Higher resolution subsurface-imaging - jpt article
- 1. R&D GRAND CHALLENGES 44 JPT • MARCH 2012 Editor’s note: This is the fifth in a series of articles on the great challenges facing the oil and gas industry as outlined by the SPE Research and Development (R&D) Committee. The R&D challenges comprise broad upstream business needs: increasing recovery factors, in-situ molecular manipulation, carbon capture and sequestration, produced water management, higher resolution subsurface imaging of hydrocarbons, and the environment. The articles in this series examine each of these challenges in depth. White papers covering these challenges are available at www.spe.org/industry/ globalchallenges and allow reader comments and open discussion of the topics. Introduction It is hard to read road signs if you have poor eyesight, which is why driver’s licenses are issued with restrictions requiring that corrective lenses must be worn. Likewise, it is hard to find and exploit subsurface resources if you can’t clearly see your targets or monitor the movement of fluids in the reservoir. Engineers now have powerful tools to precisely model subsurface reser- voir production behavior, but a precise answer is still wrong if it is derived from an inaccurate subsurface description. Geoscientists make maps and rock prop- erty models of the subsurface by inter- preting images that are produced from remote sensing data. Analogs from mod- ern depositional environments and out- crop exposures guide subsurface data interpretation to predict ahead of the bit, then postdrill geostatistics are used to fill in stratigraphic details between wellbore control points. Selection of the right dep- ositional model, facies distribution, and geostatistical analog depends on having the sharpest, most detailed and accurate image of the subsurface possible—the Grand Challenge of Higher Resolution Subsurface Imaging. Over the past century, the industry has relentlessly sought ways to improve subsurface imaging of hydrocarbons. Canadian inventor Reginald Fessen- den first patented the use of the seis- mic method to infer geology in 1917. A decade later, Schlumberger lowered an electric tool down a borehole in France to record the first well log. Today, advances in seismic and gravity data acquisition, electromagnetics, signal processing and modeling powered by high-performance computing, and the nanotechnology rev- olution are at the forefront of improved reservoir imaging. In this paper, we will examine the challenges of getting higher resolution subsurface images of hydrocarbons and touch on emerging research trends and technologies aimed at delivering a more accurate reservoir picture. The Problem Statement Hydrocarbon accumulations occur thou- sands of feet below the Earth’s surface and the days of finding subsurface hydro- carbons through extrapolation of surface geology are all but gone. Now explora- tion is done with remote sensing tools that seek to generate sharper pictures with greater detail of the lateral and ver- tical changes in subsurface rock layers and sometimes the porosity and pore- filling hydrocarbons we require. If you have ever seen an aerial photograph of a delta, you can imagine what a subsur- face reservoir could look like—channels and depositional bars hold the coars- est sediments with the most porosity while oxbow lakes and floodplain muds can be seen as potential barriers to flow. Now imagine that instead of air between the observer and the geologic feature, you must see through countless layers of rock with complex physical proper- ties that obscure or muddle your vision of the delta below. Further imagine that you have a handful of well penetrations in your delta that stretches over several square kilometers and you want to see how produced and injected fluids move between wells. The industry’s goal is to continuous- ly improve the subsurface images needed to better find and produce hydrocarbons in reservoirs such as this. Obstacles to this goal include remote-sensing limita- tions imposed by the physics of the rocks themselves (e.g. energy attenuation with depth, bed thickness and lateral extent relative to signal wavelength, and vari- able rock velocity and density properties that can scatter or complicate input sig- nal), as well as instrumentation and com- puting power limits. On top of the tech- nology challenges, there are economic considerations.Ifitcostsmoretoacquire an advanced dataset than you can hope to recoup from a development, the tech- nology might as well not exist. We recog- nize that absolute accuracy and precision will never be achieved, no matter how good our technology becomes, since all measured data are imperfect. The “grand challenge” is to achieve the truly fit-for- purpose subsurface image at good eco- nomic value. Research that addresses imaging limitations is advancing worldwide on a dizzying array of technologies, but the problem is complex. Sometimes the res- Higher Resolution Subsurface Imaging Jack Neal and Chris Krohn, ExxonMobil Upstream Research
- 2. R&D GRAND CHALLENGES 46 JPT • MARCH 2012 ervoir target is undermasking layers of salt, thrust sheets, or volcanics. It may be more than 30,000 feet below the sur- face, hidden within a producing field, or have physical properties that are near- ly indistinguishable from surrounding rocks. The problems generated by imag- ing through a complex and unknown medium highlight not only the challenge to achieve higher resolution, but also concerns on depth conversion. Diffract- ed, attenuated, and multiply reflected signal energy can result from the com- plex physical property structure of rock layerstodegradesubsurfaceimaging,but a higher resolution of the image is only part of the challenge. Accurate place- ment of a target can be even more criti- cal and correct depth placement is espe- cially important for exploration drilling in areas of overpressure. Increasing com- putational power, multicomponent and rich azimuth data collection, and algo- rithm efficiency are bringing the indus- try forward toward a more accurate and detailed Earth model that uses all of the signals possible in seismology; even bet- ter seismic data acquisition and process- ing technologies are needed. Only a minuscule fraction of the subsurface can be directly observed: the portion generally less than 12 inches in diameter that is penetrated by boreholes. Directly observed, that is, if cored, oth- erwise indirectly observed through well logs. Well logs can sense a short distance into the formation, depending on the character of the signal/receiver setup, but the tradeoff is depth into the forma- tion at the expense of vertical resolu- tion. Moving just a few meters away from the wellbore puts reservoir imaging back into a remote sensing problem with limi- tations for our ability to illuminate and view the region. Generally, sources and receivers must be placed far away at the surface and energy propagated a long distance to the target and back. Corre- spondingly, there is a large drop in reso- lution. Compare this situation with the medical imaging problem, which allows X-ray sources and detectors to be used around the patient. In some cases, geo- physical sources and receivers can be placed much nearer to the zone of inter- est along wellbores, but then it like try- ing to see through a key hole; the source and receiver locations may or may not adequately illuminate the region that we want to image. Reflection seismology is the most used remote sensing method in geophys- ics. Seismic data delineates subsurface velocity and density variations, but if rockpropertiesarefavorable,theycanbe used to distinguish hydrocarbons versus formation water in a reservoir. Repeated 3D surveys over the same area can track fluid movement through time (4D). How- ever, 4D surveying has its challenges: Weatherford Labs helps you get more from your core by combining an unsurpassed global team of geoscientists, engineers, technicians and researchers with the industry’s most comprehensive, integrated laboratory services worldwide. From core analysis, sorption, geochemistry and isotopic composition to detailed basin modeling and comprehensive data packages, we provide you with real reservoir rock and fluid information that hasn’t been distilled by a simulator or iterated by software. We call it “The Ground Truth™ ” – giving you the accurate answers you need for better reservoir understanding.You’ll call it a better return on your reservoir investment.To learn more, contact TheGroundTruth@weatherfordlabs.com. With reservoirs becoming increasingly complex, you need the most accurate information you can get to better understand your reservoir. More_Core_4.4375x7.5_4C.indd 1 1/4/2011 8:45:11 AM
- 3. R&D GRAND CHALLENGES 48 JPT • MARCH 2012 time to acquire, process, and accurately alignwithpastsurveys,limitsincoverage caused by production facilities, and lim- its in resolution due to earth physics and illumination. Furthermore, it is costly. Emerging technology of cross-well geophysical imaging offers to bridge the gapbetweenhighresolutionwelllogsand surface seismic resolution, but the tech- nology has significant limitations and has not reached broad application. There is a great need for improved technolo- gies that image reservoirs and pore-fill- ing fluids at high resolution within pro- ducing fields while operating within the constraints imposed by the environment. With the growth of unconvention- al resources that require stimulation to produce at economic rates, imaging of the stimulation itself has become a hot topic for research and development. The understanding of these rocks as reser- voirs is still in its infancy compared with conventional reservoirs. Therefore, addi- tional research into resolving controls on unconventional resource producibil- ity remains a challenge. Reflection Seismology What progress is being made toward delivering more accurate and higher res- olution subsurface images? Seismology hasearthphysicschallengestoovercome. Signalssentintothegroundarereflected, refracted, diffracted, mode converted, and attenuated as they pass through lay- ers of the earth. At greater depth, signal attenuation reduces resolution. Under complex geology, distortion of the wave- field can give false images. The past few years have seen a flurry of innovation and image improvement, due largely to advances in computing speed, which con- tinues to follow Moore’s Law by averaging a doubling of processing speed every year up to the current record holder that is capable of 8 petaflops (8 quadrillion cal- culations per second—Fig. 1) processing. What all that computing power allows is the mathematical transformation of 10s to 100s of terabytes of data recorded in a modernsurveyintoimagesthatgeoscien- tists can interpret. The processing capability increase has occurred in parallel with data recording advancements such as multi- component and high effort, multi-azi- muth surveys now common in areas of the greatest imaging challenges such as the Gulf of Mexico sub-salt plays. Enabling this type of data-rich survey is instrumentation to record an increas- ing number of channels, a capability that has doubled every three and one-half years since 1970, with 1 million channel acquisition in the near future. These new acquisition capabilities seek to illumi- nate geology previously hidden by com- plex rock structure. Additionally, data recorded at far offset angles and azi- muths, capturing shear waves in addi- tion to compressional waves, can pro- vide information on rock anisotropy that may be driven by differences in Fig. 2—Dual coil shooting acquisition. Left, two source and recording vessels, S1 and S2, sail along two circles (12–15 km in diameter) that have the centers separated by dx and dy distances. Right, coverage fold (data density) and bin offset-azimuth distribution (spider diagram—data richness); the bin size used to calculate the attributes was 25 m×25 m (Moldoveanu and Kapoor, 2009) Fig. 1—Processing speed in flops (floating point operations per second) through time of the top 500 published computers and the sum total global capacity.
- 4. 49JPT • MARCH 2012 lithology, fracture density, or pore flu- ids. Greater recording capabilities have led to new methods of acquisition and processing aimed at capturing a broad- er range of frequencies (bandwidth) of seismic signal, without introducing too much noise. Increased bandwidth is a key to higher resolution seismic reflec- tion images. The current frontier for seismic acquisition includes cableless and wire- less recording, high-density rich-azi- muth recording with simultaneous sources, higher quality land seismic, and low frequency signals. Both cableless and wireless recording are very attrac- tive concepts, enabling easier and safer seismic data acquisition in remote or sensitive environments. Cableless sys- tems with local memory are commer- cially available, but the data cannot be collected in real time. Although not yet ready to be deployed at large commercial scale (Crice, 2011), wireless sensors are promising. Success will come if the lim- itations of wireless transmission band- width needed to accommodate seismic data recording rates and volumes can be overcome, and if recording and real- time QC objectives can be met through advances in memory and battery power. Several contractor groups are promot- ing this technology, including a Shell/ HP partnership Higher quality land seismic data is the focus of the 2011-2014 SEAM II proj- ect (Society of Exploration Geophysicists Advanced Modeling), an industry asso- ciate group targeting three core chal- lenges: high density geometries, near surface complexities, and fractured res- ervoir characterization (www.seg.org/ SEAM). A key enabling technology for better land seismic data is simultane- ous sourcing, which is the capabili- ty to acquire returning signal from one source while another is still propagat- ing through the earth. Mobil developed and licensed a High Fidelity Vibroseis System (HFVS) in the late 1990s to sepa- rate data from multiple vibrators operat- ing simultaneously (Krohn and Johnson, 2006). Although the concept is not new, widespread application has only picked up recently with increased high-per- formance computing, instrumentation with greater recording channel counts, increased multicomponent data acquisi- tion demand, and the constant pressure on cost reduction. Data collection from simultaneous source locations has the potential to significantly increase effi- ciency in acquiring high-density surveys (Beasley, 2008), now extended into the marine realm. With new dual coil acqui- sition surveys, very high data fold and full azimuth coverage can be achieved (Fig. 2) to better stack and migrate seis- mic data, improve signal-to-noise ratio and resulting image quality, and it can be Visit us at OTC Arena Booth 8115 Visit us at OTC Arena Booth 8115 ™ Loosen up. www.knightoiltools.com ©2012 – Knight Oil Tools, All Rights Reserved. Free your stuck drill string with Knight Oil Tools’ Megaton™ Drilling Jar Nothing can stop your drilling operation when you strike with Megaton force. The extraordinary Megaton drilling jar with patented Ulti-Torq™ connections is a proven performer that operates by the simple up-and-down motion of the drill string. Its unique design combines both hydraulic time-delay release and an optional internal mechanical lock in one dual-acting drilling jar. The operation is simple. The results are earth shattering.
- 5. R&D GRAND CHALLENGES 50 JPT • MARCH 2012 made even more cost-effective by using simultaneous sources. Low-frequency data has been a tar- get for processors seeking greater band- width for years. This low-frequency extension of bandwidth is particularly importantinitsabilitytopenetratedeep- er into the earth and through rugose lay- ers such as basalt, salt and volcanics. Also, a body of work exists to suggest low-frequency signals and spectral anal- ysis as a direct hydrocarbon indicator (DHI) tool (Walker, 2008). Challenges to acquire this data type lie in the need for nonstandard sources, including passive monitoring of earthquake signals, and increasing signal-to-noise ratios. Gen- erating sufficient low-frequency signal energy requires very large sources. The presence of much larger environmen- tal noise and surface-wave noise further complicates low-frequency data acqui- sition. Low-frequency data may ulti- mately become another competitive DHI tool; even if not, the collection of this data may be a key to the next break- through in subsurface imaging—full wavefield inversion. Full wavefield and general seis- mic inversion is the other aspect of improved subsurface resolution that increased computing power enables. Seismic inversion is the process to con- vert seismic data into a rock property realization. The flip side of this process is seismic modeling, in which geolog- ic realizations are converted into seis- mic images by passing a seismic signal of some frequency through the geologic model. Inversion modeling can be done at many scales and with different lev- els of conditioning. Quantitative rock property inversion can be done at a field scale with well log calibration of the seis- mic signal. Of interest to engineers are parameters such as porosity and per- meability that must be derived through calibrated transforms using well data or empirical approximations. A good inver- sion produces a geologic realization that matchestherecordedseismicsignal.Full wavefield inversion is the purest form of the technique. In it, all output data collected from the reflected, refracted, diffracted and converted energy modes are used to create a visco-elastic earth model. Currently, this capability is out of reach despite marketing claims of “full wavefield inversion,” which really invert parts of the wavefield using simplifying assumptions. Still, amazing results have been achieved by partially solving the problem, thus showing the promise of the technique. Reverse time migration (RTM) is a processing technique that uses the wave equation in reverse to model the subsur- face velocity field and obtain improved images of geology at steep dips or under salt (Fig. 3). Current industry capability is acoustic RTM or isotropic elastic RTM, using a simplified version of the wave equation. Elastic RTM without isotropic assumptions is emerging with increas- ing computing power to include more of the wavefield in image reconstructions, promising even more imaging improve- ment. Inverting for an earth model that matches the recorded data takes massive computing power and could be limited in effectiveness without the fullest possible bandwidth, especially the low-frequency spectrum. RTM data has demonstrated improved sub-salt imaging, but it cannot solve all the subsurface resolution and detection challenges such as fluid effect, subvolcanics imaging, and complicated velocity thin bed imaging. Imaging Within a Field Time-lapse (4D) acquisition of seismic data over a producing field to image movement of fluids in a reservoir has obvious benefits, but the practical mat- ters of actually achieving that objective have slowed deployment of the technol- ogy. In a recent special section of The Leading Edge, case studies presented show the promise and challenges to 4D seismic data acquisition as it evolved overthepast20yearstogainwideaccep- tance in the marine environment, partic- ularly among the reservoir engineering community as a complement to produc- tion logging techniques (MacBeth and Fig. 3—An east-west line image of a 3-D data set in the Gulf of Mexico: (a) Kirchoff migration and (b) RTM (Kim et al., 2011)
- 6. 51JPT • MARCH 2012 Michelena, 2011). Planning early in field development for 4D seismic acquisition over the field life is beneficial because repeat surveys take significant time to acquire, process, and accurately align with past surveys. Permanent geophones or ocean-bottom cable options help some of the alignment challenges and can produce a better result. The upfront cost of this investment is a difficult hur- dle for many operators to overcome. It is hard to quantify before production start just how much benefit 4D images will have over a field’s life. The one constant of 4D acquisition seems to be that the results will surprise you. Repeat survey results continually change flow models to drive better field production history matches, which improve predictability and bypassed pay identification (Johan et al., 2011). If the data are collected and processed correctly, those surprises should help an operator to more profit- ably develop fields, even if they dramati- cally change the existing understanding. Alternatives to Surface Seismic Not all technologies targeted to improve subsurface resolution of hydrocarbons involve traditional reflection seismol- ogy. Advances in field instrumentation sensitivity and robustness combined with improvements to computer mod- eling capabilities have brought several alternative geophysical sensing technol- ogies onto a higher resolution hydro- carbon imaging plane. Micrograv- ity, crosswell seismic, and controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) imaging are alternative geophysical technologies that have been used in field examples to track fluid movement in reservoirs. Time-lapse microgravity technology shows promise as a low-cost alternative to 4D seismic for shallow reservoirs as instrumentation and modeling capabili- ties improve (Krahenbuhl et al., 2011). This technique was meticulously applied over Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, for a period from 2003 to 2007 to confirm a micro- gravity signal to enable water flood sur- veillance in the giant field (Ferguson et al., 2008). This work highlighted the challenges to achieving a reliable base- line for corrected measurements, but also showed the technology feasibility. Modeling work to track CO2 injection for sequestration and enhanced oil recov- ery shows a time-lapse microgravity sig- nal when oil and water are displaced, consistent with an independent analy- sis with seismic data (Krahenbuhl et al., 2011). High-quality reservoir models, precise measurement, and careful quan- tification of uncertainty are required to gain full benefit from time-lapse microgravity but the low cost makes the effort worthwhile. Crosswell CSEM was described as a practical subsurface hydrocarbon detec- tion tool by Wilt et al. in 1995. As instru- mentation and modeling capabilities have improved, the technology moved from basic detection to potentially pro- viding higher resolution imaging of sub- surface fluid movement. By inducing Fig. 4—Effect of 4D seismic interpretation at Marlim field, offshore Brazil, on the field flow model. New 4D data water flood anomalies confirmed a new conceptual sedimentological model of the field that differed from the flow model constructed just from well data (Johan et al, 2011) 4-D seismic anomalies show anisotropic trends
- 7. R&D GRAND CHALLENGES 52 JPT • MARCH 2012 an electrical signal into the ground and recording resistance between source and recorder locations, the technology pro- vides insight, through advanced mod- eling, into the distribution of resistive hydrocarbons and conductive formation waters. With source and receiver pairs at reservoir depth between two wells, the resistance structure can indicate reser- voircomplexityathigherresolutionthan surface remote sensing methods such as seismic data. Crosswell seismic acqui- sition can also offer resolution uplift although challenges of cost and con- ditions for downhole sources remain, and similar results might be obtainable through offset vertical seismic profiling. While CSEM can produce unique insight under the right circumstances, there are challenges to overcome in modeling non-unique solutions to resistivity pro- files and finding a solution to the limita- tion that data be collected in openhole or specially cased wells. If these hurdles can be surmounted, crosswell CSEM could become a powerful tool in brownfield developments to identify bypassed pay and image waterflood sweep efficiency. Nanotechnology is at the cutting edge of technology for higher resolu- tion reservoir imaging with fundamental research ongoing at many universities. TheAdvancedEnergyConsortium(AEC), managed from the University of Texas at Austin, seeks to “develop intelligent sub- surface micro and nanosensors that can be injected into oil and gas reservoirs to help characterize the space in three dimensions and improve the recovery of existingandnewhydrocarbonresources” (www.beg.utexas.edu/aec/mission.php). Conceptually, nanomaterials can be used as highly mobile contrast agents that can be detected with remote sensing. If imbued with intelligent sensing and recording capabilities themselves, nano- meter-scale machines may one day fully illuminate and describe subsurface res- ervoir conditions. Research to achieve these goals is under way today, even if commercial application is a long distance into the future. The promise of higher resolution subsurface imaging through functionalized nanocomposite materials injection into reservoirs for remote sens- ing is one to watch. Imaging Unconventionals No overview of higher resolution subsur- face imaging would be complete these days without a discussion of uncon- ventional resources, namely tight gas and shale gas/liquids. These resources have distinct imaging needs. For exam- ple, natural fracture imaging in the sub- surface is sought to determine geologic sweet spots or areas to avoid, depending on your play success needs. Multicom- ponent or azimuthal seismic data can identify anisotropy that may be related to fracture density and orientation. Such knowledge is useful in well stimulation frac design or to avoid areas where frac- tures may have connected aquifers to tight gas reservoir. Multicomponent and azimuthal seismic also has the potential to identify areas of greater organic con- tent since organics in shale have been demonstrated to produce a transverse anisotropy that can impact Vp and Vs and produce an amplitude versus offset effect (Vernik and Nur, 1992). Microseismic data acquisition tech- nology records seismic energy generat- ed from rocks breaking in the subsurface as a result of induced fracture stimu- lation in a well. Data from the record- ing of microseismic events can be used to predict a well’s relative productivity or identify incomplete stimulation and infill opportunities. In new shale gas plays where the geomechanics of the shale reservoir are unknown, microseis- mic is now routinely collected to deter- mine play potential and to confirm iso- lation from adjacent aquifer zones. In established plays, the technology can help optimize lease development by identifying refrac needs or calibrate well drainage to space infill drilling more efficiently and avoid interference. New insight into the nature of fracture stimu- lations is now emerging with microseis- mic moment tensor data recording that combines with geomechanical analysis to produce a clearer picture of stimu- lated rock volume and ultimately assist unconventional reservoir model simula- tions (Maxwell and Cipolla, 2011). Conclusion Higher resolution subsurface imaging of hydrocarbons is one of SPE’s Grand Challenges for a good reason. As long as the industry has sought to find and exploit subsurface resources, it has sought to see them better. The challenge is difficult. We are largely restricted to source and receiver locations on the surface of the earth, trying to illuminate deep targets and resolve images through a complex and unknown medium. Fig. 5—Crosswell resistivity profile after steam injection, recording a dramatic drop in resistivity once the formation has been heated (Marion et al., 2011)
- 8. 53JPT • MARCH 2012 Thegoodnewsisthatmuchprogress is being made to improve our capabilities and data coverage. Seismic data covers much of the planet, with more and high- er quality 3D and 4D data each year. Advanced computing capabilities permit construction of more detailed inversion models from the collection of high-qual- ity datasets. Improved acquisition tech- nology is gathering new data in places and ways previously beyond reach. New nanotechnologies offer great potential for improved subsurface imaging with advances in the fundamental sciences, but this potential remains a distant real- ity. The “bad” news is that earth physics complications will mean that improve- ments can always be made, which trans- lates into job security for scientists and engineers. JPT Acknowledgements ThankstoAnoopPodorasImagingWhite Paper project coordinator and to Arnis Judzis on the SPE R&D Committee for bringing this effort together. Thanks also to co-chairs in the SPE R&D Sym- posium Imaging Session, Carlos Abreu and Michel Dietrich, along with speak- ers Craig Beasley, Wafik Beydoun, Phil- lipe Doyen, Sergey Fomel, Alex Martinez, Martin Poitzsch, and Michael Wilt for enlightening presentations. Helpful edits were made by Kate Baker, Craig Beasley, Len Srnka, Alex Martinez, Sam Perkins, and Gavin Wall. References Crice, D., 2011. Emerging market for seismic acquisition systems without cables still has problems to solve, First Break, v. 29, pp 81–84. Johann, P., Abreu, C.E., Grochau, M., and Thedy, E., Advanced Seismic Imag- ing Impacting Brazilian Offshore Bra- zil Fields Development, http://dx.doi. org/10.4043/21934-MS presented at the Offshore Technology Conference, 2–5 May 2011, Houston, Texas. Kim, Y.C., Ji, J., Yoon, K.J., Wang, B., Li, Z. and Xu, W., 2011. SS: The Future of Seismic Imaging; Reverse Time Migration and Full Wavefield Inversion—Multi-step Reverse Time Migration, DOI 10.4043/19875-MS presentedattheOffshoreTechnologyCon- ference, 2–5 May 2011, Houston, Texas. Beasley,C.,2008,Anewlookatmarinesimul- taneous sources, The Leading Edge, Vol- ume 27, Issue 7, pp. 914–917. Moldoveanu, N. and Kapoor, J., 2009. What is the next step after WAZ for explora- tion in the Gulf of Mexico? SEG Expand- ed Abstracts 28, International Exposition and Annual Meeting 41, Houston 2009, pp. 41–45.http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.3255750 Krohn, C. and Johnson, M., 2006. HFVSTM: Enhanced data quality through technology integration.Geophysics,v.71,no.2,pp.E13– E23 http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/1.2187730 MacBeth, C. and Michelena, R., 2011, Intro- duction to this special section: Time-lapse measurements, The Leading Edge, Vol. 30, No. 9, pp. 1006–1007. Wilt, M.J., Alumbaugh, D.L., Morrison, H.F., Becker, A., Lee, K.H. and Deszcz-Pan, M., 1995. Crosswell electromagnetic tomo- graphy: System design considerations and fieldresults,Geophysics,v.60,pp.871–885. Marion, B., Safdar, M., Wilt, M., Zhang, P., Loh, F. and Nalonnil, A., 2011. Crosswell Technologies: New Solutions for Enhanced Reservoir Surveillance, Paper SPE 144271 presented at the SPE Enhanced Oil Recov- ery Conference, 19–21 July 2011, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Krahenbuhl, R., Li, Y. and Davis, T., 2011. Understanding the applications and limi- tations of time-lapse gravity for reservoir monitoring, The Leading Edge, Vol. 30, No. 9, 1060–1068. Ferguson, J., Klopping, F., Chen, T., Seibert, J., Hare, J., and Brady, J., 2008. The 4D micro- gravitymethodforwaterfloodsurveillance: Part 3—4D absolute microgravity surveys at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, Geophysics, Vol. 73, No. 6, pp. WA163-WA171. Vernik, L. and Nur, A., 1992. Ultrasonic velocity and anisotropy of hydrocarbon source rocks, Geophysics, Vol. 57, No. 5, 727–735. Walker, D., 2008, Recent developments in low frequency spectral analysis of passive seis- mic data, First Break, Vol. 26, 69–78. Maxwell, S. and Cipolla, C., 2011. What Does Microseismicity Tell Us About Hydraulic Fracturing? Paper SPE 146932 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 30 October–2 November, Den- ver, Colorado. Jack E. Neal is the strategic technology advisor at ExxonMobil Upstream Research. He is a member of the SPE R&D Committee and co-chaired the imaging session of the 2011 SPE R&D Symposium from which this white paper grew. He has worked globally in research, exploration, development, and production assignments with Exxon and ExxonMobil since 1994. His current role at ExxonMobil is to interface between research, operations and external parties to develop technology strategies and communicate differentiating technical capabilities. He has published on geology and geophysical integration in many environments, including the current SEPM best-seller, Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology #9, “Sequence Stratigraphy of Siliciclastic Systems: The ExxonMobil Methodology”. Neal received a BSc from the University of Tulsa and a PhD. from Rice University in geology and geophysics. Christine E. Krohn is a senior research associate at ExxonMobil Upstream Research and the current chair of the Society of Exploration Geophysics (SEG) Research Committee. As part of the committee, she has organized several research workshops and given keynote speeches. During her career, she has worked and published extensively in diverse areas such as seismic acquisition, receiver coupling, rock physics, near surface geophysics, crosshole seismic, 3D VSPs, first arrival and surface wave tomography, seismic noise mitigation, vibroseis, and seismic inversion. Krohn received a BSc. from Emory University and a PhD from University of Texas at Austin in physics.