many of the ideas and concepts are not new — far from it; many have been around for decades. These ideas, however, will have to be addressed in the context of the new model, with many different considerations included. Many people already know about the Grid and the power that it can bring to a computing environment. Many in business, however, are either just beginning to hear rumblings or are afraid to take the first tentative steps. The best medicine for this uncer- tainty is to understand the new concepts and to start to see the ways that these new concepts can potentially impact their institutions and their ways of computing in the near future. Audience The audience for this book consists of people who are starting to look (or who have been looking) at Grid computing as an option, or those who just want to learn more about the emerging technology. When I first started reading about the emerging tech- nology, I shared what I was learning with people with whom I worked. While the future I described was far more quickly emerging and grandiose than reality could hope to keep up with, what I thought would come is slowly coming to pass. I believe that the ultimate audience for this kind of information is even bigger than I originally thought, however. The audience should include database administrators, security administrators, systems analysts, systems administrators, programmers, and executives — in fact, anyone who is hearing the rumblings and wants to know more is destined to be in the audience of this book and the emerging technology.
- 20. Preface N xv The background in Part I is designed as just that — background. A lot of it is simply interesting reading. A lot of it is informational for people who are new to computing — the groundwork if you will of the history that has brought us to where we find our- selves today. If you already know how we got to where we are now, you may want to read it for its entertainment value, a trip down memory lane so to speak, or you may just want to skip large portions of it as irrelevant. Part II starts cutting into the “meat” of the book, introducing the Grid and its com- ponents and important concepts and ideas. Many of these ideas are critical to under- standing the underpinnings of the Grid, the underpinnings around which you will build your applications. These concepts have the potential to impact your organization and define the impact of anything that you might bring into, or build within, your Grid environment. A foundational knowledge of this information is vital for those building within the Grid and those administering the Grid and its contents. Part III delves into the role that application programming will play in this new paradigm and how those applications need to act to “play nicely together.” Structure of the Book This book is broken down into three sections and eleven chapters as follows. Part I Part I lays the groundwork. We discuss some background on computing and how we got to where we are. We are, in many places and many situations, already taking baby steps toward integration of the new paradigm into the existing framework. Chapter 1 Chapter 1 discusses computer programming paradigm shifts through history, how we got here, the major milestones that we have seen in conceptual programming and the groundwork for the Grid, where we are launching the future today. It includes information on the beginnings of networking and the Internet, as it is the model on which many people are defining the interaction point through which most will work with the Grid. Chapter 2 Chapter 2 provides a definition of where much of the Grid is now, the major players that have gotten it to where it is, and many of the components that make up the Grid system. Every Grid has components of hardware as well as software. These components work together to create the magic of the whole.
- 21. xvi N Preface Chapter 3 Chapter 3 is sort of the “proof of the pudding.” It provides a partial list of those commercial and academic ventures that have been the early adopters of the Grid and have started to realize its potential. We have a long way to go before any- one can hope to realize anything as ubiquitous as commodity computing, but also we have come a long way from our beginnings. There are more and more organizations beginning to join the growing group that have already adopted the Grid. Some are smaller organizations leveraging inexpensive hardware, and others globally large organizations trying to bring their infrastructures under a single management paradigm. Part II Part II goes into the pieces and parts that go into building a Grid. A variety of ideas, concepts, and components are involved in the definition of what one needs to have one’s brain around, before stepping off of the precipice and hang-gliding into the future. Not all Grids need to have all components; just as one organization is radi- cally different from another organization, so is one organization’s Grid different from that of another organization. Chapter 4 Chapter 4 looks at the security concerns and some of the means that can be used to address those concerns. As the Grid continues to emerge, so will the security concerns and the security measures developed to address those concerns. With all the different rules and regulations that govern our organizations today, and all the threats (internal as well as external) security is and needs to be uppermost in all of our minds. Security, as it applies to the Grid, has come far in recent years and the implementation has become more flexible and simplified. Chapter 5 Chapter 5 looks at the underlying hardware on which the Grid runs. Because the Grid can run on nearly anything, from PC to supercomputer, the hardware is dif- ficult to define, but there are emerging components being built today specifically with the goal of enabling the new technology. One of the selling points of a Grid infrastructure is that it can run on nearly anything and that blade servers that are easily snapped into and out of the Grid can add capacity and replace defective components.
- 22. Preface N xvii Chapter 6 Metadata is important in any large system. Chapter 6 looks at the role that metadata plays and will need to play in the Grid as it continues to evolve. This metadata is used not only to find data, but also to locate resources and to deliver the best possible performance to the programs and applications that run on the infrastructure. Chapter 7 Many different business and technology drivers are pushing organizations into the features and flexibility that the Grid can offer today and will continue to offer in the future. Chapter 7 looks at not only the technological reasons many organiza- tions have for implementing a Grid environment (and face it, the best reason for many technologists is simply because it is really cool), but also the business drivers that will help the technologists convince business users that the new technology will be the best technology to meet business needs and to allow that technology to make its inroads into the organization. Just as organizations are changing, the drivers for Grid adop- tion are also changing, but this is simply another layer of flexibility that the Grid can bring. Part III Part III goes into deeper details of applications in the Grid environment. Applica- tions have evolved over the past several decades, and continue to redefine them- selves depending on the organization in which they find themselves. We have gone from centrally hosted applications on mainframes to client–server applications to widely distributed applications that are accessed via the Internet or intranet. The Grid will add its own environmental impact to the evolution of applications and will help steer the direction that that evolution will take. Chapter 8 Chapter 8 allows us to look at virtualization as it applies to the organization and to an infrastructure environment. Because the Grid looks at all resources as a generic pool of power from which the computing needs can be met, virtualization of the different components becomes more necessary. While the way that a Windows server works internally differs from the ways that a Linux server or a mainframe works, the ways that an application taps into the power of each server can be very similar. While the I/O performance of an attached disk may differ greatly from the performance of an NAS or a SAN, the access of data from any given device needs to be as seamless as possible and the location of that data must be fluid as well.
- 23. xviii N Preface Chapter 9 Chapter 9 looks at the strategy and planning needed to create the Grid-enabled applications that we are trying to bring to our organizations or that our organiza- tions are demanding of us. We must look at systems analysis and design in a whole new light because the way we design these applications will have to undergo grow- ing pains. Chapter 10 Chapter 10 takes programming a step further and looks at the emerging stan- dards of programming that will make the modularization of the Grid applications possible. Chapter 11 Finally, Chapter 11 puts it all together. We summarize what we already discussed and then discuss where we can go from here. We are standing on the edge of a new era. Let the adventure begin!
- 24. xix Acknowledgments My heartiest thanks go to everyone who contributed to my ability to bring this book to completion. Thanks, especially, to John Wyzalek from Auerbach Publica- tions for his support and faith that I could do it. His support has been invaluable. This book is, as are they all, dedicated to my husband Larry, my son Adam, and my daughter Amandya. They are infinitely understanding and patient. And this book has seen its share of pain (both physical and emotional) and tribulation, and for that I am infinitely sorry. Remember that anything is possible if one works hard enough and wants it badly enough. Make your dreams a reality. It is also dedicated to our dog Crystal, who died January 17, 2007, just as I was finishing the last chapter of this book. No longer will I work on a chapter and have her warm heavy head resting on my knee. No longer will I have her to keep me company while I read, research, and write. She will be sorely missed. She awaits us at the Rainbow Bridge, her eyes once more clear, her barks echoing in the sunlight as she chases the ducks and the rabbits, the birds, and the prairie dogs. (See www. Rainbows Bridge.com) Just this side of heaven is a place called Rainbow Bridge. When an animal dies that has been especially close to someone here, that pet goes to Rainbow Bridge. There are meadows and hills for all of our special friends so they can run and play together. There is plenty of food, water and sunshine, and our friends are warm and comfortable. All the animals who had been ill and old are restored to health and vigor. Those who were hurt or maimed are made whole and strong again, just as we remember them in our dreams of days and times gone by. The animals are happy and content, except for one small thing; they each miss someone very special to them, who had to be left behind.
- 25. xx N Acknowledgments They all run and play together, but the day comes when one suddenly stops and looks into the distance. His bright eyes are intent. His eager body quivers. Suddenly he begins to run from the group, flying over the green grass, his legs carrying him faster and faster. You have been spotted, and when you and your special friend finally meet, you cling together in joyous reunion, never to be parted again. The happy kisses rain upon your face; your hands again caress the beloved head, and you look once more into the trusting eyes of your pet, so long gone from your life but never absent from your heart. Then you cross Rainbow Bridge together.... —Author unknown
- 26. 1 1 IN THE BEGINNING Every adventure begins at the beginning. If one takes a river raft trip down the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon, one has to start the adventure with a discussion of what will come, of the people who have gone before us down this same river, what one is going to expect from the trip, and what pitfalls one is likely to face along the way. We will start the adventure with an overview of the evolution of programming paradigms. This section looks at the way programming paradigms have evolved and how programming languages have evolved along with them. Computing itself has, in some fashion, been around as long as man. Programming languages and programming paradigms have been around as long as electronic computing. This section looks at these beginnings and begins to weave the tapestry of where we have been and how we have gotten to this point in the adventure. The adventure winds its way through the bends and curves in the river just as on the river raft trip. There are bumps in the river bottom and rapids along the way, as well as calm easy stretches. We start with mainframes and linear programming. We expand to include different platforms and different paradigms. The way that we approach programming evolves as increased computing resources become available. We have gone from programming of a few kilobytes of memory to the view that “memory and disk space are cheap. We will buy whatever it takes to make the programs run” to make the most of the resources we have. We start with the advances and begin to look at distributed computing. We look at peer-to-peer processing and then the earliest beginnings of the Grid in all the ways it is becoming defined. We examine the different kids of Grids and how I
- 27. 2 N Grid Applications Systems Design the different definitions can be compared, contrasted, and combined to build the overall picture. Regardless of what one wants to accomplish, a Grid is likely to fill the need. There are even Grids that include the most overlooked resource that a company has — its intellectual capital. Finally, we look at some of the experiences of others who have stood where many of us stand today, on the edge of deciding whether they really want to take the step off the ledge of the great divide, out of the known and into the future through implementation of the Grid and its new concepts in computing. This background section brings the reader up to speed. Many will skip or skim the material, while others will enjoy the walk down memory lane, and still others will find walking through these pages of the first section very educational. Tighten your flotation device, grab onto the ropes lashing the equipment to the raft, and enjoy the adventure.
- 28. 3 Chapter 1 History In pioneer days they used oxen for heavy pulling, and when one ox couldn’t budge a log, they didn’t try to grow a larger ox. We shouldn’t be trying for bigger computers, but for more systems of computers. — Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hopper Computing has become almost synonymous with mechanical computing and PCs laptops, palmtops, mainframes, midranges, supercomputers, servers, and other modern devices that are based on this idea of what computing is, but computers and computing have a rich history. This history has, at its basis, the programs that run the devices and the programming languages that were used to create them. Computing What people think of when they hear the phrase “computer programming” or “programming languages” often has as much to do with when they became acquainted with computers and computing as it does with what they do in comput- ing. Many think of assembler language, many others COBOL or FORTRAN, and still others Visual Basic or Java. This book has more to do with how the programming is used and the ideas behind making the programs behave nicely in the Grid environment than it has to do with how the programs are made or in what programming languages they are written (although some languages adapt more readily than others). This chapter, however, provides a general background of programming lan- guages and provides a common starting place.
- 29. 4 N Grid Applications Systems Design Blaise Pascal, noted mathematician and scientist, in 1642 built a mechanical calcu- lator, called the Pascaline. While Pascal was one of the few to actually make use of his novel device, it did help to lay the foundations for mechanical computing as we know it today. While this was a mechanical adding machine with the capacity for utilizing eight digits, using it meant that the user hand-turned the gear (later, people improved on the design by adding a crank to make turning easier) as the mechanism for carrying out the calculations. In Pascal’s system, a one-toothed gear (the one’s place) engaged its tooth with the teeth of a gear with ten teeth once every time the single toothed gear revolved. The revolution of the one’s place tracker engaging with the ten’s place tracker, which in turn engaged the hundreds and thousands, ten thousands, and hundred thousands gears was the same basic principle as the original odometer (the mechanical mechanism used for counting the number of miles, or kilometers that a car has traveled). Of course, this was in the years before odometers were computerized. This Pascaline calculator had its difficulties, however. It had trouble carrying (not an admirable quality in a mathematical machine, but it was a start). The major issue was that its gears tended to jam during use. Pascal was the only person who was able to make repairs to the machine, making bro- ken parts and jammed gears time-consuming conditions to rectify. This was one of the primary reasons for its lack of popularity (that and the fact that the Pascaline would have cost more than the salaries of all the people it could have replaced). The device proved however, that mechanical calculation was possible. But this was hardware. We are concerned, primarily with software advances that have marked the computer’s progress through history. We are going to primar- ily look at changes in computer programming languages and programming models through history. Methodology A programming methodology is a codified set of practices. These practices are often accompanied by either formal training materials or educational programs or, at the very least, diagrams and formal guidelines. Part of the distinction of a methodology is that it is repeatable and carried out over and over in the effort to create software programs or systems. The other part of the distinction is that methodology is centered on software engineering and not simply the method employed in the programming. Another way to look at methodologies is that they are the assumptions, con- cepts, values, and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality for the commu- nity that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline. Paradigm A programming paradigm, on the other hand, is more relevant to the idea of Grids today.
- 30. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 31. in the book he would read whether it was wise to make a landing there and just what conditions he would meet. Here are some bits verbatim from the book. "In many cases the woods are so stunted and straggling that during winter, aerial observation of troops actually in them would probably be possible.... Somewhat soft after rain. Difficult for a landing.... The spa race course on the Francorchamps road is useless." In this and other ways were the British aviators cautioned about using their aeroplanes in Belgium. For the last few years we have all been hearing about the wonderful maps and information that Germany had of all the countries in Europe. No one, however, has ever seen any of these books; and no one has ever publicly quoted any of their contents. I believe they exist. I think, however, that the photographs printed here are the first permanent public records of the most confidential books in use by the army of a world power. I think they have a certain historical significance. At any rate, that England should possess them is amazing—England whom everybody but Germany thought was the least prepared of all.
- 32. XVI
- 33. THE FUTURE—PEACE OR WAR Impressions gained during my talk with the 1914 choice for the Nobel Peace Prize—Professor Ludwig Stein In The Hague the Temple of Peace is empty; all over the world ordnance factories are full. Since the day of that first convention in Geneva educated men have organized and pushed the international movement, which is called world peace. Is it a success or a failure? At his home in Berlin, early in February, I talked with one of the leading men of this movement concerning these things. I asked Professor Ludwig Stein,—whose activities for world peace are well known in America, he having been chosen for the Nobel Peace prize of 1914 which was never awarded, he being formerly one of the three permanent members of the Bern Bureau for International Peace, he having been selected to present the famous declaration of peace to the late Edward the Seventh, whom the peace people called Edward the Peacemaker, he having worked side by side with Andrew Carnegie for the "ideal"—I asked him, could peace soon be made in this war? A deliberate man is Professor Stein, and he thought so long without replying that his personality impressed itself upon you before he had uttered a word—a strange combination of the dreamer and the man of to-day, a contrast of gentle eyes and grim jaw. "At this time," he said, tapping his finger on the copper-topped smoking table in his study, "peace is impossible. President Wilson's endeavors are futile. Before a decisive result has been reached, peace cannot be thought of. Once Warsaw is captured, it is likely that Russia will make peace; or if not Warsaw, if a large really decisive battle is fought." It seemed significant that such an apostle of peace as Professor Stein should have so completely given up all faith in the immediate efficacy of his movement. I asked him therefore if he considered it a failure. "The peace movement," he said, "is like a fire department. If a few houses burn, or the conflagration spreads even over a number of blocks, the fire fighters are effective, but if a whole city burns, like the big Chicago fire, the fire department can do nothing. And if the whole world burns, what can the workers for peace do? Our movement is not strong enough; it is not big enough. For the Balkan war, the firemen were effective, they could confine the burning within that limited area, but when all Europe sprang up in flames, we failed." I mentioned to the Professor that this was a new conception to the peace movement in America, the first admission from a peace-man that the power of the movement was to-day limited. I asked Professor Stein then if we were to think of the movement as being a limited success or was there any chance of it ever attaining something bigger? "The task of the nineteenth century," he replied, "was to let national feeling grow subconsciously. In Prussia, Fichte, the first rector of the new Berlin University, made his
- 34. famous 'Speeches for the German Nation.' Jahn preached 'German Unity.' Achim von Arnim collected German songs and war songs of German warriors. Even Schiller wrote in his later years of Germany as the heart and center of Europe, and began to feel more national than Goethe ever did. The idea grew and produced united Italy and united Germany. But this process of attaining national consciousness is not yet achieved. In America it is not nearly finished. It is a sociological, unconsciously pedagogical process. The time will come when nationalism will be thoroughly saturated in each country. When it does and not until then, states will see that it is impossible to produce and consume everything. That will be the beginning of international consciousness. Then the national spirit will become secondary to conscious internationalism. When that time comes, world peace will be possible." I was going to ask Professor Stein how far off that day was but thought it best first to take up his point, the thorough establishment of the national idea being the beginning of world peace. "As the national feeling grows," I asked him, "will not the goal for peace become always more remote? It seems to me that international consciousness is dependent upon the people of one country knowing the people of another. How can, for instance, the Russian peasant ever understand the customs and personality of say, the poor man in England? Because of geographical reasons they can never get into touch with one another; how then are the masses of the states of the world ever going to understand each other, and how without this understanding can there ever be world peace?" Professor Stein believes that this barrier can be overcome. "Modern science and fast steamers," he replied, "the wireless, and better international trade understanding are constantly bringing together all states. Through journalists, merchants, diplomats and extensive traveling on the part of the people of all countries, the inhabitants of all different parts of the world begin to know each other. A hundred years ago the Roumanian peasant did not know possibly that there was an Argentine. To- day, though, the Roumanian knows that the price he gets for his wheat depends upon what the Argentine farmers get for theirs. I believe that as science progresses and culture spreads over the world, that the geographical barrier to peace can be broken down. Consider Switzerland, it is the ideal. Three races, French, German and Italian, live within its walls, but they are held together by culture." I pointed out that Switzerland was so small that the French, Germans and Italians had a chance to know and understand their different customs and personalities, and asked Professor Stein if culture was also holding together Austria-Hungary? "Austria," he said, "is an exception. Politically it is necessary to have the monarchial symbol there, because only in a military state would it be possible for so many different races to live at peace with themselves. Austria is different from Switzerland because it is a crazy quilt of many different, uncultured, mostly illiterate, to some extent nomadic races." The Professor, who is a great admirer of Herbert Spencer and whom Spencer said understood him better than any Continental thinker, thereupon mentioned the point that the famous Englishman had made.
- 35. "Spencer," he said, "wrote that instead of war, a competition in traffic and industry would take place between nations." "But, Professor," I asked, "does not traffic and industry breed war; what caused this war? Was not commercial jealousy between England and Germany one of the vital causes of the war?" He admitted that it was, and went on to say: "After this war, the Englishman will look at his books, he will take his pencil in his hand and he will begin figuring. He will get up a balance sheet, and he will find that war does not pay. England is rational to excess. For years she has been the political clearing house of the world. She could in this way rule five hundred million people as long as these people were not striving for nationalism. But Germany attains its conscious nationalism, and asks herself, Why should I allow the thirty-eight million people of Great Britain, through their political clearing house, to have such a dominate influence on the affairs of the world? Wherefore in the last analysis, this war was caused by the thorough gaining of national consciousness that English diplomacy has no longer been able to retard. And under the industrial system of to-day, things are not done with papers passing through a clearing house, but with blood. "I regard this war as an expression of the solidarity of the world on the minus side. It is an underground solidarity, but is having, for the moment, a negative influence because commerce is stopped. The United States is feeling it, it is holding up your country. It is holding up China which cannot get money for necessary improvements. But all this is working towards the conscious solidarity of the future, which will be expressed in a positive war; when fighting will be done not with cannons but with contracts; when not blood but ink will be wasted." "You believe then, Professor," I asked, "that the day will come when there will be no war, when fighting actually will be done with ink? Suppose that day comes, will it be a good thing? Do you consider international peace a friend or an enemy to robust normal manhood? Do you think that war cleans out degenerate tendencies of peaceful civilization?" Deciding that this was a metaphysical question, Professor Stein preferred not to answer it. He did though say this: "In the Bible it says that the holy fire must be kept burning on the altar. It is a good thing for the world that there are idealists to keep the fire going. Men like Carnegie, Rockefeller, and the puritan and quaker elements, they do their service to the world in this way. The world must have ideals. International peace is an ideal. It is like the point of a compass, the north star that the mariner sees, or the star of the desert. It points the way for those who want to go toward a certain goal. I say, that as an ideal, it is impossible of achievement, because the very way to it shows the people where they really want to go." "But, Professor," I suggested, "if a nation has only ideals, it is going to get into trouble. I have heard it expressed that the peace movement has done the United States more harm than good. Will you, as one of its hardest workers, give some message to the people of America, on the status of international peace to-day and in the future?"
- 36. "Your country," he said, "has not yet attained its nationalism, but it is most wonderful, because it is not formed like Austria, of half civilized, uncultured races held together by the monarchical system, but because it is welding itself together from material, a large part of which was composed of the scum of Europe. I wonder that it has been able to make the strides towards nationalism, that it already has. No state in the world has progressed so far by comparison towards national consciousness as has America in so short a time. Up to now, America has been the student of Europe, but from now on, America will be the teacher. To-day doubly so; with the Panama Canal you are the forepost of the white race against the yellow. The geographical and moral position that your country holds, imposes upon it a great duty. It is to hold back the East. Your country cannot step aside from the yellow races. You must be prepared to cope with them." "What, Professor! You are suggesting armament for the United States. Why! that is against every teaching of the peace propagandist in our country." "If the people of the United States," stated Professor Stein deliberately, "believe that the peace movement is bound to save them from war, they have either totally misconstrued it, or they have been grossly misinformed. A nation must be prepared for war. If the rulers of a nation leave their country unprepared, they are guilty of criminal neglect. In China its four hundred millions of people are unprepared, and are therefore at the mercy of a few million Japanese who are prepared. That is because in this generation might is right, and all that we workers for peace can do, without injuring our states, is to face the facts of this generation, be prepared for war, if war there is to be, and keep on working for our ideal. Anything else is a dream." "But, Professor," I remarked, "that is not the peace idea as it has been spread broadcast in America. Those who believe in the movement, think that the peace societies of our country can keep us out of war. What you have just said disagrees with Andrew Carnegie's peace utterances in the United States. Would you mind telling me the difference between your viewpoint and Mr. Carnegie's?" "I shall be glad to do so," replied Professor Stein. "Mr. Carnegie looks at the peace movement from a puritanical viewpoint. He has interpreted the biblical text of turning the sword into a plow-share literally as applying to the present day. I believe that swords will be turned into plow shares, but not in our generation. That will come to pass, not because it is in the Bible, but because the imminent logic of history will bring it about. Eventually the imminent logic of history will create international peace. The puritanical workers for peace believe that because it is written in the Bible that all men are born equal, they should try to equalize mankind to-day. It will take about a hundred years to educate and solidify the white race alone. It will take about ten thousand years, let us say, to educate all the races of the world and achieve a world brotherhood. The great mistake that is made is in thinking that the ideals of the Bible are possible to-day. They are utterly impossible." I then asked Professor Stein to summarize his opinions for me. "I have read your paper," I said, "written before the war, on Cosmopolitism, National, State and International Compromise. There is one point I want to ask you about. You wrote—these are not your exact words, Professor—'What poets and philosophers have dreamed of, and what the Catholic Church has in some respects already realized: One shepherd and one herd! that
- 37. will be the state of Europe in times coming'—What did you mean, Professor, by that phrase 'One shepherd and one herd'? Did you mean to convey that one state powerfully armed would be a sort of international policeman, strong enough to keep the peace among other nations? Did you have in mind a Germany whose mission would be to shepherd the people of the world?" "Absolutely not," replied Professor Stein; "by one shepherd I meant the imperialism of the white race. White imperialism will divide the world between the white states. The Western European and American cultural systems will rule. My idea is not the United States of Europe, but the united cultural system of the white race." "And when will that be possible, Professor?" "As soon as nationalism has been thoroughly saturated, and conscious internationalism has been achieved, and that will probably be within a hundred years." "And meanwhile?" I asked. "Alas! The world of to-day cannot be ruled with oil of roses, but only with blood." THE END Transcriber's Notes Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Errors in German phrases and the diacritic of "Liége" were not corrected. The illustrations are low-resolution thumbnails; to see high-resolution images, click on the thumbnails. The captions of the illustrations on P. 182 did not refer to the correct illustrations and were corrected The following words appear both with and without hyphens and have not been changed: "candle[-]light", "co[-]operation", "make[-]shift", "semi[-]circle", "sign[-]board", "track[-]side". P. 48: "couse" changed to "course" (Of course, I suggested going with him). P. 107: "soshes" changed to "sloshes" (the liquid ground sloshes). P. 140: "have" changed to "leave" (the soldiers leave pits here). P. 145: "repeal" changed to "repel" (We only use machine guns to repel). P. 158: "chipping" changed to "clipping" (clipping their hair to the scalp). P. 175: "Coloned" changed to "Colonel" (the Lieutenant Colonel confirmed). P. 190: "Turkos" changed to "Turcos" (Here were the Turcos). P. 211: "to" changed to "with" (We went with Von Stietencron). P. 225: "center" changed to "canter" (A Uhlan on patrol passed at a canter). P. 325: "Profesosr" changed to "Professor" (such an apostle of peace as Professor Stein).
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