Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 01, 12 13
Traditional notional definitions of
parts of speech
Definitions based on the meaning of the expressions
 being classified, not on their grammatical properties.
E.g., the notional definition of the noun and verb =
 nouns name persons, places and things; verbs are
 concerned with describing the action or state, i.e.
 with ‘doing things’.
E.g., to determine whether a word is a noun, one asks
 what it means or denotes; to determine the tense of a
 verb, one asks in what time period it locates the
 action or state expressed by the verb, etc.
Traditional notional definitions of
parts of speech
Traditional definitions – criticised by linguists
Ex., traditionally, preterite is defined as a tense
 expressing past action or state:
1. (a) The finals started yesterday.
(b) You said the finals started tomorrow.
2. (a) I gave them his address.
(b) I regret giving them his address.
The notional definition gives the wrong results in
 both the (b) examples.
Traditional notional definitions of
parts of speech
Definitions are supposed to give necessary and sufficient
 conditions for belonging to some category, and the
 notional definitions for the preterite given above fails
 completely.
(1b) shows that past time reference is not necessary for a
 word to be a preterite verb form, and (2b) shows that it is
 not sufficient either.
The problem is that the relation between the grammatical
 category of tense (form) and the semantic category of time
 (meaning) is highly complex, and the notional definition
 assumes that the form can be defined directly in terms of
 meaning.
Traditional notional definitions of
parts of speech
The traditional definition of noun – also
 unsatisfactory.
The problem – the concept of ‘thing’, or ‘name’, is too
 vague to provide a workable criterion.
E.g. there are many abstract nouns such as absence,
 fact, flaw, idea, indeterminacy, lack, necessity, etc., so
 ‘thing’ cannot be intended as equivalent to ‘physical
 object’.
Traditional notional definitions of
parts of speech
3. (a) I was annoyed at their rejection of my proposals.
(b) I was annoyed that they rejected my proposals.
These sentences have essentially the same meaning, but
 rejection is a noun, and rejected a verb.
These two words figure in quite different grammatical
 constructions.
E.g. rejection vs. rejections
E.g. rejected vs. reject
E.g., transitive verbs like reject take a direct object, while
 nouns do not.
E.g., rejected takes a nominative subject (they), rejection
 takes a determiner like possessive their.
Grammatical criteria for defining
parts of speech (word classes)
A satisfactory definition or explanation of concepts
 like noun or preterite must identify grammatical
 properties that distinguish them from the concepts
 with which they contrast.
The discussion of rejection and rejected illustrated
 some of the major ways in which nouns differ from
 verbs.
We assign words to their various classes on
 grammatical grounds, i.e. according to their
 properties in entering phrasal and clausal structure.
Grammatical criteria for defining
parts of speech (word classes)
E.g., determiners (the, a , that, etc.) link up with
 nouns to form noun phrases as in a girl;
Pronouns can replace noun phrases as in “I saw a girl
 and I asked her the time.”
Closed and open word classes
Words fall into two broad categories: closed and
 open.
The category of closed word classes comprises classes
 that are finite (and often small) with a relatively
 stable and unchanging membership.
Words that belong to closed classes play a major part
 in English grammar, and often correspond to
 inflections in some other languages. They are
 sometimes referred to as ‘grammatical words’,
 ‘structure words’, or ‘function words’.
Closed and open word classes
The open classes of words are constantly changing
 their membership as old words drop out of the
 language and new ones are coined or adopted to
 reflect cultural changes in society. They are often
 called ‘lexical words’.
Closed classes
Pronoun: she, they, anybody, etc.
Determiner: the, a , some, those, etc.
Primary verb: be, have, do
Modal auxiliary verb: can, may, shall, will, must, etc.
Preposition: in, during, round, etc.
Conjunction: and, or, while, yet, etc.
Open classes
Noun: girl, idea, table, Gloria, etc.
Adjective: sufficient, happy, round, etc.
Full lexical verbs: grow, play, interrogate, etc.
Adverb: sufficiently, really, afterwards, yet, etc.
Other categories of words
Numerals: three, sixty-five, etc.
Interjections: oh, wow, etc.
A word may belong to more than class, like for
 example round
E.g. Drive round the corner. round = preposition

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Uvod u morfosintaksu, lecture 01, 12 13

  • 2. Traditional notional definitions of parts of speech Definitions based on the meaning of the expressions being classified, not on their grammatical properties. E.g., the notional definition of the noun and verb = nouns name persons, places and things; verbs are concerned with describing the action or state, i.e. with ‘doing things’. E.g., to determine whether a word is a noun, one asks what it means or denotes; to determine the tense of a verb, one asks in what time period it locates the action or state expressed by the verb, etc.
  • 3. Traditional notional definitions of parts of speech Traditional definitions – criticised by linguists Ex., traditionally, preterite is defined as a tense expressing past action or state: 1. (a) The finals started yesterday. (b) You said the finals started tomorrow. 2. (a) I gave them his address. (b) I regret giving them his address. The notional definition gives the wrong results in both the (b) examples.
  • 4. Traditional notional definitions of parts of speech Definitions are supposed to give necessary and sufficient conditions for belonging to some category, and the notional definitions for the preterite given above fails completely. (1b) shows that past time reference is not necessary for a word to be a preterite verb form, and (2b) shows that it is not sufficient either. The problem is that the relation between the grammatical category of tense (form) and the semantic category of time (meaning) is highly complex, and the notional definition assumes that the form can be defined directly in terms of meaning.
  • 5. Traditional notional definitions of parts of speech The traditional definition of noun – also unsatisfactory. The problem – the concept of ‘thing’, or ‘name’, is too vague to provide a workable criterion. E.g. there are many abstract nouns such as absence, fact, flaw, idea, indeterminacy, lack, necessity, etc., so ‘thing’ cannot be intended as equivalent to ‘physical object’.
  • 6. Traditional notional definitions of parts of speech 3. (a) I was annoyed at their rejection of my proposals. (b) I was annoyed that they rejected my proposals. These sentences have essentially the same meaning, but rejection is a noun, and rejected a verb. These two words figure in quite different grammatical constructions. E.g. rejection vs. rejections E.g. rejected vs. reject E.g., transitive verbs like reject take a direct object, while nouns do not. E.g., rejected takes a nominative subject (they), rejection takes a determiner like possessive their.
  • 7. Grammatical criteria for defining parts of speech (word classes) A satisfactory definition or explanation of concepts like noun or preterite must identify grammatical properties that distinguish them from the concepts with which they contrast. The discussion of rejection and rejected illustrated some of the major ways in which nouns differ from verbs. We assign words to their various classes on grammatical grounds, i.e. according to their properties in entering phrasal and clausal structure.
  • 8. Grammatical criteria for defining parts of speech (word classes) E.g., determiners (the, a , that, etc.) link up with nouns to form noun phrases as in a girl; Pronouns can replace noun phrases as in “I saw a girl and I asked her the time.”
  • 9. Closed and open word classes Words fall into two broad categories: closed and open. The category of closed word classes comprises classes that are finite (and often small) with a relatively stable and unchanging membership. Words that belong to closed classes play a major part in English grammar, and often correspond to inflections in some other languages. They are sometimes referred to as ‘grammatical words’, ‘structure words’, or ‘function words’.
  • 10. Closed and open word classes The open classes of words are constantly changing their membership as old words drop out of the language and new ones are coined or adopted to reflect cultural changes in society. They are often called ‘lexical words’.
  • 11. Closed classes Pronoun: she, they, anybody, etc. Determiner: the, a , some, those, etc. Primary verb: be, have, do Modal auxiliary verb: can, may, shall, will, must, etc. Preposition: in, during, round, etc. Conjunction: and, or, while, yet, etc.
  • 12. Open classes Noun: girl, idea, table, Gloria, etc. Adjective: sufficient, happy, round, etc. Full lexical verbs: grow, play, interrogate, etc. Adverb: sufficiently, really, afterwards, yet, etc.
  • 13. Other categories of words Numerals: three, sixty-five, etc. Interjections: oh, wow, etc. A word may belong to more than class, like for example round E.g. Drive round the corner. round = preposition