History and Introduction.ppt microbiology

The History and Scope of
Microbiology
Dr. Pooja Bachani,
Amity University, Mumbai

 Microbiology is the study of
microorganisms usually less than 1mm
in diameter which requires some form of
magnification ( Microscope) to
be seen clearly
 Examples:
 Viruses
 Bacteria
 Fungi
 Algae
 Protozoa's

 Some organisms studies by
microbiologists CAN be visualized without
the aid of amplification [bread molds
(fungus) and filamentous algae]
 These organisms are included in the discipline
of microbiology because of similarities in
properties and techniques used to study them
 Techniques necessary to isolate and
culture microorganisms:
 Isolation
 Sterilization
 Culture in artificial media

 Microbiology may be interested in
specific types of organisms:
Virology - viruses
Bacteriology - bacteria
Phycology - algae
Mycology - fungi
Protozoology - protozoa

 Microbiologists may have a more applied
focus:
Medical microbiology, including
immunology
Food and Dairy microbiology
Public Health microbiology
(Epidemiology)
Industrial microbiology
Agricultural microbiology

 Microbiologists may be interested in various
characteristics or activities of
microorganisms:
Microbial morphology
Microbial cytology
Microbial physiology
Microbial ecology
Microbial genetics and molecular biology
Microbial taxonomy

ROBERT HOOKE
One of the most important discoveries
of biology occurred in 1665, with
the help of a crude microscope,
when Robert Hooke stated that life’s
smallest structural units were cells.

ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOEK
 First to observe living
microbes
 His single-lens
magnified 50-300X
magnification
 Between 1674-1723
he wrote series of
papers describing his
observations of
bacteria, algae,
protozoa, and fungi
(Animalcules)

III. Spontaneous Generation

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
Early belief that some forms of life
could arise from “vital forces”
present in nonliving or
decomposing matter, abiogenesis.
In other words, organisms can
arise form non-living matter.

LOUIS JABLOT
In 1670 Jablot conducted an
experiment in which he divided a hay
infusion that had been boiled into two
containers: a heated container that
was closed to the air and a heated
container that was freely open to the
air. Only the open vessel developed
microorganisms. This further helped
to disprove abiogenesis.

REDI’S and JABLOT’S
EXPERIMENTS

 Disproved by:
Schwann, Friedrich Schroder and von
Dusch (1830s) – Air allowed to enter
flask but only after passing through a
heated tube or sterile wool
John Tyndall (1820-1893) – Omission of
dust  no growth. Demonstrated
heat resistant forms of bacteria
(endospores)

LOUIS PASTEUR (1822 - 1895)
 Disproved spontaneous
generation of microbes
by preventing “dust
particles” from reaching
the sterile broth
 In 1861 completes
experiments that lays to
rest spontaneous
generation.
 Showed microbes caused
fermentation and
spoilage

PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT
trapped airborne organisms in cotton; he also
heated the necks of flasks, drawing them out into
long curves, sterilized the media, and left the flasks
open to the air.
In this way Pasteur disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation

IV. Role of Micoorganisms in
Disease

 Oliver Holmes (1773 - 1843)
 showed that sepsis could be transmitted by
hands of medical student and may cause
disease
 M. J. Berkeley (ca. 1845)
 demonstrated that the Great Potato Blight of
Ireland was caused by a Fungus
 Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895)
 showed that the pébrine disease of silkworms
was caused by a protozoan parasite
Demonstrations that micoorganisms
cause disease

 Edward Jenner (ca. 1798): Develop the
first Vaccine and used a vaccination
procedure to protect individuals
from smallpox
 Louis Pasteur
developed other vaccines including
those for chicken cholera, anthrax,
and rabies

History
 1796 – First vaccine (smallpox)
Edward Jenner

History
 1885 - Vaccine against
Rabies
Louis Pasteur

 Robert Koch (1843 - 1910),
using criteria developed by his teacher,
Jacob Henle (1809-1895), established the
relationship between Bacillus anthracis
and anthrax.
His criteria became known as Koch’s
Postulates and are still used to establish
the link between a particular
microorganism and a particular disease:

History
 1884 Koch’s Postulates of
Disease Transmission
Robert Koch

 The causative (etiological) agent
must be present in all affected
organisms but absent in healthy
individuals
 The agent must be capable of being
isolated and cultured in pure form
 When the cultured agent is
introduced to a healthy organism,
the same disease must occur
 The same causative agent must be
isolated again from the affected host
Koch’s Postulates

Development of Culture Media
 Why?
 To enable the isolation of pure cultures (only
one type of organism)
 Especially important during Koch’s period
 Gelatin not useful as solidifying agent (melts
at >28 ºC and some bacteria hydrolyze it
with enzymes)
 Fannie Hesse, the wife of one of Koch’s
assistants, proposed using agar
 Not digested by most bacteria
 Melts at 100 ºC
 Used today - ~2% in solid media
 Richard Petri, another of Koch’s assistants,
developed the Petri dish

Development of Vaccines and
Antisera
 Edward Jenner in 1796
discovered that cowpox
(vaccinia) induced protection
against human smallpox
 Called procedure vaccination

 Vaccination:
 Inoculation of healthy individuals
with weakened (or attenuated)
forms of microorganisms, that
would otherwise cause disease, to
provide protection, or active
immunity from disease upon later
exposure.

 Pasteur and Roux reported that
incubating cultures longer than
normal in the lab resulted in
ATTENUATED bacteria that could
no longer cause disease.
 Working with chicken cholera
(caused by Pasteurella multocida),
they noticed that animals injected
with attenuated cultures were
resistant to the disease.

 Pasteur and Chamberland
developed other vaccines:
 Attenuated anthrax vaccine
 Chemical and heat treatment
(potassium bichromate)
 Attenuated rabies vaccine
 Propagated the virus in rabbit
following injection of infected brain
and spinal cord extracts

 Passive immunization
 Work by Emil von Behring (1845-1917)
and Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931)
 Antibodies raised to inactivated
diphtheria toxin by injection different
host (rabbit) with the toxin (a toxoid
form)
 Antiserum recovered
 Contains antibodies specific for the toxin
 Protection from disease when injected
non -immune subject.

JOHN TYNDALL (1820 – 1893)
 In 1876 discovered that there were two different types of
bacteria.
 a) Heat sensitive or heat labile forms (vegetative cells)
easily destroyed by boiling
 b) Heat resistant types known as an endospore
 Tyndall demonstrated that alternate process of heating &
cooling if repeated five times, can kill all the endospores.
 This is known as Sterilization process or Tyndallization

FERDINAND COHN
In 1876, a German botanist,
Ferdinand Cohn, also discovered
“heat-resistant forms of bacteria”.
This bacteria are now termed
endospores.( Bacillus species and
Clostridium species)

GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY
The period from 1860 to 1900 is often
named the Golden Age of
Microbiology. During this period,
rapid advances, spear-headed by
Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, led
to the establishment of microbiology
as a science.

LOUIS PASTEUR
In 1864 Pasteur established the
relationship between microbes and
disease in preventing wine from
spoiling by using the process
termed pasteurization. This process
kills bacteria in the alcohol by heat,
thus preventing the formation of
acetic acid (vinegar).

LOUIS PASTEUR
His discover of pasteurization, lead
Pasteur to introduce the “germ
theory of disease” in 1864. Pasteur
stated that diseases are caused by
the growth of microbes in the body
and not by sins, bad character, or
poverty, etc.

Louis Pasteur
*Developed the germ
*Developed the germ
theory in
theory in 1798
1798
*Also developed vaccine
*Also developed vaccine
against anthrax.
against anthrax.
*
*Pasteurization
Pasteurization technique
technique
*Developed the germ theory
*Developed the germ theory
of disease
of disease
“
“Father of bacteriology and immunology”
Father of bacteriology and immunology”
1822 – 1895
1822 – 1895

 Joseph Lister (1827 - 1912)
developed a system of surgery designed
to prevent microorganisms from entering
wounds – phenol (Carbolic Acid) sprayed
in air around surgical incision
Decreased number of post-operative
infections in patients
his published findings (1867) transformed
the practice of surgery

History: Joseph Lister
 1867 Antiseptic Surgery( Carbolic acid- Phenol)

Robert Koch
 In 1860 developed an
elaborate technique
to isolate & identify
specific Pathogens
that cause specific
diseases.
 He isolated the
anthrax bacterium.
1843 – 1910
1843 – 1910

GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
In 1876 Robert Koch proved the “germ
theory of disease” by showing that
bacteria actually caused disease. Koch
established a sequence of
experimental steps for directly relating
a specific microbe to a specific disease
called KOCH’S POSTULATES

ROBERT KOCH
 Developed pure culture
methods.
 Identified cause of anthrax
( Bacillus anthrax) , TB
( Mycobacterium
tubercullosis) , & cholera
( Vibrio cholera).

PAUL EHRLICH
In the 1890’s Ehrlich proposed a theory of
immunity in which antibodies were
responsible for immunity( Antitoxin). In
addition, he is known as the father of
modern chemotherapy. He speculated
about some “magic bullet” that would
selectively find and destroy pathogens but
not harm the host (Selective Toxicity). He
also develop a staining procedure to
identify tubercle bacilli.

ALEXANDER FLEMING
In 1928 Fleming observed that the
growth of the bacterium
staphyloccus aureus was inhibited in
the areas surrounding the colony of
a mold that had contaminated a
Petri plate. The mold was identified
as Penicillium notatum, and its
active compound was named
penicillin.

History
 1929 Discovery of Penicillin
(first antibiotic)
Alexander Fleming

History
 Walter Hesse ( 1846-1911): Used Agar as
a solidifying agent to harden media. Agar
is extracted from seaweeds red algae.
 Rechard Petri ( 1852-1921): Used agar
dish to provide a large area to grow.
 Christian Gram ( 1853-1935): Staining
method that demonstrate bacteria and
distinguish between Gram positive and
Gram negative bacteria.

History
 Raymond Sabouraud ( 1890-1910):
Develop culture media to study yeast and
molds.
 Dimitri Ivanovski (1892): Tobacco mosaic
virus could pass through filters used to
remove bacteria.
 Selman Waksman (1940): Discovered a
number of antibiotic such as Tetracycline
and Streptomycin.

History
 Reska (1938) – First
Electron Microscope
 The electron microscope is capable
of magnifying biological specimens
up to one million times. These
computer enhanced images of 1.
smallpox, 2. herpes simplex, and 3.
mumps are magnified, respectively,
150,000, 150,000 and 90,000 times.
 To study detail structures of
viruses.

WATSON and CRICK, FRANKLIN,
and WILKINS
In 1953 Watson and Crick determined
the structure of DNA. They used
their research, together with the
research of Franklin and Wilkins to
determine the structure of the DNA
molecule.

V. How Microorganism
Affect Their Environment

 Louis Pasteur
 demonstrated that alcoholic fermentations
were the result of microbial activity,
 that some organisms could decrease alcohol
yield and sour the product, and
 that some fermentations were aerobic and
some anaerobic;
 he also developed the process of
pasteurization to preserve wine during
storage

VI. Microorganisms in the 20th
Century

 George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum (ca. 1941)
 studied the relationship between genes and
enzymes using the bread mold, Neurospora
 Precursor ornithine  citrulline  arginine
 One gene, one polypeptide hypothesis
 Salvadore Luria and Max Delbruck (ca. 1943)
 Demonstrated spontaneous gene mutations in
bacteria (not directed by the environment)
Important Early Discoveries

 Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty (1944)
Following initial studies by Frederick
Griffith (1928) they provided evidence
that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was
the genetic material and carried
genetic information during
transformation
Worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae
(rough and smooth)

 In the 1970s new discoveries in
microbiology led to the development
of recombinant DNA technology and
genetic engineering

 There are two types of microorganisms:
 Prokaryotes
 have a relatively simple morphology
and lack a true membrane-bound
nucleus
 Eukaryotes
 are morphologically complex and have a
true, membrane-bound nucleus

 Organisms can be divided into five
kingdoms:
the Monera or Procaryotae,
Protista,
Fungi,
Animalia, and
Plantae

History and Introduction.ppt microbiology

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