Idiomi, lecture 01, 12 13
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This document discusses fixed expressions in English. It notes there is no agreed upon terminology and definitions can vary. Idioms are defined as multi-word phrases whose meanings are not fully predictable from the individual words. Idioms typically have both a literal compositional meaning and a non-compositional idiomatic meaning. Fixed expressions include idioms and other phrases like proverbs and collocations that vary in their degree of compositionality. Institutionalization, fixedness, and non-compositionality are identified as the main factors in defining fixed expressions, though there is variability. Other criteria mentioned include orthography, syntactic integrity, and phonological properties. Examples of common English idioms and fixed expressions are provided.
Idiomi, lecture 01, 12 13
- 1. FIXED EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH
- 2. Terminology Problematic No generally agreed common vocabulary Different terms used to describe identical or very similar kinds of unit or a single term used to denote very different phenomena
- 3. Definition Idioms – multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are idionsyncratic and largely unpredictable, reflecting speaker meanings that are not derivable by combining the literal senses of the individual words in each phrase according to the regular semantic rules of the language.
- 4. Meanings od idioms The typical meanings of idioms are not fully compositional. However – most idioms also have possible, though unlikely, literal compositional interpretations along with their idiomatic senses. Which meaning is intended usually depends on the context in which the expression is used.
- 5. Examples Let the cat out of the bag = reveal a secret Take the bull by the horns = take charge of a situation These are commonly used idioms whose usual meanings are not fully compositional, but have to be learned as a whole. However, these idioms also have possible, though rarely intended, literal compositional meaning.
- 6. Fixed expressions There are various groups of lexical combinations on the basis of their degree of cohesion: 1. Free combinations: their components are the freest in regard to combining with other lexical items, NOUN murder + to analyse, boast of, condemn, describe… 2. Idioms: are relatively frozen expressions whose meanings do not reflect the meanings of their component parts. Proverbs and sayings differ from idioms in that they convey folk wisdom or an alleged general truth, and they are usually more frozen than idioms. 3. Collocations: are loosely fixed combinations, e.g. to commit murder. (Benson et al. Lexicographic Description of English, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1986)
- 7. Fixed expression Covers several kinds of multi-word lexical item or phraseological unit, i.e. holistic units of two or more words: frozen collocations (e.g. in retrospect, kith and kin; a foregone conclusion, in effect, beg the question) grammatically ill-formed collocations (break the conventional grammatical rules of English, e.g. by and large, stay put) proverbs (e.g. every cloud has a silver lining; first come first served) routine formulae (e.g. alive and well, pick and choose, you know) sayings (include formulae such as quotations, catch-phrases, and truisms, e.g. an eye for an eye, don’t let the bastards grind you down) similes (e.g. as good as gold, like lambs to the slaughter) Fixed expression also subsumes idioms. Idioms - used to refer loosely to semi-transparent and opaque metaphorical expressions, e.g. spill the beans, burn one’s candle at both ends.
- 8. Idioms Idiom – an ambiguous term In lay or general use – idiom has two main meanings: 1. Idiom is a particular manner of expressing something in language, music, art, etc., which characterizes a person or a group Ex.: …the most fantastic (performance) I have seen in the strict idiom of the music hall comedian.
- 9. Idioms 2. Idiom is a particular lexical collocation or phrasal lexeme, peculiar to a language: Ex.: The French translations, however, of my English speeches were superb (except for rare instances where the translator was unfamiliar with some out-of-the-way English idiom I had used).
- 10. Idioms Narrower uses of idiom: idiom is a unit that is fixed and semantically opaque or metaphorical, or not the sum of its parts (e.g. kick the bucket, spill the beans). Broader uses of idiom: idiom is a general term for many kinds of multi-word item, whether semantically opaque or not (in this use the term idiom is equivalent to the term fixed expression)
- 11. Main factors in defining FEIs Idiomaticity is a universal linguistic phenomenon in natural languages The fundamental question - whether a string of words can be considered a unit (i.e. free combination) or FEI 3 principal factors in trying to define fixed expressions: 1. INSTITUTIONALIZATION: the process by which a string or formulation becomes recognized and accepted as a lexical item of the language. The main criterion is the frequency with which the string recurs. Problems: most fixed expressions occur infrequently; FEIs may be localized within certain sections of a language community, and peculiar to certain varieties or domains; some FEIs are no longer current in the lexicon, but were institutionalized in former times (e.g. put one’s eyes together, swim between two waters).
- 12. Main factors in defining FEIs 2. LEXICOGRAMMATICAL FIXEDNESS: implies some degree of lexical and grammatical defectiveness in units, f.e. with preferred lexical realizations and often restrictions on aspect, mood, or voice (e.g. call the shots, kith and kin, shoot the breeze). Problems: by no means all FEIs are fully frozen strings. Institutionalization and fixedness are not sufficient criteria by themselves.
- 13. Main factors in defining FEIs 3. NON-COMPOSITIONALITY*: is a semantic criterion. The meaning arising from word-by-word interpretation of the string does not yield the institutionalized, accepted, unitary meaning of the string (typical cases are metaphorical FEIs). To sum up, institutionalized strings which are grammatically ill-formed or which contain words unique to the combination may also be considered non-compositional. There are also cases where the string is decodable compositionally, but the unit has a special function in discourse, f.e. proverbs, similes, sayings. This is called pragmatic non-compositionality. Problems: apparently holistic FEIs (spill the beans, rock the boat) may be partly compositional in relation to syntactic structure and metaphoricity, i.e. we understand the pertinence of the image. Thus, non-compositionality should be intepreted as indicating that the component lexical items may have special meanings within the context of the FEIs, not that the meanings can never be rationalized, nor that they are never found in other FEIs.
- 14. Main factors in defining FEIs * COMPOSITIONALITY of meaning (term from semantics) = the meaning of any expression is a function of the meanings of the parts of which it is composed.
- 15. Other criteria in defining FEIs 1. Ortography: FEIs should consist of, or be written as, 2 or more words 2. Syntactic integrity: FEIs form syntactic or grammatical units in their own right: adjuncts (e.g. through thick and thin), complements (e.g. long in the tooth), nominal groups (e.g. a flash in the pan), sentence adverbial (e.g. by and large), clauses (e.g. don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched). 3. Phonological criterion: where strings are ambiguous between compositional and non-compositonal interpretation, intonation may distinguish: interword pauses and word durations are longer in literal readings, shorter in idiomatic readings.
- 16. Criteria are variables Institutionalization, fixedness and non- compositionality distinguish FEIs from other strings, but they are not present to an equal extent in all items. Degrees of institutionalization (e.g. from very frequent of course to fairly rare cannot cut the mustard), of fixedness (e.g. from the completely frozen kith and kin to the relatively flexible and variable take stick from someone, get a lot of stick from someone, give someone stick), and of non-compositionality (from the opaque bite the bullet to the transparent enough is enough).
- 17. HOMEWORK kith and kin a foregone conclusion beg the question by and large stay put every cloud has a silver lining pick and choose spill the beans burn one’s/the candle at both ends call the shots shoot the breeze through thick and thin long in the tooth a flash in the pan don’t count your chicken before they’re hatched cannot cut the mustard take stick from someone/ get a lot of stick from someone/ give someone stick bite the bullet