Information Systems for Business and Beyond David

Information Systems for Business and Beyond
David T. Bourgeois, Ph.D.
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/bus206
Attributed to: David T. Bourgeois, Ph.D.
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Information Systems for Business and Beyond © 2014 David T.
Bourgeois, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution

(CC BY) license made possible by funding from The Saylor
Foundation's Open Textbook Challenge in order to be
incorporated into Saylor.org's collection of open courses
available at http://www.saylor.org. Full license terms may be
viewed at: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/legalcode
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Contents
1Introduction
Part 1: What Is an Information System?
Chapter 1: What Is an Information System?
5David T. Bourgeois
Chapter 2: Hardware
14David T. Bourgeois

Chapter 3: Software
Chapter 4: Data and Databases
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication
Chapter 6: Information Systems Security
Part 2: Information Systems for Strategic Advantage
Chapter 7: Does IT Matter?
Chapter 8: Business Processes
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development
Part 3: Information Systems Beyond the Organization
Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide
Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information
Systems

Chapter 13: Future Trends in Information Systems
150Answers to Study Questions
162Bibliography
iv Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/bus206
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Introduction
Welcome to Information Systems for Business and Beyond. In
this book, you will be introduced to the
concept of information systems, their use in business, and the
larger impact they are having on our world.
Audience
This book is written as an introductory text, meant for those
with little or no experience with computers
or information systems. While sometimes the descriptions can
get a little bit technical, every effort has
been made to convey the information essential to understanding
a topic while not getting bogged down in
detailed terminology or esoteric discussions.
Chapter Outline

The text is organized around thirteen chapters divided into three
major parts, as follows:
• Part 1: What Is an Information System?
Chapter 1: What Is an Information System? – This chapter
provides an overview of
information systems, including the history of how we got where
we are today.
Chapter 2: Hardware – We discuss information systems
hardware and how it works. You
will look at different computer parts and learn how they
interact.
Chapter 3: Software – Without software, hardware is useless. In
this chapter, we discuss
software and the role it plays in an organization.
Chapter 4: Data and Databases – This chapter explores how
organizations use
information systems to turn data into information that can then
be used for competitive
advantage. Special attention is paid to the role of databases.
Chapter 5: Networking and Communication – Today’s
computers are expected to also be
communication devices. In this chapter we review the history of
networking, how the
Internet works, and the use of networks in organizations today.
Chapter 6: Information Systems Security – We discuss the
information security triad of
confidentiality, integrity, and availability. We will review
different security technologies,
and the chapter concludes with a primer on personal information
security.
• Part 2: Information Systems for Strategic Advantage
Chapter 7: Does IT Matter? – This chapter examines the impact
that information systems
have on an organization. Can IT give a company a competitive

advantage? We will
1Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/bus206
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discuss seminal works by Brynjolfsson, Carr, and Porter as they
relate to IT and
competitive advantage.
Chapter 8: Business Processes – Business processes are the
essence of what a business
does, and information systems play an important role in making
them work. This chapter
will discuss business process management, business process
reengineering, and ERP
systems.
Chapter 9: The People in Information Systems – This chapter
will provide an overview of
the different types of people involved in information systems.
This includes people who
create information systems, those who operate and administer
information systems, those
who manage information systems, and those who use
information systems.
Chapter 10: Information Systems Development – How are
information systems created?
This chapter will review the concept of programming, look at
different methods of
software development, review website and mobile application

development, discuss end-
user computing, and look at the “build vs. buy” decision that
many companies face.
• Part 3: Information Systems beyond the Organization
Chapter 11: Globalization and the Digital Divide – The rapid
rise of the Internet has
made it easier than ever to do business worldwide. This chapter
will look at the impact
that the Internet is having on the globalization of business and
the issues that firms must
face because of it. It will also cover the concept of the digital
divide and some of the steps
being taken to alleviate it.
Chapter 12: The Ethical and Legal Implications of Information
Systems – The rapid
changes in information and communication technology in the
past few decades have
brought a broad array of new capabilities and powers to
governments, organizations, and
individuals alike. This chapter will discuss the effects that these
new capabilities have had
and the legal and regulatory changes that have been put in place
in response.
Chapter 13: Future Trends in Information Systems – This final
chapter will present an
overview of some of the new technologies that are on the
horizon. From wearable
technology to 3-D printing, this chapter will provide a look
forward to what the next few
years will bring.
For the Student
Each chapter in this text begins with a list of the relevant
learning objectives and ends with a chapter

summary. Following the summary is a list of study questions
that highlight key topics in the chapter. In
order to get the best learning experience, you would be wise to
begin by reading both the learning objectives
and the summary and then reviewing the questions at the end of
the chapter.
2 Information Systems for Business and Beyond
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For the Instructor
Learning objectives can be found at the beginning of each
chapter. Of course, all chapters are recommended
for use in an introductory information systems course. However,
for courses on a shorter calendar or
courses using additional textbooks, a review of the learning
objectives will help determine which chapters
can be omitted.
At the end of each chapter, there is a set of study questions and
exercises (except for chapter 1, which
only offers study questions). The study questions can be
assigned to help focus students’ reading on the
learning objectives. The exercises are meant to be a more in-
depth, experiential way for students to learn
chapter topics. It is recommended that you review any exercise
before assigning it, adding any detail needed
(such as length, due date) to complete the assignment.

Introduction 3
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Part 1: What Is an Information System?
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Chapter 1: What Is an Information System?
David T. Bourgeois
Learning Objectives
Upon successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
• define what an information system is by identifying its major
components;
• describe the basic history of information systems; and
• describe the basic argument behind the article “Does IT
Matter?” by Nicholas Carr.
Introduction

If you are reading this, you are most likely taking a course in
information systems, but do you even know
what the course is going to cover? When you tell your friends or
your family that you are taking a course
in information systems, can you explain what it is about? For
the past several years, I have taught an
Introduction to Information Systems course. The first day of
class I ask my students to tell me what they
think an information system is. I generally get answers such as
“computers,” “databases,” or “Excel.”
These are good answers, but definitely incomplete ones. The
study of information systems goes far beyond
understanding some technologies. Let’s begin our study by
defining information systems.
Defining Information Systems
Almost all programs in business require students to take a
course in something called information systems.
But what exactly does that term mean? Let’s take a look at some
of the more popular definitions, first from
Wikipedia and then from a couple of textbooks:
• “Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary
networks of hardware and software that
people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create,
and distribute data.”1
• “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software,
and telecommunications networks
that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful
data, typically in organizational
settings.”2
• “Information systems are interrelated components working

together to collect, process, store, and
disseminate information to support decision making,
coordination, control, analysis, and
viualization in an organization.”3
1. Wikipedia entry on "Information Systems," as displayed on
August 19, 2012. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. San
Francisco:
Wikimedia Foundation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems_(discipline).
2. Excerpted from Information Systems Today - Managing in
the Digital World, fourth edition. Prentice-Hall, 2010.
3. Excerpted from Management Information Systems, twelfth
edition, Prentice-Hall, 2012.
5
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems_(discipline)
As you can see, these definitions focus on two different ways of
describing information systems:
the components that make up an information system and the role
that those components play in an
organization. Let’s take a look at each of these.
The Components of Information Systems
As I stated earlier, I spend the first day of my information
systems class discussing exactly what the
term means. Many students understand that an information

system has something to do with databases
or spreadsheets. Others mention computers and e-commerce.
And they are all right, at least in part:
information systems are made up of different components that
work together to provide value to an
organization.
The first way I describe information systems to students is to
tell them that they are made up of five components: hardware,
software, data, people, and process. The first three, fitting under
the category technology, are generally what most students think
of
when asked to define information systems. But the last two,
people and process, are really what separate the idea of
information
systems from more technical fields, such as computer science.
In order to fully understand information systems, students must
understand how all of these components work together to bring
value to an organization.
Technology
Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific
knowledge for practical purposes. From the
invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for
artificial lighting, technology is a part of our lives
in so many ways that we tend to take it for granted. As
discussed before, the first three components of
information systems – hardware, software, and data – all fall
under the category of technology. Each of
these will get its own chapter and a much lengthier discussion,
but we will take a moment here to introduce
them so we can get a full understanding of what an information
system is.
Hardware

Information systems hardware is the part of an information
system you can touch – the physical components
of the technology. Computers, keyboards, disk drives, iPads,
and flash drives are all examples of
information systems hardware. We will spend some time going
over these components and how they all
work together in chapter 2.
Software
Software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to
do. Software is not
tangible – it cannot be touched. When programmers create
software programs,
what they are really doing is simply typing out lists of
instructions that tell the
hardware what to do. There are several categories of software,
with the two main
categories being operating-system software, which makes the
hardware usable, and
application software, which does something useful. Examples of
operating systems
include Microsoft Windows on a personal computer and
Google’s Android on a
mobile phone. Examples of application software are Microsoft
Excel and Angry Birds. Software will be
explored more thoroughly in chapter 3.
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Data
The third component is data. You can think of data as a
collection of facts. For example, your street address,
the city you live in, and your phone number are all pieces of
data. Like software, data is also intangible. By
themselves, pieces of data are not really very useful. But
aggregated, indexed, and organized together into
a database, data can become a powerful tool for businesses. In
fact, all of the definitions presented at the
beginning of this chapter focused on how information systems
manage data. Organizations collect all kinds
of data and use it to make decisions. These decisions can then
be analyzed as to their effectiveness and the
organization can be improved. Chapter 4 will focus on data and
databases, and their uses in organizations.
Networking Communication: A Fourth Technology Piece?
Besides the components of hardware, software, and data, which
have long been considered the core
technology of information systems, it has been suggested that
one other component should be added:
communication. An information system can exist without the
ability to communicate – the first personal
computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the
Internet. However, in today’s hyper-connected
world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to
another device or to a network. Technically,
the networking communication component is made up of
hardware and software, but it is such a core

feature of today’s information systems that it has become its
own category. We will be covering networking
in chapter 5.
People
When thinking about information systems, it is easy to get
focused
on the technology components and forget that we must look
beyond these tools to fully understand how they integrate into
an
organization. A focus on the people involved in information
systems is the next step. From the front-line help-desk workers,
to
systems analysts, to programmers, all the way up to the chief
information officer (CIO), the people involved with information
systems are an essential element that must not be overlooked.
The
people component will be covered in chapter 9.
Process
The last component of information systems is process. A
process is a series of steps undertaken to
achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are
becoming more and more integrated with
organizational processes, bringing more productivity and better
control to those processes. But simply
automating activities using technology is not enough –
businesses looking to effectively utilize information
systems do more. Using technology to manage and improve
processes, both within a company and externally with suppliers
and
customers, is the ultimate goal. Technology buzzwords such as
“business process reengineering,” “business process
management,”

and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with the
continued improvement of these business procedures and the
integration
of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain an
advantage over their competitors are highly focused on this
component of
information systems. We will discuss processes in chapter 8.
Ch.1:What Is an Information System? 7
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ll_Gates_(522695099).jpg
IBM 704 Mainframe (Copyright: Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory)
Registered trademark of
International Business Machines
The Role of Information Systems
Now that we have explored the different components of
information systems, we need to turn our attention
to the role that information systems play in an organization. So
far we have looked at what the components
of an information system are, but what do these components
actually do for an organization? From our

definitions above, we see that these components collect, store,
organize, and distribute data throughout the
organization. In fact, we might say that one of the roles of
information systems is to take data and turn it
into information, and then transform that into organizational
knowledge. As technology has developed, this
role has evolved into the backbone of the organization. To get a
full appreciation of the role information
systems play, we will review how they have changed over the
years.
The Mainframe Era
From the late 1950s through the 1960s, computers were
seen as a way to more efficiently do calculations. These
first business computers were room-sized monsters, with
several refrigerator-sized machines linked together. The
primary work of these devices was to organize and store
large volumes of information that were tedious to manage
by hand. Only large businesses, universities, and
government agencies could afford them, and they took a
crew of specialized personnel and specialized facilities to
maintain. These devices served dozens to hundreds of
users at a time through a process called time-sharing.
Typical functions included scientific calculations and
accounting, under the broader umbrella of “data processing.”
In the late 1960s, the Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP)
systems
were introduced. This software, running on a mainframe
computer, gave
companies the ability to manage the manufacturing process,
making it
more efficient. From tracking inventory to creating bills of
materials to

scheduling production, the MRP systems (and later the MRP II
systems)
gave more businesses a reason to want to integrate computing
into their
processes. IBM became the dominant mainframe company.
Nicknamed
“Big Blue,” the company became synonymous with business
computing. Continued improvement in
software and the availability of cheaper hardware eventually
brought mainframe computers (and their little
sibling, the minicomputer) into most large businesses.
The PC Revolution
In 1975, the first microcomputer was announced on the cover of
Popular Mechanics: the Altair 8800.
Its immediate popularity sparked the imagination of
entrepreneurs everywhere, and there were quickly
dozens of companies making these “personal computers.”
Though at first just a niche product for computer
hobbyists, improvements in usability and the availability of
practical software led to growing sales. The
most prominent of these early personal computer makers was a
little company known as Apple Computer,
headed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, with the hugely
successful “Apple II.” Not wanting to be left
out of the revolution, in 1981 IBM (teaming with a little
company called Microsoft for their operating-
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Registered trademark of
SAP
system software) hurriedly released their own version of the
personal computer, simply called the “PC.”
Businesses, who had used IBM mainframes for years to run
their businesses, finally had the permission
they needed to bring personal computers into their companies,
and the IBM PC took off. The IBM PC was
named Time magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1982.
Because of the IBM PC’s open architecture, it was easy for
other companies to copy, or “clone” it.
During the 1980s, many new computer companies sprang up,
offering less expensive versions of the PC.
This drove prices down and spurred innovation. Microsoft
developed its Windows operating system and
made the PC even easier to use. Common uses for the PC during
this period included word processing,
spreadsheets, and databases. These early PCs were not
connected to any sort of network; for the most part
they stood alone as islands of innovation within the larger
organization.
Client-Server
In the mid-1980s, businesses began to see the need to connect
their computers together as a way to
collaborate and share resources. This networking architecture
was referred to as “client-server” because
users would log in to the local area network (LAN) from their

PC (the “client”) by connecting to a powerful
computer called a “server,” which would then grant them rights
to different resources on the network (such
as shared file areas and a printer). Software companies began
developing applications that allowed multiple
users to access the same data at the same time. This evolved
into software applications for communicating,
with the first real popular use of electronic mail appearing at
this time.
This networking and data sharing all stayed within the confines
of each business,
for the most part. While there was sharing of electronic data
between companies,
this was a very specialized function. Computers were now seen
as tools to
collaborate internally, within an organization. In fact, these
networks of computers
were becoming so powerful that they were replacing many of
the functions
previously performed by the larger mainframe computers at a
fraction of the cost.
It was during this era that the first Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) systems were developed and run on
the client-server architecture. An ERP system is a software
application with a centralized database that can
be used to run a company’s entire business. With separate
modules for accounting, finance, inventory,
human resources, and many, many more, ERP systems, with
Germany’s SAP leading the way, represented
the state of the art in information systems integration. We will
discuss ERP systems as part of the chapter on
process (chapter 9).
The World Wide Web and E-Commerce

First invented in 1969, the Internet was confined to use by
universities, government agencies, and
researchers for many years. Its rather arcane commands and user
applications made it unsuitable for
mainstream use in business. One exception to this was the
ability to expand electronic mail outside the
confines of a single organization. While the first e-mail
messages on the Internet were sent in the early
1970s, companies who wanted to expand their LAN-based e-
mail started hooking up to the Internet in the
1980s. Companies began connecting their internal networks to
the Internet in order to allow communication
between their employees and employees at other companies. It
was with these early Internet connections
that the computer truly began to evolve from a computational
device to a communications device.
In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee developed a simpler way for
researchers to share information over the
network at CERN laboratories, a concept he called the World
Wide Web.4 This invention became the
launching point of the growth of the Internet as a way for
businesses to share information about themselves.
Ch.1:What Is an Information System? 9
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Registered trademark of Amazon
Technologies, Inc.
As web browsers and Internet connections became the norm,
companies rushed to grab domain names and
create websites.
In 1991, the National Science Foundation, which governed how
the
Internet was used, lifted restrictions on its commercial use. The
year 1994
saw the establishment of both eBay and Amazon.com, two true
pioneers in
the use of the new digital marketplace. A mad rush of
investment in
Internet-based businesses led to the dot-com boom through the
late 1990s,
and then the dot-com bust in 2000. While much can be learned
from the speculation and crazy economic
theories espoused during that bubble, one important outcome for
businesses was that thousands of miles of
Internet connections were laid around the world during that
time. The world became truly “wired” heading
into the new millenium, ushering in the era of globalization,
which we will discuss in chapter 11.
As it became more expected for companies to be connected to
the Internet, the digital world also
became a more dangerous place. Computer viruses and worms,
once slowly propagated through the sharing
of computer disks, could now grow with tremendous speed via
the Internet. Software written for a
disconnected world found it very difficult to defend against
these sorts of threats. A whole new industry of

computer and Internet security arose. We will study information
security in chapter 6.
Web 2.0
As the world recovered from the dot-com bust, the use of
technology in business continued to evolve at
a frantic pace. Websites became interactive; instead of just
visiting a site to find out about a business and
purchase its products, customers wanted to be able to customize
their experience and interact with the
business. This new type of interactive website, where you did
not have to know how to create a web page or
do any programming in order to put information online, became
known as web 2.0. Web 2.0 is exemplified
by blogging, social networking, and interactive comments being
available on many websites. This new
web-2.0 world, in which online interaction became expected,
had a big impact on many businesses and
even whole industries. Some industries, such as bookstores,
found themselves relegated to a niche status.
Others, such as video rental chains and travel agencies, simply
began going out of business as they were
replaced by online technologies. This process of technology
replacing a middleman in a transaction is called
disintermediation.
As the world became more connected, new questions arose.
Should access to the Internet be
considered a right? Can I copy a song that I downloaded from
the Internet? How can I keep information
that I have put on a website private? What information is
acceptable to collect from children? Technology
moved so fast that policymakers did not have enough time to
enact appropriate laws, making for a Wild
West–type atmosphere. Ethical issues surrounding information

systems will be covered in chapter 12.
The Post-PC World
After thirty years as the primary computi ng device used in most
businesses, sales of the PC are now
beginning to decline as sales of tablets and smartphones are
taking off. Just as the mainframe before it, the
PC will continue to play a key role in business, but will no
longer be the primary way that people interact
and do business. The limited storage and processing power of
these devices is being offset by a move to
“cloud” computing, which allows for storage, sharing, and
backup of information on a massive scale. This
4. CERN's "The Birth of the Web."
http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/about/web-en.html
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