Implementation scienc exx application

Implementation Science and its Application to Population Health
Rebecca Lobb and Graham A. Colditz
Department of Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
Rebecca Lobb: lobbr@wustl.edu
Abstract
Implementation science studies the use of strategies to adapt and use evidence-based interventions
in targeted settings (e.g., schools, workplaces, health care facilities, public health departments) to
sustain improvements to population health. This nascent field of research is in the early stages of
developing theories of implementation and evaluating the properties of measures. Stakeholder
engagement, effectiveness studies, research synthesis, and mathematical modeling are some of the
methods used by implementation scientists to identify strategies to embed evidence-based
interventions in clinical and public health programs. However, for implementation science to
reach its full potential to improve population health the existing paradigm for how scientists create
evidence, prioritize publications, and synthesize research needs to shift toward greater stakeholder
input and improved reporting on external validity. This shift will improve the relevance of the
research that is produced and provide information that will help guide decision makers in their
selection of research-tested interventions.
Keywords
knowledge translation; research translation; public health impact; community-engaged research
INTRODUCTION THE EVOLUTION OF IMPLEMENTATION SCIENCE
Implementation science for health evolved from practice-based evaluations that were
conducted in the 1960s and 1970s to understand problems with implementing national
initiatives (e.g., President Kennedy’s New Frontier and President Johnson’s Great Society
and War on Poverty) (34). These programs required the adoption of new ideas by
organizations, as much as individuals, to improve health and reduce the burden of poverty
(34). The emphasis on organizational accountability and application of research questions to
assess whether the policies were implemented as planned led to the emergence of
implementation science (34).
During the 1980s and 1990s, evaluations of the Healthy People objectives further shaped the
field of implementation science. Preliminary assessments of the initial Healthy People found
poor progress with achieving many of the 226 objectives, primarily owing to the lack of
measures. These assessments led to the selection of objectives for Health People 2000 that
were more feasible to measure (3, 51). In addition, tools and implementation strategies are
now distributed to states and local health departments to increase the potential for achieving
Health People objectives.
Copyright © 2013 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that might be perceived as affecting the
objectivity of this review.
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Annu Rev Public Health. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 January 24.
Published in final edited form as:
Annu Rev Public Health. 2013 ; 34: 235–251. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114444.
NIH-PAAuthorManuscriptNIH-PAAuthorManuscriptNIH-PAAuthorManuscript

Current applications of implementation science for health continue to develop tools and
strategies to improve the success of implementation and to study how programs and
interventions are used in practice-based settings. However, the focus of this field has shifted
toward studying how to accelerate the translation of research-tested interventions into policy
and practice, taking into account the complex, dynamic, adaptive systems in which these
interventions can be implemented (6). This most recent evolution of implementation science
was driven largely by an acceleration in funding from the National Institutes of Health
(NIH) and various stakeholder interests to fill the gap between scientific discoveries and the
application of these innovations to improve population health (34).
The Institute of Medicine’s (IOM) 1990 report that identified the gap between mental health
research and practice as a national public health priority was among the first reviews that
quantified the need for a return on the investment that federal dollars made toward research
(45). At that time, almost 80% of the ~9.4-million drug-addicted and-dependent individuals
in the United States went untreated, and the treatment administered did not keep up with the
major scientific advances. In 1997, public funds accounted for 65% of the reported revenues
in drug- and alcohol-treatment programs, creating a pressing interest to find better ways to
implement innovations in effective treatment strategies.
For similar reasons, several years after the IOM report on the gap between mental health
research and practice, the NIH highlighted the importance of moving basic research into
human studies with the Roadmap Initiative (66). Billions of taxpayer dollars had been spent
on scientific discoveries to improve health, but few were being used (53). Whereas the
initial purpose of the Roadmap was to accelerate the translation of research benefits to
patients (66), more recent iterations have expanded this view to include the translational
steps from basic research to use by decision makers and residents (41). Although
stakeholders have not been explicitly defined by the Roadmap Initiative, one can imagine
the proximal and distal stakeholders at each translational step (Figure 1). The first
translational step (T1) seeks to move basic discovery into a candidate health application
primarily through efficacy studies performed by clinical and behavioral scientists. In the
second translational step (T2), health services and public health scientists conduct
effectiveness studies and systematic reviews to assess the value of the health application to a
wider population and develop clinical or community guidelines for using research-tested
interventions. In the third translational step (T3), implementation scientists use methods
similar to those used by scientists in the T2 step to identify strategies that can move clinical
guidelines or evidence-based interventions (EBIs) into clinical and public health practice.
Implementation scientists also collaborate with stakeholders to conduct T4 research, which
seeks to evaluate the real-world use of EBIs and implementation strategies by organizations
and individuals.
Connecting with stakeholders (e.g., researchers from different disciplines, industry, public
health, health care, and community-based groups) to inform the development of research at
translational phases T1 and T2 is supported by the Clinical and Translational Science
Awards (CTSA). Through a consortium of 60 medical institutions in 30 states and the
District of Columbia, the CTSA supports clinical and translational investigators to develop
skills to engage stakeholders in team science to accelerate the translation of research into
clinical practice (11). Stakeholder engagement for T3 and T4 translational research is
supported by the NIH Program Announcements on Dissemination and Implementation
Research in Health. Because T3 translational research has a dual emphasis of dissemination
and implementation, these two types of research are often discussed in the same context.
However, the NIH distinguishes between dissemination, “the targeted distribution of
information and intervention materials to a specific public health or clinical practice
audience,” and implementation, “the use of strategies to introduce or change evidence-based
Lobb and Colditz Page 2

health interventions within specific settings” (53). This article provides a review only of
implementation science to improve population health as it is currently represented in
translational steps T3 and T4 in the Roadmap. The review is intended to reflect the depth and
breadth of the topic and is not a complete review of the literature.
WHY IS IMPLEMENTATION SCIENCE NEEDED?
Population health can be defined as “the health outcomes of a group of individuals,
including the distributions of such outcomes within the groups” (42). Health outcomes and
the distribution of health outcomes are determined by interacting factors related to biology;
health care systems; psychosocial, economic, and physical environments; and policies across
the life span (42). A goal of implementation science for health is to identify the factors,
processes, and methods that can successfully embed EBIs in policy and practice to achieve
population health. Evidence based refers to interventions that have undergone sufficient
scientific evaluation to be considered effective (56).
Over the past two decades, the United States has experienced a dramatic reduction in
mortality for the leading causes of death, heart disease, and cancer. These improvements in
health are due largely to corresponding reductions in tobacco use; increases in use of
screening tests for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer (18); and improvements in
therapeutics (49). Despite these improvements, the United States continues to be ranked at
the bottom for life expectancy at birth out of 33 countries in the Organizations for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) (49). Reasons for this ranking are complex.
However, key contributors to the relatively poor longevity in the United States compared
with other OECD countries include continued high prevalence of tobacco use among adults
without a college education (9), inactivity, and the increase in overweight and obesity
among the US population (19). These health behaviors and comorbid conditions are major
risk factors for heart disease and cancer.
Of equal concern to public health in the United States is the substantial inequities in the
distributions of these risk factors for heart disease and cancer by social groups defined by
education level, poverty level, race, ethnicity, and insurance status. Although health care
services account for only about 10% of the population’s health (57), utilization of health
care is a critical factor in the low longevity ranking for the United States compared with
other OECD countries because many of the other countries provide universal insurance
coverage at the na-tional or regional levels, which facilitates access to life-saving screening
tests and therapeutics. In addition, an uninsured status is disproportionately high among low-
income, limited education, racial and ethnic minority groups who are already vulnerable to
health inequities for heart disease, cancer, and associated risk factors and comorbid
conditions. These social characteristics and the characteristics of the environments in which
socially disadvantaged persons live, work, and play (e.g., built environment, food deserts,
workplace policies) contribute to the persistent inequities in health in the United States (65).
Although it is not comprehensive, this list of health issues in the United States provides a
clear picture of the work that remains to be done to improve the health of the nation.
Evidence suggests that only about half of the available medical and public health
innovations are used in practice (10, 24, 38), yet there are sufficient EBIs to reduce by more
than 50% the burden of cancer and chronic and infectious diseases in the United States (12,
13). The following sections provide an overview of the factors that influence use of EBIs
and the ways in which implementation science is being used or can be used to accelerate use
of EBIs to improve population health and reduce social inequities in health.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE USE OF EVIDENCE-BASED INTERVENTIONS
Glasgow & Emmons (24) identified multiple, interacting reasons why adoption and use of
EBIs does not routinely occur in practice, including the characteristics of the intervention
(e.g., high cost, intensive time demands, not customizable), research design used to test the
EBI (e.g., participants or setting not representative of target population or setting, failure to
evaluate implementation), the situation of the intended target setting (e.g., schools,
workplaces, health care facilities, public health departments), and interactions among these
factors (24). These barriers can be particularly problematic when trying to use EBIs to
improve health for medically underserved populations and residents in underresourced areas
because so few interventions are tested in these situations. A study conducted in rural West
Virginia illustrates how these factors influence the use of EBIs in practice settings.
Example 1: Barriers to Use of Evidence-Based Interventions in Rural West Virginia
Residents in rural areas experience multiple barriers to high-quality health care that residents
in urban and suburban areas do not encounter, such as longer distances to reach health
services (2) and higher rates of unemployment, uninsured, and poverty (62). In addition, the
health of rural racial minority groups is particularly disadvantaged with regard to heart
disease, cancer, and diabetes (2). To understand the compatibility of EBIs in rural areas, the
Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center at West Virginia University released a request for
proposals for community-based cancer education mini-grants. Eligible organizations
belonged to the National Cancer Institute (NCI)-funded Appalachia Community Cancer
Network. The call for proposals required that grantee organizations adapt and implement
EBIs for cancer control, and the funders offered training to grantees to facilitate these
processes (62). Using a multiple-case-study research design, investigators summarized
information ascertained from surveys, interviews, and the final programmatic reports at the
end of the funding period for the 13 grantee organizations (e.g., coalitions, health clinics,
churches, nonprofit community organizations). Results of this study showed that grantees
felt the requirement to use an EBI limited their options for interventions to improve cancer
control. Many grantees commented that it was time consuming and difficult to adapt the
EBIs because the interventions did not take into account older, less educated, or lower-
income populations or the geographically isolated setting, or they required large worksites,
churches, or staffing that were not available (62). All organizations adapted the EBIs. Some
changes were minor, but other changes were substantial in that the core intervention
components were condensed or eliminated.
This case study poignantly demonstrates how the characteristics of the intervention, research
design, and context of the implementation setting affect use of the intervention, even when
funding is provided to encourage use of an EBI. In 2004, Greenhalgh et al. (35) published a
comprehensive meta-narrative review of nearly 500 articles that described factors associated
with the spread and sustained use of EBIs in health service delivery and other organizations
that are the primary target settings for EBIs (35). Among the key findings of this literature
review was that organizations are part of a complex, multidimensional system with multiple
interacting factors that influence use of EBIs at multiple levels (Figure 2) (35). Key features
of complex systems include constant adaptation to nonlinear change, dynamic interactions
between system components, and feedback loops (6, 47). The situations of these complex
systems are influenced by individuals (e.g., perceptions of the innovation, adopter
characteristics), social processes (e.g., communication, linkages, implementation),
characteristics of groups (e.g., system antecedents, readiness to change), and the
sociopolitical, economic environment (20).
The literature suggests that some factors are more influential than others to support the use
of EBIs. For example, rewards for using EBIs, inadequate funding for EBIs, and support

from state legislators are more influential on adoption of EBIs by public health decision
makers than are factors associated with their personal characteristics (e.g., felt need to be an
expert to make evidence-based decisions) (40). One study found that public health decision
makers with a bachelor’s degree were 5.6 times (95% confidence interval 1.7, 17.9) more
likely than those with a public health master’s degree to report that they lacked skill to
develop evidence-based programs (40). In addition, an organization’s culture (e.g., the value
that an organization places on using an EBI for decision making) (14) is a strong predictor
of whether a systematic review influences the use of EBIs (17). Perhaps most relevant to
successful implementation is the strategic climate of an organization that motivates and
enables employees to embed EBIs in existing practices through policies, procedures, and
reward systems (1).
Much of what we know about factors that influence use of EBIs in organizations comes
from the fields of sociology, psychology, communications, systems science, and
organizational behavior (35). These fields have been using implementation science for
decades, but its application to questions about public health is relatively new. A rich body of
theory on implementation science for health has emerged over the past decade, with the
development of more than 50 implementation theories (14, 15, 60). Several theories have
similar constructs, and testing of the theories has been limited. No particular theories have
been identified as most useful to predict or explain EBI implementation. For many
implementation theories, the psychometric properties of construct measures have not been
evaluated, the relationships among the constructs have not been assessed, and the predictive
validity is unknown.
A systematic review conducted by Emmons et al. (20) of peer-reviewed literature highlights
the need for additional research on measures for organizational constructs. The review
investigated the definitions of constructs and measures of five key characteristics of
organizations that are antecedents for implementation science for health (i.e., leadership,
vision, managerial relations, climate, absorptive capacity). They found that no measure of a
specific construct was used in more than one study, many studies did not report the
psychometric properties of the measures, some assessments were based on a single response
per organization, and the level of the instrument did not always match the level of analysis
(20).
IMPROVING THE FIT OF EVIDENCE-BASED INTERVENTIONS IN REAL-
WORLD SETTINGS
Ideally, we want EBIs to be implemented in policy and practice settings in lieu of
interventions that have not undergone sufficient testing (8). However, as we described
earlier, characteristics of EBIs, the research design used to test the EBI, and the complexity
of the systems in which EBIs are implemented can deter use of these research-tested
interventions in practice. Green (34) used the metaphor of a funnel to describe why EBIs
generally do not fit well with real-life circumstances (Figure 3). At the start of the funnel is
the universe of potential studies defined by funding priorities. These studies become
narrowed by transitions through which researchers review grants, researchers determine
publications in peer-reviewed journals, researchers synthesize the available evidence on
interventions, and researchers (who also are often clinicians) develop guidelines to use EBIs
in practice (34). At each transition in the funnel, the priorities and decisions have been
rarely, if at all, informed by those who will ultimately use the research (34), and evidence
with strong internal validity is overemphasized (32). The result of this discovery-to-practice
process is that initial research often involves populations, procedures, and settings that bear
little relation to the locus of actual implementation. Glasgow and Green have written
extensively about the translation of research to routine practice (24, 26–28, 31–34). We

summarize some of the key points in their discussions and expand on their ideas by
depicting how greater stakeholder input and attention to external validity in translational
steps T2-T4 would improve the relevance and increase the volume of research that passes
through the funnel.
Peer Review of Research Proposals
Starting with the peer-review stage of research, funders can improve reporting on external
validity of research by requiring that reviewers evaluate whether analysis plans include
methods for data collection that will enable reporting on measures of external validity (e.g.,
description of withdrawals and dropouts; description of target population compared with
population reached; frequency, duration, and intensity of intervention). Guidelines such as
the extension of the CONSORT, RE-Aim, TREND, Jadad scale, and STROBE, which have
been used recently to judge reporting on external validity of completed studies, can also be
used to guide reviewers’ judgment on the analysis plans for reporting external validity in
proposed studies (26, 32, 33, 64, 67).
Stakeholder review groups can also be added to the review cycle to inform the relevance of
the scientific evidence from a user perspective. Several study designs have strong internal
validity and use a broad sample of participants, incorporate aspects of general practice, or
have flexible intervention strategies to improve the relevance of research (participatory
research projects, pragmatic trials, or comparative effectiveness studies). Green recommends
these forms of “action research” to produce practice-based evidence that is “closer to the
actual circumstances of practice” (31,p.i23). Combining ratings across multiple stakeholder
groups is already used in some areas. However, interdisciplinary reviews on the exact same
criteria can result in low agreement in ratings across research, practice, and policy groups
compared with agreement among members within these stakeholder groups (46). Adding a
separate review for stakeholders to comment only on relevance from their perspective would
not undermine the ratings on scientific merit or relevance and would contribute toward
funding of research with greater potential for application and scientific discovery. Because
scientists from different fields have unique groups of immediate stakeholders (Figure 1), the
composition of the stakeholders would change depending on the focus of the grant. Yet, the
instructions could be standardized across all proposals.
Publication Priorities
At the next step in the funnel, journals can develop ways to reduce the leaks in research
evidence and improve the relevance of the published manuscripts by requiring reviewers to
consider how well authors report on external validity, in addition to the consideration
currently given to reporting on a study’s internal validity. As noted above, reviewers can use
several guidelines to judge an author’s report on the external validity of completed studies.
This suggested change in review procedures for manuscripts is practical, given that
numerous leading health journals have agreed that it would be important and feasible to
report on external validity (26). Green & Glasgow (32) have recommended that journals
take several other actions to improve reporting on external validity such as publishing
editorials on external validity, featuring some exemplary studies or a special issue that
highlights factors related to external validity, expanding online publication of protocols
relevant to external validity, engaging other journals and organizations in these efforts, and
indexing key words relevant to key dimensions of external validity.
Research Synthesis
Research synthesis can answer a broad range of questions for knowledge users and scientists
using meta-analysis or qualitative methods (e.g., narrative synthesis, grounded theory,
thematic analysis) to summarize the results. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials

has dominated the research synthesis literature to address the question, Which interventions
work to improve health? The effective interventions identified by meta-analysis are
regularly updated on several web portals (The Community Guide to Community Preventive
Services, The Center for Reviews and Dissemination, The US Preventive Services Task
Force Recommendations, The Cochrane Public Health Group, and The Campbell
Collaboration; see sidebar). However, meta-analysis of RCTs does not inform decision
makers about for whom the interventions work, in which settings, and under what intensity,
dose, and duration of intervention. To answer these more complex questions, other forms of
research synthesis can be used.
A broader range of synthesis approaches can complement findings from meta-analysis of
RCTs to provide policy and practice stakeholders with additional information on which they
can base their decision to use EBIs (37). Systematic review and meta-analysis of
observational studies have exploded over the past 25 years with publication guidelines (58)
and regression methods (5, 50) implemented to build on the diversity of exposure and
outcomes in target settings. Synthesis methods such as scoping studies, meta-narrative, and
realist reviews summarize information from a wide range of sources including the non-peer-
reviewed literature and reports from qualitative studies to assess the applicability of results
across diverse populations, settings, and conditions (37). These alternative methods to
research synthesis employ rigorous, systematic processes to summarize information (35, 36,
52). In addition, the opinions of policy and practice experts can be incorporated to guide the
questions that are answered by research synthesis and to comment on the gaps in the
literature that are identified by the synthesis. Inclusion of stakeholder opinions in literature
reviews is common practice in Canada (37, 30) and is recommended by UNICEF/UNDP/
World Bank and the WHO in the Framework for Operations and Implementation Research
in Health and Disease Control Programs (29).Research syntheses that examine a broad
range of evidence are particularly relevant for public health interventions that are
implemented in complex systems (33). As noted by Brownson, the goal of research
synthesis should not only be to identify effective interventions, but to allow “the practitioner
to understand the local contextual conditions necessary for successful implementation” (8, p.
183).
Guidelines
One of the more dominant roles of implementation science is to fill the information gap that
occurs along the research-to-practice continuum after research synthesis. EBIs have been
identified at this point, but stakeholders lack guidelines to determine how to apply and
evaluate the use of EBIs across populations and settings. To date, guideline development has
been narrowly focused on clinical practices and only somewhat focused on public health
practices. The limited guidelines to assist public health decision makers with
implementation of EBIs include health impact assessments and Locate evidence, Evaluate it,
Assemble it, and inform Decisions (L.E.A.D.) (44). More guideline development is needed
to accelerate the integration of EBIs in public health practice (32).
Interventions do sometimes diffuse to policy and practice contexts before there is sufficient
evidence to suggest effectiveness (59, 63). For example, in randomized trials with a control
condition, persons, organizations, or communities often view random assignment to an
intervention as unfair and may adopt aspects of the intervention even though its efficacy or
effectiveness has not been tested (59). Alternative study designs that offer a placebo instead
of no treatment or that wait-list the control group can minimize threats to internal validity of
randomized trials. Another example is described in a review of the literature that identified
primary studies on the validation of cardiovascular risk models and use of these models in
guidelines to treat diabetes. The authors found 45 prediction models, several of which were

incorporated in clinical guidelines for the management of type 2 diabetes, even though the
risk scores had not been externally validated in a diabetes population (63).
Practice and Policy
Green’s image of the funnel moves directly from guidelines to practice and policy. Yet, use
of EBIs by policy and practice stakeholders rarely occurs automatically after research
synthesis and guideline development. For example, political will played a large role in
slowing progress with tobacco control (59) and with expediting the discovery and
implementation of antiviral therapy to treat HIV (21, 55). In addition, improved relevance of
EBIs through participatory research can increase the use of EBIs by policy and practice
stakeholders to expedite use of these innovations. However, even if the EBIs have been
tested in the target population and setting, some characteristics of the intervention will likely
need to be adapted for implementation to be feasible. Adaptation refers to “the degree to
which an EBI is changed or modified by a user during adoption and implementation to suit
the needs of the setting or to improve the fit to local conditions” (54, p. 30). An important
consideration for implementation scientists is the balance between adaptation and fidelity to
the intervention’s core components, those thought to determine its effectiveness (8).
PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH TO IMPROVE IMPLEMENTATION OF
EVIDENCE-BASED INTERVENTIONS
Green (31) emphasizes that scientists should engage in participatory research during the
discovery research translational phase (T2) to produce EBIs that are more relevant and
actionable to policy and practice stakeholders. Participatory research requires ongoing,
bidirectional communication between researchers and stakeholders to develop relationships
that will inform research questions as well as practice needs and inform the adaptation of
interventions instead of development of new innovations that are later discarded because of
poor fit (31, 48). The engagement of stakeholders in research can take on many forms, and
partners can include institutions, organizations or individuals, or researchers from different
disciplines. The specific terms used to describe theories of stakeholder engagement differ
depending on whether one refers to social theory or organizational theory. However,
consistent across theories is the basic tenet that partnership engagement can be thought of as
a continuum of involvement (unlinked, exchange information, work side by side on a
common goal, informal sharing of resources, formal sharing of resources based on a written
contract or memorandum of understanding) (22, 23). Following are examples of T3 evidence
being produced through implementation science along the stakeholder engagement
continuum.
Example 2: Using Statistical Modeling to Guide Policy and Practice Decisions
At the lower end of the stakeholder engagement continuum, implementation scientists can
use innovative statistical techniques such as Markov modeling and optimization to engage
policy, public health, and clinical practice partners in applying EBIs in the real world. For
example, Demarteau et al. (16) assessed the optimal mix of screening and vaccination
against human papillomavirus (HPV) to protect against cervical cancer. The evaluation used
a Markov cohort model to estimate the outcomes of 52 different prevention strategies and an
optimization model in which the results of each prevention strategy of the Markov model
were entered as input data to evaluate the combination of different prevention options. The
model was applied in the United Kingdom and Brazil. Findings from this implementation
study suggested that for a zero increase in budget, the number of cases of cervical cancer
would be substantially reduced in the United Kingdom (41%) and Brazil (54%) by
implementing an optimal combination of HPV vaccination (80% coverage) and screening at

prevaccination coverage (65% United Kingdom, 50% Brazil) while extending the screening
interval to every 6 years in the United Kingdom and 5 years in Brazil (16).
Example 3: Using Pragmatic Trials to Create Applicable Evidence-Based Interventions
The pragmatic trial falls mid-range in the stakeholder-engaged continuum. This type of trial
incorporates features such as allowing participating organizations to choose between options
of care and determining the effects of an intervention under the usual conditions in which it
will be applied. These features are in stark contrast to the features of traditional efficacy
trials that study the effects of an intervention under ideal circumstances (61). These trials are
not opposites. Rather they can be considered as end points on a pragmatic-explanatory
continuum. PRECIS (pragmatic-explanatory continuum indicator summary) is a tool that has
been developed to inform the design of intervention trials based on the research questions
being addressed (real-world or explanatory) (61). The PRECIS tool consists of ten domains
that guide researchers when deciding where their study should fall on the pragmatic-
explanatory continuum. The PRECIS criteria have also been applied using a retrospective
approach to describe completed trials. Using the PRECIS criteria, nine reviewers
independently scored three completed studies that targeted obesity treatment in primary care
settings. All three trials were rated in the moderate range on the PRECIS scale, but the
ratings varied across PRECIS dimensions, being most pragmatic on the flexibility of the
comparison condition and participant representativeness (25). This type of tool can help
researchers improve the fit of their studies with real-world circumstances and provide a
richer understanding of the potential for implementation success in usual care settings.
Example 4: Formal Partnerships between Researchers and Practice Experts
At the higher end of the stakeholder engagement continuum scientists create formal
partnerships with the institutions and organizations that will ultimately implement the EBIs.
The Quality Enhancement Research Initiative (QUERI) at the US Department of Veterans
Affairs is an example of a highly integrated partnership between researchers and
practitioners. Implementation studies that are conducted through QUERI are an exceptional
source of practice-based evidence, and findings can often be generalized to other clinical
settings. QUERI utilizes a six-step process to diagnose gaps in performance to identify and
implement EBIs to reduce the disease burden for conditions common among veterans, such
as heart disease, diabetes, HIV/hepatitis C, and mental health and substance use disorders.
For example, one QUERI study explored the sustainability of a nurse-initiated HIV rapid
testing intervention that was implemented via 2 90-minute in-service sessions designed to
teach pre- and posttest counseling techniques as well as the administration, interpretation,
and entering of results into patients’ medical records. Using time-series analysis, the authors
found that, among registered nurses who participated in the in-service, this low-intensity
implementation strategy resulted in a steady rate of HIV rapid testing for the year following
the training. In addition, there was an unexpected increase in HIV blood testing among other
clinical staff, leading to a 70% site-wide increase in HIV testing (43).
Scientists can use multiple research methods to engage stakeholders at varying levels of
integration along the stakeholder engagement continuum to produce evidence that informs
how to use EBIs. The level of engagement is more a function of the researcher’s choice than
of the research method. For example, time-series analysis is often conducted at the lowest
levels of stakeholder engagement (i.e., unlinked or exchange information). However, the
example provided here demonstrates use of this method in a highly integrated partnership
setting.

MOVING FORWARD WITH IMPLEMENTATION SCIENCE TO IMPROVE
POPULATION HEALTH
Implementation science has tremendous potential to improve population health by
accelerating the use of EBIs in practice. We have outlined several ways in which
implementation science is being applied to population health. Following are areas in this
field of research that should be emphasized in the future to ensure that the products gained
through implementation science are in balance with the benefits to population health.
Stakeholder Engagement
We discussed many opportunities to increase stakeholder engagement throughout the
discovery to practice funnel. However, to shift the current paradigm for knowledge
production toward a more user-engaged process, training programs, incentives, and reward
systems for researchers must also change. Participatory engagement skills are not routinely
required in public health, doctoral, fellowship, or faculty training programs for health
researchers. University reward structures also slow implementation science because scholars
lack incentives and rewards for collaboration across scientific disciplines and with policy
and practice experts (23). Funding mechanisms also limit opportunities for community-
engaged research when time frames for submission are short, review cycles are long, and
funding periods limit evaluation of continued EBI use over time (31).
Systems Thinking
The introduction of systems thinking to implementation science has revolutionized old ideas
that implementation is a simple linear process or that participatory research in itself will
improve the use of EBIs in practice and policy settings (39). The extent to which an EBI will
be used and the benefit sustained over time is dependent on multiple, multilevel, dynamic
processes that respond to feedback loops through nonlinear adaption (39). The implication
of this transition to systems thinking is that scientists need to consider how to move our
methods of investigation beyond the reductionist approach toward a systems view to
accelerate the development of EBIs and implementation strategies. Systems science methods
such as agent-based modeling, systems dynamics, and network analysis are increasingly
becoming more valuable to implementation science (47) and to implementation in practice.
A Pragmatic Approach to Research
A pragmatic approach to research selects the methods that are best suited to answer the
research question instead of relying on a single research method. Randomized trials are the
gold standard for discovery research that answers questions about what works, but this study
design provides limited information about how to embed EBIs in complex systems that are
constantly adapting to change. More prospective, practice-based cost-effectiveness and
comparative-effectiveness studies are needed to clarify the resources needed to implement
EBIs and identify which interventions or implementation strategies work best in particular
settings. In addition, the development of stakeholder-friendly tools that use mathematical
modeling to select interventions based on an individual’s risk for disease or to choose
implementation strategies based on characteristics of the intervention and target population
will accelerate the use of EBIs in practice and policy settings. The Archimedes Model is one
example of how advanced mathematical modeling is being used to advance implementation
of EBIs in practice. The US Department of Health and Human Services is using the
Archimedes Model to quickly and accurately research, analyze, and evaluate the cost-
effectiveness and implementation strategies for specific health care interventions (4).

Reliability and Validity of Measures
Numerous measures of factors related to implementation of EBIs in target settings have
emerged over the past decade, but evaluations of the psychometric properties associated
with these measures are limited. Further research is needed to clarify the measures with the
strongest properties for particular settings and those that require further development to
improve reliability and validity. Also needed is clarification on whether individual measures
capture unique constructs or overlapping concepts to refine the terms and definitions of
constructs used in theoretical frameworks for implementation.
External Validity
In addition to knowing what works, policy and practice stakeholders want to know, For
whom does it work? In what settings does it work? And in what dose frequency, intensity,
and duration does it work? Meta-analysis of RCTs is routinely used to provide stakeholders
with information on what works, but the remaining questions that stakeholders ask have not
been adequately addressed by research. More research synthesis using meta-regression of
RCTs, meta-analysis of observational studies, and meta-narrative reviews is needed to
inform stakeholders about whether EBIs have been tested in populations and settings that are
relevant to them and whether the characteristics of the interventions and implementation
strategies are feasible for them to implement. Many of the EBIs recommended to
stakeholders have been developed in studies with highly select participants and in settings
with adequate resources and implemented by highly trained staff under ideal conditions. As
a result, the greatest value of alternative research synthesis at this time is to identify the gaps
in research that need to be filled by pragmatic trials, practice-based research networks, and
ongoing participatory research. Even with an increase in action research (31), we will not
get the perfect solution to external validity that applies to specific settings or populations.
Therefore, the extended benefit of stakeholder engagement in research is the development of
relationships that will inform strategies to guide ongoing adaptation and evaluations of
interventions as the needs and circumstances of target settings change over time (31, 48).
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Cancer Institute (CA U54-155496). R.L. is supported by the Foundation
for Barnes-Jewish Hospital, St. Louis. G.A.C. is also supported by the Cissy Hornung Clinical Research
Professorship, 117489-CRP-03-194-07-CCE, from the American Cancer Society. The authors thank Amy
Ostendorf for lending her graphic design talents to this article.
Glossary
Translation moving scientific discovery along the pathway from bench to
bedside to population
Stakeholder a party with an interest in research products
Population health health outcomes of a group of individuals, including the
distributions of such outcomes within the group
Efficacy study of intervention performance in a highly selected population
in a controlled setting. The emphasis is on internal validity
Effectiveness study of intervention performance in diverse populations in real-
world settings. External validity is balanced with internal validity
Systematic reviews use systematic and explicit methods to identify, select, and
critically appraise relevant research to answer a clearly
formulated question

Evidence-based
interventions (EBI)
interventions that have undergone sufficient scientific evaluation
to be considered effective
Dissemination targeted distribution of information and intervention materials to a
specific public health or clinical practice audience
Implementation use of strategies to introduce or change evidence-based health
interventions within specific settings to improve population health
Research synthesis the contextualization and integration of findings from individual
studies within broader knowledge on the topic, vsing qwryititative
and/or quantative methods
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WEB PORTALS
The Campbell Collaboration: http://www.campbellcollaboration.org.
The Center for Reviews and Dissemination: http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd
The Cochrane Public Health Group: http://ph.cochrane.org
The Community Guide to Preventive Services: http://www.thecommunityguide.org/
index.html
The US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendations: http://
www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/recommendations.htm

SUMMARY POINTS
1. Measures for and theories of implementation of evidence-based interventions
for health are in the early stages of development.
2. The existing paradigm for how scientists create evidence, prioritize publications,
and synthesize research needs to shift toward greater stakeholder input and
improved reporting on external validity to improve population health.
3. Implementation science can speed translation from discovery to application and
public health benefits.
4. Stakeholder input and partnerships can increase the relevance of research to
practice settings.
5. Practice-based evidence is needed to provide information on external validity
and inform stakeholders’ decisions about the use of evidence-based
interventions.
6. Implementation of evidence-based interventions occurs in target settings that are
part of complex, dynamic systems that respond to feedback loops through
nonlinear adaptation.

FUTURE ISSUES
1. How will tools such as PRECIS lead to more practice-based evidence?
2. How will an emphasis on external validity throughout the discovery-to-practice
continuum better inform practice and policy stakeholders about how to use
evidence-based interventions?
3. In what ways can mathematical modeling be used to accelerate the translation of
research to practice?
4. How can we measure progress with implementation science at a population
level?
5. How can we evaluate progress by including stakeholders’ perspectives
throughout the discovery-to-practice continuum?
6. How can web portals that promote information on EBIs incorporate searchable
information about the persons, settings, and doses of intervention for which the
interventions are or are not effective?
7. How does systems science inform the development of implementation strategies
for EBIs?

Figure 1.
Examples of stakeholders at translational steps in the NIH Roadmap Initiative.

Figure 2.
Factors that influence the spread and sustained use of innovations in health service delivery
and other organizations. From Reference 35 with permission.

Figure 3.
Improving the flow and relevance of research evidence for implementation. Adapted from
Reference 34, with permission from the Annual Review of Public Health, Volume 30 ©
2009 by Annual Reviews, http://www.annualreviews.org.

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