How einstein discovered_dark_energy

How Einstein Discovered Dark Energy
Alex Harveya)
Visiting Scholar
New York University
New York, NY 10003
arXiv:1211.6338v1 [physics.hist-ph] 22 Nov 2012

Abstract
In 1917 Einstein published his Cosmological Considerations Concerning the
General Theory of Relativity. In it was the first use of the cosmological constant.
Shortly thereafter Schr¨dinger presented a note providing a solution to these
o
same equations with the cosmological constant term transposed to the right
hand side thus making it part of the stress-energy tensor. Einstein commented
that if Schr¨dinger had something more than a mere mathematical convenience
o
in mind he should describe its properties. Then Einstein detailed what some
of these properties might be. In so doing, he gave the first description of
Dark Energy. We present a translation of Schr¨dinger’s paper and Einstein’s
o
response.

1 Introduction
In 1917 Einstein published his Cosmological Considerations Concerning the General
Theory of Relativity [1]. The field equations he used included the cosmological con-
stant.
1
Rµν − λgµν = −κ(Tµν − 2 gµν T ) . (1)
Shortly thereafter Schr¨dinger presented a note [2] in which he transposed the cos-
o
mological constant term to the right hand side thus making it part of the source, that
is, part of the stress-energy tensor.

Rµν = λgµν − κ(Tµν − 1 gµν T )
2
(2)

Einstein immediately recognized the implications and responded with an analytic
comment [3]. If the λ term were to remain a constant then the shift was trivial. If,
however, it was truly intended to be a source then its properties would necessarily have
to be specified. There is no record of a response by Schr¨dinger to Einstein’s comment
o

1

and there the matter remained. The exchange between Einstein and Schr¨dinger, less
o
technical details, is described by Mehra and Reichenberg [4].
A translation of Schr¨dinger’s paper follows directly. In it all equations, footnotes,
o
and abbreviations are as in the original. Explanatory comments are interpolated in
the text. Footnotes and citations are collected at the end and where obscure, they
are expanded.

2 Schr¨dinger’s Paper
o

Concerning a System of Solutions of the
Generally Covariant Equations for Gravitation
Same time ago Herr Einstein1 presented a system of energy components for matter,
T µν , and gravitational potentials, gµν , which integrate, precisely, the generally covari-
ant field equations. He suggested that this system approximated the real structure
of space and matter in the large. Briefly stated, it describes incoherent matter of
constant density at rest that fills2 a closed spatial continuum of finite volume having
the metric properties of a hypersphere.
For the field equations, a slightly different form than the original one is assumed.3

The “slightly different form”is simply the transposition of λgµν from the l.h.s to the r.h.s.
thereby obtaining Eq. (2) (above).

The concept of a closed total space seems to me to be of extraordinary importance
for general relativity. This is not only, and not mainly, because of the “desolation
argument”from which Herr Einstein started. I see its principle value rather in the
fact that by development of this thought general relativity promises to be what its
name says and what it according to my view only formerly has been, so to say on
paper.4

It is not clear what Schr¨dinger meant by ”desolation argument”. It is possible that he is
o
referring to the problem of constructing a cosmological model within the context of New-
tonian gravitation.

Under these conditions it is also not without interest to remark that the com-
pletely analogous system of solutions exists in its original form without the terms
added by Herr Einstein l.c.. The difference is superficial and slight: The poten-
tials remain unchanged, only the energy tensor of matter takes a different form.

2

This refers to the transfer of λgµν to the right hand side.

The system of gµν is also [compare Einstein l.c. equations (7), (8) and (12)]:

g44 = 1, g14 = g24 = g34 = 0 (1)
xµ xν
gµν = − δµν + 2
R − x2 − x2 − x2
1 2 3
0 =
µ, ν = 1, 2, 3, δµν = if ν µ.
1 =

If one now assumes a mixed energy tensor of matter with vanishing off-diagonal
components5  1 
T1 0 0 0
2
 0 T2 0 0 
µ
Tν = 
 0 0 T3 0  3
 (2)
4
0 0 0 T4
the field equations becomet

∂ µ ν µ α ν β
− +
∂xα α β α
2
√ √
∂ log −g µ ν ∂ log −g 1
− − = −κ(Tµν − 2 gµν T ) (3)
∂µ ∂ν α ∂xα

and are satisfied only if

1 2 3 4 1
T1 ≡ T2 ≡ T3 ≡ T4 ≡ ≡ const (4)
κR2

The l.h.s. is just Rµν . The Christoffel symbols were written this way at that time.

The calculation does not present any difficulty; it proceeds exactly as with Einstein
l.c. Most importantly, from a logical point of view, one might remark: k and R
must naturally be specified to be universal constants to start with, i.e., before one
writes potentials (1) and the field equations (3) respectively.
Because the calculation can be carried out easily only for points with the
property x1 = x2 = x3 = 0, condition (4) is satisfied only for those points identical
in x4 ! For the field equations to be satisfied identically it is necessary, permissible
and, sufficient to require, also, the identical validity of (4) for the spatial

3

coordinates. In this way these relations become invariant with respect to arbitrary
transformations of the spatial coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 among themselves and the time
x4 into itself. Through simple transformations of this kind one can move any
arbitrary point into one of the two “x4 , axes”.
It is desirable to connect the system of solutions with a reasonable physical
example. This is possible to a certain degree if one accepts Einstein’s hypothesis for
the energy tensor of a continuous compressible fluid. In this case we have6

ν ν dxα dxν
Tµ = −δµ p + gµα ρ
ds ds
ν 0 =
δµ = if ν µ.
1 =

where p are ρ scalars, the “pressure”and density of the fluid. If one sets
dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4
≡ ≡ ≡ 0, ≡1 (5)
ds ds ds ds
which is, because of (1), the basic equation

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (6)

and with the equations of motion (that is, a geodesic)

d2 xτ µ ν dxµ dxν
+ =0 (7)
ds2 τ ds ds

we obtain  
−p 0 0 0
ν
 0 −p 0 0 
Tµ = 
 0
 (8)
0 −p 0 
0 0 0 p−ρ

In transposing λ to the r.h.s., λ is re-identified as a negative pressure.

This scheme differs (with suitable values for ρ and p) only superficially from our
hypotheses above [(2) and (4)] for the energy tensor.
These hypotheses see matter in the large essentially as a compressible fluid of
constant density at rest under a constant spatially isotropic tension which according
to (4) must be equal to 1/3 of the rest density of energy.7
From the point of view of the old theory, which for Einstein plays the role of a first
approximation,

4

What is meant here is not clear. Possibly it refers to the field equations without the λ
term.

It is not at all disturbing that a tension of this sign exists in a matter thought to be
present and uniformly spread over immense spaces and acting on itself under
Newton’s law of force. On the other hand, on closer scrutiny, the following fact is
astonishing: Satisfaction of the 10th field equation (equation [3], µ = ν = 4) is due
to the fact that the expression
4 1 2 3
T4 − T1 − T2 − T3 (9)

vanishes. It now plays, in first approximation, the role of the Newtonian gravitating
mass density, for which as is well known, only the 1Oth field equation needs to be
considered.

To obtain the Newtonian limit of the field equations, only the 4-4 equation is required.

The vanishing of the “mass-term”(10) seemed to me, initially, to be questionable as
to the utility of the given system of solutions as a representation of matter in the
large. But now I find just this result rather satisfactory Firstly, one has to expect, if
not demand, from a theory in which the motion of mass is relative, i.e. determined
only through the interaction of masses, that in any case the total mass of the
universe vanishes.
That the mass-term in our case vanishes not only in toto but at every discrete point
is a consequence of the fiction that matter is exactly at rest and completely,
uniformly spatially distributed. It seems to me completely in the spirit of the
relativity of mass to assume that the interaction function that we call inertial or
gravitational mass appears or comes about only by deviations from the uniform
static distribution. No harm is done when the uniform static distribution in which
the mass can neither act inertial nor gravitating, yields a vanishing mass-term.
Naturally, there is now the task to obtain the real empirical processes for individual
concrete cases, so to say, by variation of this very uniform “inert”integral system.
Then - and only then I feel general relativity would fulfill those postulates that
were for its origin the logical reasons.7 By the way, a reminder, this is also the value
of the light pressure; but the sign is opposite!

5

According to equation (4) the quantity 1/κ has the following physical meanings
1 1 2π 2 R3 T4
4
1 E
a) = 2
= 2
κ 6π R 6π R
1 1 2 1 1
b) = · 4πR T1 = p
κ 4π 4π
where E is the total energy of the cosmos, R (as above) the radius, p the one-sided
2
tension in an equatorial plane. For the last results (with κ = 8πk g −1 cm,
c2
k 2 = 6.68 · 10−8 gm−1 cm3 sec−2 ; c = 3 · 1010 cm sec−1;
4π c2
p = = 2 g cm−1 that means g cm light sec−2
κ 2κ
c4
= g cm sec−2 = 6.06 · 1018 dyne .
2κ2

1
A. Einstein, “Kosmologische Betrachttungen zur allgemeinen Relativit¨tstheorie”,
a
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 142-150 (1917),
Berlin. In what follows it will be cited by l.c.
2
Perhaps it is correct to say: “constructed”, (instead of fulﬁlled)
3
A. Einstein, “Die Grundlage der Allgemeine Relativit¨tstheorie”, Annalen der
a
Physik , 49, 769 (1916). An English translation appears in The Collected Papers of
Albert Einstein, vol. 6, A. Engel, translator, E.L.Schucking, consultant, 146-200,
(1999) Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
4
Compare especially to Einstein, l.c., p. 147 [The ds Sitter citation is obscure. It
may refer to Koninklike Akademie van Wettenschappen, 1217-1224 (1917) which
contains comments on Einstein’s Kosmologische Betrachtungen.”
5
If one does not make this assumption, it will appear as a requirement after Eq. (4).
6
See A. Einstein, Die Grundlage ... p. 52. [This reference is unclear. The pagination
of Einstein’s article is 769-822.]
7
This is just the negative of the pressure of light.
8
I thank Herr Flamm for many discussions to clarify these concepts.
9
Compare this with A. Einstein, Die Grundlage ... , Sect. (2).

3 Einstein’s Response

Comment on Schr¨dinger’s Note “Concerning a System of Solutions of
o

6

the Generally Covariant Equations for Gravitation”
Einstein begins with
“When I wrote my description of the cosmic gravitational field I
naturally noticed, as the obvious possibility, the variant Herr
Schr¨dinger had discussed. But I must confess that I did not consider
o
this interpretation worthy of mention.”
Later, he finishes with
“The author [Schr¨dinger] is silent about the law according to which p
o
should be determined as a function of the coordinates. We will consider
only two possibilities:
1. p is a universal constant. In this case Herr Schr¨dingers model
o
completely agrees with mine. In order to see this, one merely needs to
exchange the letter p with the letter λ and bring the corresponding term
over to the left-hand side of the field equations. Therefore, this is not
the case the author could have had in mind.
2. p is a variable. Then a differential equation is required which
determines p as a function of x1 . . . x4. This means, one not only has
to start out from the hypothesis of the existence of a nonobservable
negative density in interstellar spaces but also has to postulate a
hypothetical law about the space-time distribution of this mass density.
The course taken by Herr Schr¨dinger does not appear possible to me
o
because it leads too deeply into the thicket of hypotheses.”
Remarkably, in the second possibility, Einstein described not only the central
problem of the search for dark energy but the headaches in formulating its
structure. Of course, this occurred long before the advent of quantum-field theoretic
concerns about the 120 orders of magnitude disparity between the observed vale of
the cosmological constant and the value of the zero-point energy as well as the later
discovery of the Sn(1a) supernovae with their implications, so the discussion
vanished into the archives. Although the exchange disappeared from sight, the
cosmological constant did not. It was used by many cosmologists for various
purposes. (See Harvey [5] for examples, discussion, and an extensive bibliography.)

4 Dark Energy
In the late 1990’s, Einstein’s concern about a “thicket of hypotheses”became real.
Observations on Sn(1a) supernovae by Reiss et al [6] and Perlmutter et al [7]

7

indicated that the expansion of the universe was accelerating. This acceleration may
be explained in either of the 2 ways that parallel Einstein’s comments to
Schr¨dinger: the cosmological constant is either a differential-geometric term in the
o
field equations or a manifestation of a “field”driving the acceleration. In the former,
it is simply an observable constant; in the latter it must be extracted from
Einstein’s “... thicket of hypothesis”. This field is called “quintessence”.
Quintessence is a dynamic scalar field with potential energy tuned to provided
appropriate dark energy at different epochs of cosmic evolution. 1 The choice
between regarding the cosmological constant as either a term in the field equations
or a manifestation of dark energy is exacerbated by the circumstance that evidence
for the existence of the latter has yet to be found.

5 Epilogue
Although Schr¨dinger never again discussed the cosmological constant Einstein did.
o
Going from the cosmological to the infinitesimal he utilized it in an attempt to cope
with what was at the time a very important problem. Recall that in 1918 the only
elementary particles known were the electron and the proton. Physicists were
attempting to understand why these were stable despite their internal
electromagnetic repulsion. Most attempts were based solely on electromagnetic
theory. For a review of these efforts see Pauli [12]. Einstein’s effort was to construct
a model in which stability was achieved through the use of gravitational forces. In
particular, he used modified gravitational field equations which included the
cosmological constant [13]. The attempt was not successful and this was the last
time he mentioned the cosmological constant other than to denounce it.

6 Acknowledgment
My deep thanks to Prof. Engelbert Schucking for suggesting this project as well as
providing a translation of Schr¨dinger’s paper.
o
a)
Prof. Emeritus, Queens College, City University of New York; ah30@nyu.edu.

1
See Zlatev [8] or Linder [9] for discussions of specific models. For a broad discussion see Carroll
[10]. For a history of the cosmological constant see See Straumann [11].

8

References
[1] A Einstein, “Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen
Relativit¨tstheorie”, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der
a
Wissenschaften 170 (1917), Berlin. An English translation appears in collection
of papers The Principle of Relativity, Dover Publications, New York (1923).
o ¨
[2] E Schr¨dinger, “Uber ein L¨sungssystem der allgemein kovarianten
o
Gravitationsgleichungen”, Physikalische Zeitschrift, 19, 20-22 (1918). The
original article in German is available at the Hathi Trust website.
o ¨
[3] A. Einstein, “Bemerkung zu Herrn Schr¨dingers Notiz Uber ein L¨sungssystem
o
der allgemein kovarianten Gravitationsgleichungen”, Physikalische Zeitschrift,
ad XIX, (1918), 165-166. The English translation appears in The Collected
Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 7: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921 ,
ed. M. Jansen et al , Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey (2002),
document 3.
[4] J. Mehra and H. Reichenberg, “The Historical Development of Quantum
Theory - Volume 5 - Erwin Schr¨dinger and the rise of Quantum Mechanics -
o
Part 1 - Schr¨dinger in Vienna and Zurich 1887-1925”, Springer-Verlag, New
o
York (1987).
[5] A. Harvey, “Cosmological Models”, American Journal of Physics, 51, 901-906
(1993).
[6] A. G. Riess et al, ‘Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating
Universe and a Cosmological Constant”, arXiv: astro-ph/9805201v1.
[7] S. Perlmutter et al, “Measurements of Lambda and Omega from 42
High-Redshift Supernovae”, arXiv: astro-ph/9812133v1.
[8] I. Zlatev, L. Wang, and P. J. Steinhardt, “Quintessence, Cosmic Coincidence
and the Cosmological Constant, arXiv:astro-ph/9807002v2.
[9] E. V. Linder and D. Huterer, “How Many Dark Energy Parameters“,
arXiv:astro-ph/0505330v1.
[10] S. M. Carroll, “The Cosmological Constant”Living Reviews in Relativity, The
Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, Potsdam, Germany, February
7, 2001 provides a comprehensive review of the physics and cosmology of the
cosmological constant. It is obtainable at http://relativity.livingreviews.org/.
This website is a rich source of comprehensive reviews of many topics in
relativity theory.

9

[11] N. Straumann, “The History of the Cosmological Constant Problem”,
arXiv:gr-qc/020027v1.

[12] W. Pauli, Theory of Relativity, Pergamon Press, London (1958). See Part V,
p.184 ﬀ.

[13] A. Einstein, “S-peilen Gravitationfelder in Aufbau der Elementarteilchen eine
Wesentliche Rolle”(Do gravitational ﬁelds play an essential role in the structure
of elementary particles), Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, (Math. Phys.), 349-356 (1919) Berlin.

10

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