IARE_EEI_PPT

Electrical Measurements and
Instrumentation
Prepared By
Mr. A Sathish Kumar
Assistant professor

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
“The device used for comparing the unknown quantity
with the unit of measurement or standard quantity
is called a Measuring Instrument.”
OR
“An instrument may be defined as a machine or
system which is designed to maintain functional
relationship between prescribed properties of
physical variables & could include means of
communication to human observer.”

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories,
that are;
1. Absolute instruments,
2. Secondary instruments.
- Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be
measured in term of instrument constant & its
deflection.
- In Secondary instruments the deflection gives the
magnitude of electrical quantity to be measured
directly. These instruments are required to be
calibrated by comparing with another standard
instrument before putting into use.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified
according to the kind of quantity, kind of current,
principle of operation of moving system.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
• Secondary instruments can be classified into three
types;
i. Indicating instruments;
ii. Recording instruments;
iii. Integrating instruments.

- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an
electrical quantity at the time when it is being
measured. The indications are given by a pointer
moving over a graduated dial.

- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a
continuous record of the variations of the magnitude
of an electrical quantity to be observed over a defined
period of time.

- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the
total amount of either quantity of electricity or electrical
energy supplied over a period of time. For example
energy meters.

ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
A defined above, indicating instruments are those
which indicate the value of quantity that is being
measured at the time at which it is measured. Such
instruments consist essentially of a pointer which
moves over a calibrated scale & which is attached to a
moving system pivoted in bearing. The moving system
is subjected to the following three torques:
1. A deflecting ( or operating) torque;
2. A controlling ( or restoring) torque;
3. A damping torque.

DEFLECTING TORQUE
- The deflecting torque is produced by making one of
the magnetic, heating, chemical, electrostatic and
electromagnetic induction effect of current or voltage
and cause the moving system of the instrument to
move from its zero position.
- The method of producing this torque depends upon
the type of instrument.

CONTROLLING TORQUE
- The magnitude of the moving system would be some
what indefinite under the influence of deflecting
torque, unless the controlling torque existed to oppose
the deflecting torque.
- It increases with increase in deflection of moving
system.
- Under the influence of controlling torque the pointer
will return to its zero position on removing the source
producing the deflecting torque.
- Without controlling torque the pointer will swing at its
maximum position & will not return to zero after
removing the source.

- Controlling torque is produced either by spring or
gravity control.
Spring Control:
• When the pointer is deflected
one spring unwinds itself while
the other is twisted. This twist in
the spring produces restoring
(controlling) torque, which is
proportional to the angle of
deflection of the moving systems.

Gravity Control
• In gravity controlled instruments, a small adjustable
weight is attached to the spindle of the moving system
such that the deflecting torque produced by the instrument
has to act against the action of gravity.
• Thus a controlling torque is obtained. This weight is called
the control weight. Another adjustable weight is also
attached is the moving system for zero adjustment and
balancing purpose. This weight is called Balance weight.

DAMPING TORQUE
• We have already seen that the moving system of the
instrument will tend to move under the action of the
deflecting torque.
• But on account of the control torque, it will try to occupy
a position of rest when the two torques are equal and
opposite.
• However, due to inertia of the moving system, the
pointer will not come to rest immediately but oscillate
about its final deflected position as shown in figure and
takes appreciable time to come to steady state.
• To overcome this difficulty a damping torque is to be
developed by using a damping device attached to the
moving system.

DAMPING TORQUE
• The damping torque is proportional to the speed of
rotation of the moving system, that is
• Depending upon the degree of damping introduced in
the moving system, the instrument may have any one of
the following conditions as depicted in above graph.

DAMPING TORQUE
1. Under damped condition:
The response is oscillatory
2. Over damped condition:
The response is sluggish and it rises very slowly from
its zero position to final position.
3. Critically damped condition:
When the response settles quickly without any
oscillation, the system is said to be critically damped.
The damping torque is produced by the following methods:
1.Air Friction Damping 2.Fluid Friction Damping
3.Eddy Current Damping 4.Electromagnetic
Damping

TYPES OF AMMETERS & VOLTMETERS
1) Moving Iron Type Meters (AC & DC);
a) Attraction type,
b) Repulsion type.
2) Moving Coil Type Meters (AC & DC);
a) Permanent Magnet type,
b) Electrodynamic or Dynamometer.
3) Hot Wire Type (AC & DC);
4) Induction Type (AC & DC);
a) Split phase,
b) Shaded Pole type.
5) Electrostatic Type for Voltmeters Only;

Moving-iron instrument
• An attraction type of moving-iron instrument
is shown diagrammatically in Figure. When
current flows in the solenoid, a pivoted soft-
iron disc is attracted towards the solenoid and
the movement causes a pointer to move across
a scale.
• In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument
shown diagrammatically in Figure, two pieces
of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one
being fixed, and the other attached to the
spindle carrying the pointer.

Moving-Coil instrument
• There are two types of moving coil instruments
namely, permanent magnet moving coil type
which can only be used for direct current,
voltage measurements.
• The dynamometer type which can be used on
either direct or alternating current, voltage
measurements.

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
“The principle operation
of PMMC is based
upon the principle
of current carrying
conductor is placed
in a magnetic field it
is acted upon by force
which tends to move
it.”

DYNAMOMETER
• This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct
and alternating current, voltage and power.
• The deflecting torque in dynamometer is relies by the
interaction of magnetic field produced by a pair of fixed
air cored coils and a third air cored coil capable of
angular movement and suspended within the fixed coil.

HOT WIRE TYPE
• It is based on the heating effect of current.
• It consist of platinum-iridium (it can withstand
oxidation at high temperatures) wire.
• When current is through wire, it expands
according to I2R formula.
• This produces sag in the wire and pointer is
attached with this wire which in result deflects.

INDUCTION TYPE INSTRUMENT
• Such instruments are suitable for ac measurements only in
these instruments the deflecting torque is produced by the
eddy currents induced in an aluminum or copper disc or
drum by the flux created by an electro-magnet.
• The main advantages of such instruments are that
(i) a full scale deflection can be obtained giving long and
open scale
(ii) the effect of stray magnetic field is small;
(iii) damping is easier and effective.

• These instruments have got some serious disadvantages
(i) The greater deflection causes more stresses in the control
springs.
(ii) Variation in supply frequency and temperature may
cause serious errors unless compensating device is
employed.
(iii) These instruments are costlier and consume more
power
• Such instruments are mostly used as watt-meters or
energy meters.

• Induction type wattmeter consists of two laminate
electromagnets known as shunt electromagnet and
series electromagnet respectively.
• Shunt magnet is excited by the current proportional to
the voltage across load flowing through the pressure
coil and series magnet is excited by the load current
flowing through the current coil.
• A thin disc made of Cu or Al, pivoted at its centre, is
placed between the shunt and series magnets so that it
cuts the flux from both of the magnets.

• The deflection torque is produced by interaction of
eddy current induced in the disc and the inducing flux
in order to cause the resultant flux in shunt magnet to
lag in phase by exactly 90° behind the applied voltage.
• One or more copper rings, known as copper shading
bond are provided on one limb at the shunt magnet.
• Correct disappointed between shunt and series magnet
fluxes may be attained by adjusting the position of
copper shading bonds.
The pressure coil circuit of induction type instrument
is made as inductive as possible so that the flux of the
shunt magnet may lag by 90° behind the applied
voltage.

UNIT – II
POTENTIOMETERS AND
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

 It is basically a long piece of uniform
wire, sometimes a few meters in
length across which a standard cell
is connected.
 It is used to find emf of a primary
cell, to compare emf’s of two
primary cells and to find internal
resistance of a primary cell.

Constructi
on
It consists of a
resistance wire of
uniform cross
sectional area and
of length 4m to
10 m. It is fixed
on a rectangular
wooden board
between point A
and point C in
zigzag way.

A metre scale is fixed below the first
wire so as to measure the length of null
point. A cell of constant e.m.f. E called
as lead cell, is connected between point
A and point C. The positive terminal
of cell is connected to point A through
plug key K and negative terminal of cell
is connected to point C through rheostat
Rh.

If the wire of potentiometer is of uniform cross
section and a constant current flows through it, the
potential between any two points of the wire is
directly proportional to the length of wire between
the points
V(l) α l
The potential per unit length of the wire is called
potential gradient, denoted by ф and given by-
ф = V/L
V is the potential across potentiometer wire and L
is the length of the potentiometer wire.

1. To Measure
emf of a cell
The positive
terminal of cell
is connected to
point A and
negative terminal
is connected to
jockey through
galvanometer.
Measure the
length of null
point N1 from
point A (AN1 = l

The emf of cell is balanced by the balancing
length AN1 = l 1.
By applying KVL in loop AE1GN1A, we have-
-E1 +0 + фl1 = 0
or, E1 = фl1
From this equation one can find emf
of the cell.

The two cells of e.m.f.
E1 and E2 along with
two way key K1 and
galvanometer G is
connected with the
potentiometer.
When cell E1 is
connected, at null
point-
E1 = фl1 ……(1)
2. To compare
EMF of two cells

When cell E2 is connected, at null point-
E2 = фl2 …………..(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
E1 /E2 = l1 /l2

3.To determine
internal resistance
of a cell
A cell of e.m.f. E1 and
internal resistance
r1 is connected with
potentiometer. The
known resistanceR1
from resistance box
along with plug key K1
is connected across a
cell of emf E1. Initially
plug key K is closed and
K1 is kept open.

Now momentarily touch the jockey at different
points and select a point N1 at which
galvanometer shows null deflection. Let AN1 =
l1 be the balancing length for a cell of emf E1.
Hence by the principle of potentiometer, we
have
E1 = фl1 …………(i)
Now close both the plug keys K and K1 Take a
suitable resistance R1 from resistance box. A
cell of e.m.f. E1 supplies current I1 through R1.
Therefore, potential difference across R1 is
given by-
V1 =I1R1 ………….(ii)

This potential difference is balanced by
balancing length AN2 = l2 which is determined
by touching the jockey at different points and
selecting point N2 at which galvanometer
shows null deflection. Hence by the principle
of potentiometer, we have
V1 = фl2 ………….(iii)

1.The +ve or -ve terminal of driving cell is connected to
that terminal of potentiometer at which +ve or -ve
terminal of the cell of unknown e.m.f. is connected.
2.The emf of driving cell is greater than the unknown
emf's of other cells connected in the potentiometer
circuit.
3.The wire of potentiometer should be of uniform cross
sectional area.
4.The resistance of potentiometer wire should be large.

1. Potentiometer is used to measure e.m.f. of a
cell while voltmeter is used to
measure terminal P.O. of a cell.
2. By increasing length of potentiometer
potential drop can be made as small as
possible therefore it is used to measure very
small P.O.
3. Potentiometer is more accurate than voltmeter.
4. Potentiometer is used for the calibration of
readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
But voltmeter can't be used for the calibration
purpose.

1. Potentiometer is not portable but voltmeter is
portable.
2. Potentiometer does not give direct readings but
voltmeter gives direct readings.

What is an Instrument Transformer ?:
• It is a transformer that is used in conjunction with any measuring
instrument (i.e., Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Watt-hour-meter,
…et . o p ote tive e uip e t i.e., Relays .
• It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation
properties to measure high ac current and voltage.
Instrument Transformers

Types of instrument transformers :
These instrument transformers are of two types:-
1. Current transformers
2. Potential transformers

Applications of Instrument Transformers:
• For measurement of high ac current, it is usual to use low
range ac ammeter with suitable shunt.
• For measurement of high ac voltage, low range ac voltmeters
are used with high resistances connected in series.
• For measurement of very high ac current and voltage, we
cannot use these methods. Instead, we use specially
constructed HV instrument transformers to insulate the high
voltage circuit from the measuring circuit in order to protect
the measuring instruments from burning.

• Application of Instrumentation Transformers In dc circuits for
current and voltage measurement, we use low range dc
ammeters and voltmeters with rectifiers connected in their
secondary circuits.
• The vast primary application of Instrument Transformers is
for the protection and control of power system and power
equipment of high and very high ratings.
• The working of these instrument transformers are similar to
those of the ordinary transformers.

Basic Construction and Magnetic Circuit of Instrument Transformers

Polarity of Instrument Transformers

Common connections of instrument transformers

What is current Transformer (CT)?:
• A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding low
current, which is proportional to the high current flowing in its primary winding.
• The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
• The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected to its secondary
winding. Measuring instrument OR Protective instrument.
-Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results up to a maximum of
125% of its normal full-load rated current.
-Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to 20 times of its
normal full-load rated current (about 2000% of its full-load rated current!!..??).
• Based on the type of equipment for which the Ct is used for, its saturation point will
vary. At the same time it is expected to be linear in the entire working range.
Current Transformers

Construction of C.T.:
• C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick wire
connected in series with the line whose current is to be measured.
• The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of fine wire
and is connected across an a ete o a elay’s te i als.

Construction Types of Current Transformers
Window-type Bar-type

Function of CT:
• The principal function of a CT is to produce a proportional current at a
level of magnitude, which is suitable for the operation of low-range
measuring or protective devices such as indicating or recording
instruments and relays.
• The primary and secondary currents are expressed as a ratio such as
100/5 or 1000/5 .
• With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary winding will result
in 5A flowing in the secondary winding, provided that the correct
rated burden is connected to the secondary winding.

Class of a CT:
• The extent to which the actual secondary current magnitude differs
from the calculated value, expected by the virtue of the CT ratio, is
defined as the accuracy Class of the CT.
• The greater the number used to define the class, the greater the
pe issi le u e t e o [the deviatio i the actual secondary
current from the calculated value].

Specifications of CT:
CTs should be specified as follow:
RATIO : Input / output current ratio
VA: Total burden (rating) including pilot wires.
Common burden ratings are 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 30 VA. For example:
• Moving iron ammeter is 1-2 VA
• Moving coil rectifier ammeter is 1-2.5 VA
• Electro-dynamic instrument is 2.5-5 VA
• Maximum demand ammeter is 3-6 VA
• Recording ammeter or transducer is 1-2.5 VA

CLASS : The accuracy required for the operation
DIMENSIONS: Maximum & minimum limits. For example:
• 0.1 or 0.2 for precision measurements.
• 0.5 for high grade kilowatt hour meters and commercial grade
kilowatt hour meters.
• 3 for general industrial measurements.
• 3 or 5 for approximate measurements.
BURDEN (OHMIC): (Depending on pilot lead length)

Current Transformers Stepping:
• These are used with low range ammeters to measure current in high
voltage alternating circuits where it is not practical to connect instrument
and meters directly to lines.
• They are step-up transformers (voltage ratio) because when we step-up
the voltage the current decreases.
• The current is a step-down in a known ratio called the current ratio .

Connections of Current Transformers
Single-Ratio CT Multi-Ratio CT

Multi-ratio CT:
• As indicated in the previous Figure, current transformers having a
center tapped secondary are referred to as a dual ratio CT.
• Dual ratio CT are used in applications where it is necessary to have
available two ratios of primary to secondary current from the same
secondary winding of the CT.
• This may be accomplished by adding a tap in the secondary
winding to get a second ratio.
• The ratio obtained by the tap is usually one-half the ratio obtained
by the full secondary winding.
• A schematic example is previously shown with 200 amperes flowing
in the primary, a connection X2 – X3 will produce 5 amperes out of
the secondary. As the load grows to 400 amperes, the secondary
circuit will be reconnected to X1 – X3 to still produce 5 amperes in
the secondary circuit.

Working (Measurement):
• If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5 then it
steps up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20 times of its actual
value.
• If we know the current ratio and the reading of an a.c. ammeter, the primary
current can be calculated as:
Primary Current = CT ratio × ammeter reading

Why CT secondary should never be open ?:
• Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works as
a short-circuited instrument.
• If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short-circuited with the help of a short-circuit
switch.
• If this is not done, then a high m.m.f. (Ampere-turns IT) will set up a high
flux in the magnetic core and it will produce excessive core loss which
produce heat and high voltage across the secondary terminals .
• The high voltage can damage any electronic components in secondary side.
• Hence the secondary of any current transformer should never be left open.

Construction of the DOUGHNUT Type C.T. :
The most common type of C.T. construction is the “DOUGHNUT” type. It
is constructed of an iron toroid, which forms the core of the transformer, and
is wound with many secondary turns.
Secondary Winding Primary Conductor
Iron Core

• The `doughnut' fits over the primary conductor, which constitutes one primary turn. If
the toroid is wound with 240 secondary turns, then the ratio of the C.T. is 240 : 1 or
1200 : 5A
• The continuous rating of the secondary winding is normally 5 AMPS in North
America, and 1 AMP or 0.5 AMP in many other parts of the world.
• This type of `doughnut' C.T. is most commonly used in circuit breakers and power
transformers. The C.T. fits into the bushing, and the porcelain bushing fits through the
centre of the `doughnut'.
• Up to four C.T.'s of this type can be installed around each bushing of an oil circuit
breaker. This arrangement is shown in a following diagram.

Substation Class Circuit Breakers' CTs
Polyester Taped Bushing CT on
Outdoor Circuit Breaker

Primary Current
(100 amps)
Secondary Current
(5 amps)
Primary Current
Secondary Current
Transformer Ratio = _____________________
100
5
___ = 100:5 or 20:1
CT Turns-ratio (TR)

Direction of
Primary Current
Direction of
Secondary Current
H1
X1
P1
IEEE
IEC
Primary
Polarity
Marks
IEEE
IEC
S1
Secondary
Polarity
Marks
Polarity
Primary current into “polarity” forces
Secondary current out of “polarity”

Direction of
Secondary Current
Direction of
Primary Current
H1
X1
P1
IEEE
IEC
Primary
Polarity
Marks
IEEE
IEC
S1
Secondary
Polarity
Marks
Primary current into “non-polarity” forces
Secondary current out of “non-polarity”
Polarity

CT Metering Accuracy
Since actual secondary current Rated secondary current
=
The difference in % is known as the
“Accuracy” or “Class”
of the CT
Then:

Burden
Load connected to CT secondary
Includes devices & connecting leads
Expressed in ohms
Standard values = B0.1, B0.2, B0.5, B0.9, B1.8
E0.04, E0.2

CT accurate Burden Calculation
ZT = RCT + RL + ZB
ZT = Total burden in ohms (vector summation of
resistance and inductance components)
RCT = CT secondary resistance in ohms @75 deg C
RL = Resistance of leads in ohms (Total loop distance)
ZB = Device impedance in ohms

Factors Affecting Degree and Time to Saturation
1. High DC offset
2. High fault current Magnitude (symmetrical current)
Example:
•100 to 5 CT@20 times= 2000 amps.
•Also @20,000 amps we have 200 times CT
3. Low CT Turns Ratios
4. High secondary burden
5. Low CT Accuracy (Class)
6. High reminance flux
• Can occur if current interrupted when core is saturated
• If DC flows in windings during testing
• Need a voltage above 60% of knee point to reduce the Reminance to less than 10% of
saturation flux density.

Tips for Avoiding CT Saturation
1. Use higher ratio CTs
2. Use separate set of high ratio CTs for high fault current
tripping
3. Reduce secondary burden by:
-Selecting low burden relays & meters
-Distributing single phase burdens among phases
-Increasing the size of secondary leads
-Reducing the length of secondary leads
-Using “step down” auxiliary CTs

Avoiding CT Saturation
with Linear Operation
(Knee limit of the Curve)

CT Actual Connections
Typical window CT

Outdoor Type BO7 for Retrofit
Power Transformers’ CT Connections
Slip over current transformer for installation over
exterior of outdoor bushing

Substation Class Circuit Breakers’ CT’s
Outdoor BO7 - Replaces BCT’s
in shielded aluminum housing
Ground Shield

Generators CT Connections
Board Mounted Generator CT

What is a Potential Transformer (PT) or (VT)?:
• A PT or sometimes called VT is a step-down transformer having many
primary turns but few secondary turns.
• In a step-down transformer the voltage decreases and the current
increases, thus voltage can be easily measured by using a low-range
voltmeter instrument.
• The voltage is stepped-down in a known ratio called the voltage ratio.
Potential Transformers

Construction and working of P.T.:
Construction
• A potential transformer has many primary winding turns but few number of secondary winding
turns that makes it a step-down transformer.
• A Voltmeter is connected to the secondary winding is usually a voltmeter of 150 V.
Working (Measurement):
• Primary terminals are connected in parallel across the line to which the voltage is to be
measured.
• The voltmeter reading gives the transformed value of the voltage across the secondary terminals.
• The deflection of the voltmeter when divided by the transformed ratio gives the actual voltage
across the primary winding as:
The Line voltage = deflection / transformation-Ratio
Where transformation ratio = V2/V1

Precaution for P.T.:
• Since the secondary of a p.t. is connected to relays, their
ratings are usually 40 to 100 Watts.
• For safety purpose the secondary should be completely
insulated from the high voltage primary and should be in
addition grounded.

Types of P.T. :
Some types of p.t. are:
• Shell type
• Dry type
• Oil type
Rating Type
1. Below 5000 v Shell type
2. 5000-13800 v Dry type and oil type
3. Above 13800 v only oil type

VP
Vs
Relay
14,400/120 = 120/1
4200/120 = 35/1
2400/120 = 20/1
Potential Transformer
Common Ratios

Connections of 1-Phase Potential Transformers

Other PT and 3-Phase Typical Connections
Open Delta Connection
(2) Double Bushing VTs
Y – Y Connection
(3) Single Bushing VTs

Y – Broken Corner  VT
Connection
damping resistor R

Y-Y/Broken Corner  Connection

Basic important rules for Instrument Transformers
Rule # 1
CTs are intended to be proportional current devices. Very high
voltages can result from open circuiting the secondary circuit of an
energized CT. Even very small primary currents can cause damage.
Never open circuit a current
transformer secondary while the
primary is energized

Never short circuit the
secondary of an energized VT
Rule # 2
VTs are intended to be used as proportional voltage
devices. Damaging current will result from short
circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized VT.

Rule # 3
CT secondary leads must be
added to the CT burden
Electronic relays usually represent very
little burden to the CT secondary circuit.
In many cases the major burden is
caused by the CT secondary leads.

Rule # 4
Never use a 60 Hz rated VT
on a 50 Hz System
60 Hz VTs may saturate at lower frequencies
and exceed temperature limitations. VT failure is
likely…severe equipment damage is possible.

UNIT – III
MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY

Operating Forces
 Deflecting Force.
 Controlling Force.
 Damping Force.

Supporting the moving
element
 Suspension
 Taut Suspension
 Pivot and jewel bearings.

04-03-09 Nkp/eee skcet
Electrodynamometer Type

Wattmeter

Power Measurement in 3 phase 3
wire system

Two wattmeter method

Energy meters

Single Phase Energy Meter

Poly Phase Energy Meter

2.1.1 Basic A.C.Bridge :
• As the name indicates ac bridges consists of an ac supply. This
provides ac voltage at the required frequency. The null
detector is used to give indication of unbalanced. This gives
response to the unbalanced current in the bridge circuit. The
simplest form of AC Bridge as shown in following fig.:

. . Hay’s Bridge :
• The li itatio of Ma ell’s ridge is that it a e
used for high Q values.The Ha ’s ridge is suita le
for the coils having high Q values.
• The differe t i Ma ell’s ridge a d Ha ’s ridge
is that the Ha ’s ridge o sists of resista eR1 in
series with the standard capacitor C1 in one of
the ratio arms. Hence for larger phase angles
R1needed is very low, which is practicable. Hence
bridge can be used for coils with high Q values.

• ADVANTAGES:
• 1) It is best suitable for the measurement of inductance
with high Q, typically greater than 10.
• 2) It gives very simple expression for Q factor in terms
of elements in the bridge.
• It requires very low value resister R1 to measure high Q
inductance.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• 1) It is only suitable for measurement of high Q
inductance. Consider expression for unknown
inductance.

. . Anderson’s Bridge
• The A derso ’s ridge is a odifi atio o er
the Ma ell’s ridge. I A derso ’s ridge, the
self inductance is measured in terms of a
standard capacitor.fig shows the schematic for
A derso ’s ridge.
•

Wien Bridge
• It is a bridge used for the measurement of
frequency.
• Apart from this it has a variety of applications in
the harmonic distortion analyzer where it is used
as a notch filter,discriminating against a specific
frequency in the audio and HF oscillators as
frequency determining against a specific
frequency in the audio and HF oscillators as
frequency determining element.
• Fig.2.1.9 shows the circuit.

• ADVANTAGE:
• 1. The bridge is simplest
• 2. It is economical
• DISADVANTAGE:
• 1. If both the capacitor are not free from
dielectric loss, then it is not possible to
achieve bridge balance. This method is only
suitable for the measurement of lossless
capacitor e.g. air capacitors.

UNIT – V
TRANSDUCERS AND OSCILLOSCOPES

Introduction
 Basically transducer is defined as a device, which converts
energy or information from one form to another. These are
widely used in measurement work because not all quantities
that need to be measured can be displayed as easily as others.
A better measurement of a quantity can usually be made if it
may be converted to another form, which is more
conveniently or accurately displayed.

Introduction(cont’d)
 For example, the common mercury thermometer converts
variations in temperature into variations in the length of a
column of mercury. Since the variation in the length of the
mercury column is rather simple to measure, the mercury
thermometer becomes a convenient device for measuring
temperature.

 On the other hand, the actual temperature variation is not as
easy to display directly. Another example is manometer, which
detects pressure and indicates it directly on a scale calibrated
in actual units of pressure.

 Thus the transducer is a device, which provides a usable
output in response to specific input measured, which may be
physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition. The
transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical,
chemical, acoustic, thermal nuclear, or a combination of any
two or more of these.

Mechanical transducers
 are simple and rugged in construction, cheaper in cost,
accurate and operate without external power supplies but are
not advantageous for many of the modern scientific
experiments and process control instrumentation owing to
their poor frequency response, requirement of large forces to
overcome mechanical friction, in compatibility when remote
control or indication is required, and a lot of other
limitations. All these drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
 Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as
temperature, pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid flow,
speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured directly.
Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed
into some other form for easy measurement.
 Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance.
inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently
measured, transferred and stored, and therefore, for
measurement of non-electrical quantities these are to be
converted into electrical quantities first and then measured.

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)
 The function of converting non-electrical quantity into
electrical one is accomplished by a device called the electrical
transducer. Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing
device by which a physical, mechanical or optical quantity to
be measured is transformed directly, with a suitable
mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage or
frequency). The production of these signals is based upon
electrical effects which may be resistive, inductive, capacitive
etc in nature.

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)
 The input versus output energy relationship takes a definite
reproducible function. The output to input and the output to
time behavior is predictable to a known degree of accuracy,
sensitivity and response, within the specified environmental
conditions.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER
 The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the
measurement under specified limits for which it is designed.
It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship between
the input and output quantities and it should be fixed.
Transducers should meet the following basic requirements.

Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
(cont’d)
 Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload
and some safety arrangement should be provided for
overload protection.
 Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear
and it should produce these characteristics in symmetrical
way.
 Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when
the same input signal is applied again and again under fixed
environmental conditions e.g. temperature, pressure,
humidity etc.

(cont’d)
 High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal
should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to the noise should
be high and the amplitude of the output signal should be
enough.
 High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error
in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and
other various changes in surroundings.
 Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to
input when taken as a function of time. The effect is analyzed
as the frequency response.

(cont’d)
 No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during
measurement while input signal is varied from its low value
to high value and vice-versa.
 Residual Deformation. There should be no deformation on
removal of local after long period of application.

Classification Of Transducers
 The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on
the basis of electrical principles involved, methods of
application, methods of energy conversion used, nature of
output signal etc.

Classification Of Transducers(cont’d)
 Primary and Secondary Transducers:Transducers, on the
basis of methods of applications, may be classified into
primary and secondary transducers. When the input signal is
directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is
converted into the electrical form directly then such a
transducer is called the primary transducer.

1-Primary and Secondary
Transducers(cont’d)
 For example a thermistor used for the measurement of
temperature fall in this category. The thermistor senses the
temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with
the change in temperature. When the input signal is sensed
first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of
some form other than input signals is given as input to a
transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.

Primary and Secondary Transducers(cont’d)
 For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube
is a primary sensor which converts pressure first into
displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an
output voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary
transducer.

2-Active and Passive Transducers.
 . Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion
used, may be classified into active and passive transducers.Self-
generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their
output the form of electrical voltage or current without any
auxiliary source, are called the active transducers. Such
transducers draw energy from the system under
measurement. Normal such transducers give very small
output and, therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.

Active and Passive Transducers(cont’d)
 Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance changes with the change in input
signal, are called the passive transducers. These transducers
require external power source for energy conversion. In such
transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or
capacitance causes a change in voltages current or frequency
of the external power source. These transducers may draw
sour energy from the system under measurement. Resistive,
inductive and capacitive transducer falls in this category.

3-Analog and Digital Transducers
 Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be
classified into analog and digital transducers. Analog
transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a
continuous function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge,
LVDT, thermo-couple etc. Digital transducer converts input
signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives
discrete output.

Analog and Digital Transducers(cont’d)
 These transducers are becoming more and more popular
now-a-days because of advantages associated with digital
measuring instruments and also due to the effect that digital
signals can be transmitted over a long distance without
causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and phase
shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an
ADC (analog-digital convector) is called a digital transducer.

Transducers and Inverse Transducers.
 Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a
non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Normally a
transducer and associated circuit has a non-electrical input
and an electrical output, for example a thermo-couple,
photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc. An
inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical
quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a precision
actuator having an electrical input and a low-power non-
electrical output.

Transducers and Inverse
Transducers(cont’d)
 For examples a piezoelectric crystal and transnational and
angular moving-coil elements can be employed as inverse
transducers. Many data-indicating and recording devices are
basically inverse transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter
converts electric current into mechanical movement and the
characteristics of such an instrument placed at the output of a
measuring system are important. A most useful application of
inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.

Selection Of Transducers
 In a measurement system the transducer (or a combination of
transducers) is the input element with the critical function of
transforming some physical quantity to a proportional
electrical signal. So selection of an appropriate transducer is
most important for having accurate results.

Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
 The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly define
the nature of quantity under measurement (measurand) and
know the range of magnitudes and frequencies that the
measurand is expected to exhibit. Next step will be to
examine the available transducer principles for measurement
of desired quantity. The type of transducer selected must be
compatible with the type and range of the quantity to be
measured and the output device.

 In case one or more transducer principles are capable of
generating a satisfactory signal, decision is to be taken
whether to employ a commercially available transducer or
build a suitable transducer. If the transducers are available in
the market at a suitable price, the choice will probably be to
purchase one of them, otherwise own transducer will have to
be designed, built and calibrated.

 The points to be considered in determining a transducer suitable
for a specific measurement are as follows:
 Range. The range of the transducer should be large enough to
encompass all the expected magnitudes of the measurand.
 Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output signal
per unit of measured input in order to yield meaningful data.
 Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical characteristics-
the output impedance, the frequency response, and the response
time of the transducer output signal should be compatible with the
recording device and the rest of the measuring system equipment.

 Physical Environment. The transducer selected should be
able to withstand the environmental conditions to which it is
likely to be subjected while carrying out measurements and
tests.
 Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and
vibration, moisture, and corrosive chemicals might damage
some transducers but not others.

 Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of the
transducer itself, or those errors caused by environmental
conditions of the measurement, should be small enough or
controllable enough that they allow meaningful data to be
taken.
 However the total measurement error in a transducer-
activated system may be reduced to fall within the required
accuracy range by adopting the following techniques.

Errors(cont’d)
 Calibrating the transducer output against some known standards
while in use under actual test conditions. This calibration should
be performed regularly as the measurement proceeds.
 Continuous monitoring of variations in the environmental
conditions of the transducer and correcting the data accordingly.
 Controlling the measurement environment artificially in order to
reduce possible transducer errors. Artificial environmental control
includes the enclosing of the transducer in a temperature-
controlled housing and isolating the device from external shocks
and vibrations.

Functional Units
a) Electron Gun
b) Evacuated Tube
c) Deflecting System
d) Time Base
e) Trigger Circuit

a) Heating Filament
b) Cathode
c) Grid
d) Electron lens
Link to figure
Return

Evacuated Tube
• Vacuum space
• Screen
• Graphite inner wall
• Shielded from electric and magnetic fields
Return Link to figure

Deflecting System
• X-plates
• Y-plates
• X and Y Deflection Amplifiers
• X-shift Control
• Y-shift Control
• Sensitivity Control

Time Base
• Sawtooth potential difference
• Time period control

Trigger Circuit
• Maintain a stable trace
• Trig level control
• Trigger time base
• automatic triggering

USES OF CRO
a) Voltmeter
b) Display of waveforms
c) Measurement of short time intervals
d) Measurement of frequency
e) Display of phase relationship
f) Comparison of frequencies

Voltmeter
• Calibration
• D.C. voltmeter
• A.C. voltmeter
• Advantages over moving-coil voltmeters
Return

Display of Waveforms
Return
magnify

Measurement of Short Time
Intervals
• Calibrate for the time base
• Measure a very small time interval, e.g.
measurement of sound speed in a metal rod
Return

Measurement of Frequency
• Signal applied to Y-plates
• ‘Lock’ the trace
• Choose a suitable time base
• Determine the period, T
• Calculate the frequency
Return

Display of Phase Relationships
Return
Computer
Simulation

Comparison of Frequencies
• Lissajous’ figures
• Frequency ratio

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