Instructional Development Models

INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MODELS ?

Instructional development models specifically address challenges that are often called upon to produce materials and strategies to supportteaching and learning within environments that would seem to defy the probability of a successfuloutcome.

These are models that convey graphically, sometimes with extensive supporting text, the complex process by which educators develop instructional solutions.Models, as applied in thecontext of instructional design, can be used by to educators to convey between individuals meaning ofcomplex concepts, relationships, and processes, and facilitate study and research

A. THE TEACHING LEARNING CYCLE

DIAGNOSING STUDENT’S NEEDS, ABILITIES AND INTERESTS

SYSTEMATIC TECHNIQUES USED FOR DIAGNOSING Work Sample ConferenceAnecdotal RecordsChecklistInterest Inventory Teacher Test Cloze Test Records like Form 137, permanent records, test results

Home visits or contacts with parents

Direct contacts such as observationsWORK SAMPLEFrom examining the most recent work of the students, the teacher can pinpoint the student’s specific strength and difficulties.

CONFERENCEA one-on-one conversation between the teacher and the student puts the student at ease so that it becomes easy to have a free and open exchange of information

ANECDOTAL RECORDSIt is a short written account about the behavior of a particular student.The record does not include any of the teacher’s opinion or evaluation of the behavior exhibited.

CHECKLISTUsed to reveal the frequency of occurrence of the specific type of student behavior of interest to the teacherUsed to measure observable behaviors only

INTEREST INVENTORYAsks students to rate their degree of like or dislike for a number of alternatives givento them.

TEACHER TESTTwo types:Regular test – given over preciously taught content

Specially prepared diagnostic test – has little to do with the content to which students have been previosly exposedCLOZE TESTA good diagnostic device which shows the reading difficulty of an individualMEASURES:Language proficiency

Reading comprehensionSETTING UP OF OBJECTIVES AND SELECTING CONTENT

SELECTING CONTENTSome schools provide teachers with curriculum guides, syllabi or course outlines to ease the problem of determining the scope and sequence of the subject-matter content to be taught.

3 STEPS TO CONSIDER:First Step. Identification of the topi Topic areas are broad aspects of the content within a subject area.Second Step. Identifying major Goals of Instructor Goals refer to broad and general statements.Third Step. Generalization Generalizations are very specific that it gives the teacher a definite subject-matter to be discussed

SETTING UP OF OBJECTIVESInstructional objectives describe the learning products or what the students are to expected to be able to do after being taught by the teacher.Objectives should be expressed in beahavioral terms to facilitate accurate evaluation of the learner’s performance.

Preparing the Setting for Learning and Selecting Instructional Strategies

PREPARING THE SETTING FOR LEARNINGGood classroom management is a term generally used to describe the maintenance of a healthy learning environment

Formalizing Units and Making Lesson Plans

INSTRUCTIONAL UNITSIt is a planned sequence of learning activities or lesson covering a period of several weeks and centered around some major concepts, themes or topicsIt may be made-up of series of mainly content-orientedlessons or semi-individualized laboraroty-oriented, experience-centered unit assigments or any variety of combinations

DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL UNITSChoosing the topic of theme.Selecting instructional goals or objectives organized into general and specific objectives.Preparing an outline of subject-matter content.Planning the learning activitiesOrganizing the activities into a plan.Securing and preparing the materials needed for the activitiesPlanning and preparing the evaluation materials and exercise

CHOOSING THE TOPIC OR THEMETeaching guides or syllabiusually provides teachers with an organozed and logically-arranged sets of topics to be taken up.

SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL GOALSTwo Types:General Objectives – These are general statements of what the teacher hopes to accomplish through the study of the unit. It is usually the bird’s eye view of the unit.Specific Objectives – may be prepared in behavioral terms. It will be helpful to put these objectives under the appropriate headings: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.

PREPARING AN OUTLINE OF SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENTThis will help in making clear the subject-matter content to be covered by the different learning activities and in visualizing the organizations of the unit.

PLANNING THE LEARNING ACTIVITESThese activities should be planed very carefully because on them depends the success of the accomplishment of the objectives.Two Types:basic activities for students- serves as provisions for the students who may not be academically inclinedoptional related activities – designed for students who may accomplish basic activities within a short period of time

ORGANIZING ACTIVITES INTO PLANThree Phases:Initiation or Introduction Phase – sometimes called as the approach and is designed to:Stimulate interest and curiosity of the students in the unitsIntroduce what the unit is all aboutShow relationship of the present unit with the previousElicit suggestions from the learners for possible activities to undertake.

Development Phase – activities and strategies that the teacher plans to develop key ideas in the unit. This stage gives opportunity for learners to take the basic and optional activities as planned by the teacher with possible modifications based in the suggestions of the students.Culminating Phase – Summarizes the various parts of the unit. It is during this phase that major or key ideas of the unit are highlighted, reviewed, and integrated.

SECURING AND PREPARING THE MATERIALSIncludes list of reading material, pamphlets and newspapers, collection of audio-visual material and bibliography of books to be used. These materials are sure to provide students:with source when they forget their assignmentsTotal picture of what to expect that they doDefinite assignments so that students do not need to wait for the teacher for new assignmentsDefinite directions to eliminate misinterpretations

PREPARING FOR EVALUATIONChecklists, rating scales, role-playing situations and group discussions can serve as evaluation exercises as well as unit tests.

LESSON PLANSThis refers to a more specific plans for a given period.It describes in details what the teacher and students will do on a day to implement the unit objectives.

THE LESSON PLAN FORMATObjectives or TargetsContent or Subject- matter and materialsProcedure or strategyEvaluations or applicationAssignment or agreement and special reminders

Objectives or targets – definite statements of what to are to be learned in the lesson. To formulate instrucitonal objectives, in behavioral terms, the teacher has to use verbs indicating observable behavior.Content or Subject-Matter and Materials – indicates the subject-matter that the teacher believes will help attain his objectives as well as materials and illustrations he may need.Procedure or Strategy – Documents the occurrence of activites that the teacher and his students are going to do during the period.Assignments or Agreement and special Reminders - the effectiveness of assignments will determine the success of the new lesson the next day.

Motivating Students And Guiding the Learning Activities

MOTIVATIONMotivation is defined as something that stimulates, energizes, directs and sustain behavior or anything that arouses and sustains people to do whatever it is they do . It underlies the student’s behavior. It is usually responsible for the discipline and control of problems and consequently lack of effective learning in the classroom.

Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow may help the teacher in solving problems with regards to motivating students

GENERAL APPROACHESTHAT SEEM TO DEVELOP POSITIVE MOTIVATIONBuilding up of student’s self-esteemUtilizing student’s present motives.Making potential learning seem worthwhile.Helping students establish suitable tasks and objectivesKeeping up paceCreating a receptive mood

Building up students’ Self-Esteem – To build one’s self-esteem and gain recognition of the peer group, one needs a feeling of success. Thus, teachers should provide opportunities for success even to the least successful students and give due recognition to them in a tangible way.Using Present Motives – Present motives includes the interest, attitudes and ideals, curiosity, needs for security, need for action and adventure, desire for play and fun, and need for friendship.Making learning seem Worthwhile – Teacher should make efforts to show that the students are valuable to them. Intrinsic motivation is most effective in bringing about learning. It stimulates individual to undertake activities to satisfy deeply felt personal needs.

Extrinsic Motivation refers to conditions that impels an individual to accomplish a task because of rewards available in the environment.Establishing Appropriate Goals – Students should be made to see both their long-term goals (provides the over-all direction to their behavior) and short-term goals (responsible for stimulating students everyday).Keeping up the Pace of the Class – Making students participate their own learning and helping in their learning can be a good source of motivation. Provide challenging yet not discouraging tasks, these will make the students work harder.Creating a Receptive Mood – tuning the mind sets of the students through intriguing questions.

GUIDING LEARNING ACTIVITIESRefers to techniques and strategies which can provide variety in the approaches of the teacher.Recitation Open-Text recitationLectureInformal Teacher TalksQuestionsPractice and ReviewInquiry and Discovery TeachingRole-PlayingTeacher DemonstrationField Trips Resource Persons

Measuring and Teaching Results

3 types of Evaluation:Summative evaluation refers to the evaluation the teachers undertakes at the end of the unit or the course in order to grade students and judge his own teaching success.Formative evaluation refers to the evaluation the teacher performs in the course of his teaching to find out how well he is doing and what he needs to do nextDiagnostic evaluation refers to the evaluation the teacher does at the beginning to determine the different levels to which the students belong to serve as basic for grouping them into slow, average, or fast group.

TOOLS FOR MEASUREMENT AND EVALUTIONObservation and Work Samples – Actual observation and examination of work samples are the two of the bases for evaluating the student’s performance.Rating Scales – Rating scales are used for evaluating skills, procedures, and personal social behavior.Checklist - It indicates the presence or absence of characteristics. It is most useful in evaluating products and procedures.Tests – These are systematic procedures for measuring the results or effects of instruction on learning.

Types of Tests:Standard survey tests aim to measure the attainment process or status of the students or the school.Standard achievement tests aim to measure the student’s achievement as a result of instruction in a given subject or subjects.Diagnostic test aim to locate weaknesses and difficulties to students and if possible, the causes of such difficulties in the performance.Inventory test aim to measure the degree of mastery before the teaching of the subjects.Informal or teacher-made tests aim to measure the achievement, progress, weakness of defects of an individual student

OBJECTIVE TYPE TESTS:Completion Items most useful in assessing student thinking at the lower cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension.Matching items are also used to measure student’s thinking at the levels of knowledge and comprehension.Multiple-choice Items have the capacity to test not only for knowledge and comprehension but also for some higher-level thinking abilities.True-False Items are generally used yo assess knowledge level thinking. They can be prepared and graded relatively.

GRADING AND REPORTING STUDENTRecognized and accepted as one of the most difficult responsibilities of the teacher is grading and reporting the progress of students in their school work.The most important purpose that should be kept in mind is that reports should facilitate the educational development o each student in relation to his ability.

DETERMINING PROMOTION AND RETENTIONHelp each child become the best person he is capable o being, considering his natural abilities and regardless his socio-economic background.

MOTIVATING PUPILSOne o the most popular techniques used by teachers to stimulate students to learn is the school mark or grade. MANNERS IN WHICH STUDENTS MOTIVATION ARE AEECTED BY GRADES:The standard his performance is compared toParents’ and friends attitudes towards gradesThe teacher’s emphasis on grades

PLANNING CURRENT SCHOOLWORKThe grades they receive every grading period can serve as basis or current planning schoolwork because the grades reflect the areas wherein the students are weak or strong.

B. MODELS FOR FACILITATING LEARNING

Establishing effective learning outcomes first will guide every decision you make regarding the content, activities, and tools you use to achieve those outcomes.There are two kinds of learning outcomes:

Assessing Learner’s CapabilitiesAssessment is the process of gathering information about a student in order to make decisions about his or her education.Designing, Selecting, Implementing Learning ActivitiesLearning Activities includes the methods and strategies in implementing learning.

Evaluating Progress toward Learning ObjectivesEvaluation is systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards. Here the objectives is being evaluated. Evaluation could come in many forms example of which is the paper-pencil test.

What is Assure Model?A procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technology and media into the teaching process.A systematic approach to writing lesson plans.

A plan used to help teachers organize instructional procedures. A model that can be used by all presentersA plan used to help teachers do an authentic assessment of student learning.

The six major steps:ANALYZE LEARNERSGeneral characteristics: This is a description of a class as a whole. This includes such information as the number of students, grade or age level, gender, socio-economic factors, exceptionalities and cultural or ethnic or other types of diversity.

Entry Competencies: This is a description of the types of knowledge expected of the learners. Learning Styles: This is a description of the learning stylistic preferences of the individual members of the class.

STATE OBJECTIVESStatements describing what the learner will do as a result of instruction. Things to keep in mind as you write your objectives are:

Focus on the learner not the teacher.

Use behaviors that reflect real world concerns.

Objectives are descriptions of the learning outcomes and are written using the ABCD format.The ABCD format:AUDIENCE. Who is the audience? BEHAVIOR. What do you want them to do?

CONDITION. Under what circumstances or conditions are the learners to demonstrate the skill being taught? DEGREE. How well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery?

Use the following questions to assess objectives:Does the objective will allow you to do the following with your lesson?1. Identify what the expectations are for the learner

2. Identify the necessary requirements for the learning environment3. Assess learning4. Determine needs for appropriate media or materials

How would you classify your objective? Is the learning outcome primarily:1. Cognitive?2. Affective? 3. Psychomotor /motor skill?4. Interpersonal?5. Intrapersonal?

SELECT, MODIFY, DESIGN METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALSThis is the step where the instructor will build a bridge between the audience and the objectives.

You need to decide what method you will primarily use: a lecture, group work, a field trip, etc. What media you will use: photos, multimedia, video, a computer?Media Selection:1. Media should be selected on the basis of student need.

2. We must consider the total learning situation.3. Should follow learning objectives. 4. Must be appropriate for the teaching format.5. Should be consistent with the students’ capabilities and learning styles.

6. Should be chosen objectively. 7. Should be selected in order to best meet the learning outcomes. 8. No single medium is the total solution. 9. Does it match the curriculum? 10. Is it accurate and current?

11. Does it contain clear and concise language?12. Will it motivate and maintain interest?13. Does it provide for learner participation?14. Is it of good technical quality?

15. Is there evidence of its effectiveness?16. Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising?17. Is a user guide or other documentation included?

UTILIZE METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALSPlan of how you are going to implement your media and materials. In order to utilize materials correctly there are several steps to create good student- centered instruction:

1. Preview the material2. Prepare the material3. Prepare the environment4. Prepare the learners5. Provide the learning experience

REQUIRE LEARNER PARTICIPATIONDescribe how you are going to get each learner “actively and individually” involved in the lesson. Example, games, group work, presentations, skit, etc.

EVALUATE AND REVISEDescribe how you will measure whether or not the lesson objectives were met. Were the media and instruction effective?

Evaluate the student performance:How will you determine whether or not they met the lesson’s objective?The evaluation should match the objective. Some objectives can be adequately assessed with a pen and a paper test.

Evaluate media components:How will you determine the media effectiveness?Evaluate Instructor performance:How will you determine whether or not your own performance as instructor/facilitator was effective?

D. THE CONCRETE-ABSTRACT CONTINUUM MODEL

The greatest amount of information can be presented in the least amount of time through printed or spoken words.

But if students do not have the requisite background experience and knowledge to handle verbal symbols, the time saved in presentation will be the time lost in learning.

The teacher therefore should know if instructional methods and materials match learner’s background.

CONE OF EXPERIENCE Proponent of this is Edgar Dale (1946) explained inter-relations of the several audio-visual materials and their positions in learning processesFirst introduced in Dale’s 1946 book, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching

Designed to “show the progression of learning experiences” (Dale (1969) p. 108) from the concrete to the abstractConcrete vs. Abstract LearningConcrete Learning

Difficulty when not enough previous experience or exposure to a concept

Every level of the Cone uses abstract thinking in come way

Learner has some control over the outcome

Incorporates the use of all five sensesDale (1969) wrote that

May lead to a more useful way of thinking about audio visual materials and their application in the classroom

The levels of the Cone are interactive

As one moves up the Cone there is not necessarily an increase in difficulty but rather an increase in abstract thoughtIntentions of the Cone of Experience

Instructional Development Models

Levels of the cone of experience:Enactive – direct experiencesDirect, Purposeful ContrivedDramatized

Iconic – pictorial experiencesDemonstrationsStudy tripsExhibitsEducational televisionMotion picturesRecordings, radio, still pictures

Symbolic – highly abstract experiencesVisual symbolsVerbal symbols

Direct and Purposeful ExperiencesDirect, first hand experiencesHave direct participation in the outcomeUse of all our sensesExamples:Working in a homeless shelterTutoring younger children

Contrived ExperiencesModels and mock-ups

Necessary when real experience cannot be used or are too complicatedDramatized ExperiencesReconstructed experiences

Can be used to simplify an event or idea to its most important partsMonticello Students engaged in a mock trial

Acting – actual participation (more concrete)

Observing – watching a dramatization take place (more abstract)Iconic Experiences on the ConeProgressively moving toward greater use of imagination

Successful use in a classroom depends on how much imaginative involvement the method can illicit from studentsInvolves:

Radio, recordings, and still picturesDemonstrationsVisualized explanation of an important fact, idea, or process

Shows how certain things are doneFlame Salt Test Demonstration

Study TripsWatch people do things in real situations

Observe an event that is unavailable in the classroomExhibitsSomething seen by a spectator

National History Day competitionEducational Television and Motion PicturesMotion PicturesTelevisionBring immediate interaction with events from around the world

Edit an event to create clearer understanding than if experienced actual event first hand

Instructional Development Models

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