Intelligence, Cognitive Styles, Methods of control
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The document discusses the concepts of intelligence and cognitive styles, defining intelligence as the capacity for learning, reasoning, and problem-solving while highlighting varying definitions and theories. It also explores cognitive styles as the unique ways individuals process information, examining different models and measures for assessing these styles. Additionally, the document addresses effective classroom management techniques, emphasizing the importance of control for meaningful teaching and presenting strategies for managing student behavior.
Intelligence, Cognitive Styles, Methods of control
- 1. Topics • Intelligence, Cognitive Styles • Method of Control Educational Psychology Submitted By: Usama Adeel Roll No.: 739182 (66) Submitted To: Prof. Asim SIGNATURE
- 2. Intelligence The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations, reason, also the skilled use of reason. The ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria (such as tests). Intelligence has been defined in many ways; the capacity for logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. More generally, it can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or context. There are conflicting ideas about how intelligence is measured, ranging from the idea that intelligence is fixed upon birth, or that it is malleable and can change depending on an individual’s mindset and efforts.
- 3. At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some different definitions of intelligence. While these definitions can vary considerably from one theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence is the ability to: Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component of intelligence. Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed. Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around them. Cognitive Styles Cognitive learning styles are the information processing habits of an individual. Unlike individual differences in abilities, cognition describes a person's typical mode of thinking, perceiving, remembering, or problem solving. Cognitive style is usually described as a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction. For example, ask yourself how you process experiences and knowledge and how you organize and retain information.
- 4. Cognitive style or thinking style is a concept used in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. Cognitive style differs from cognitive ability (or level), the latter being measured by aptitude tests or so-called intelligence tests. There is controversy over the exact meaning of the term "cognitive style" and whether it is a single or multiple dimension of human personality. However, it remains a key concept in the areas of education and management. Multi-dimensional models and measures Riding (1991) developed a two-dimensional cognitive style instrument, his Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA), which is a compiled computer-presented test that measures individuals' position on two orthogonal dimensions – WHO list-Analytic (W-A) and Verbal-Imagery (V-I). The W-A dimension reflects how individuals organize and structure information. Individuals described as Analytics will deconstruct information into its component parts, whereas individuals described as WHO lists will retain a global or overall view of information. The V–I dimension describes individuals' mode of information representation in memory during thinking – Verbalizers represent information in words or verbal associations, and Imagers represent information in mental pictures. Bipolar, one-dimensional models and measures The field dependence-independence model, invented by Herman Witkin, identifies an individual's perceptive behavior while distinguishing object figures from the content field in which they are set. Two similar instruments to do this were produced, the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (1971). In both cases, the content field is a distracting or confusing background. These instruments are designed to distinguish field-independent from field-dependent cognitive types; a rating which is claimed to be value-neutral. Field-independent people tend to be more autonomous when it comes to the development of
- 5. restructuring skills; that is, those skills required during technical tasks with which the individual is not necessarily familiar. Kirton's model of cognitive style It was devised by Michael Kirton (1976, 2003). His model, called Adaption- Innovation theory, claims that an individual's preferred approach to problem solving, can be placed on a continuum ranging from high adaptation to high innovation. He suggests that some human beings, called adaptors tend to prefer the adaptive approach to problem-solving, while others (innovators), of course, prefer the reverse. Adaptors use what is given to solve problems by time-honored techniques. Alternatively, innovators look beyond what is given to solve problems with the aid of innovative technologies. Kirton suggests that while adaptors prefer to do well within a given paradigm, innovators would rather do differently, thereby striving to transcend existing paradigms. Kirton also invented an instrument to measure cognitive style (at least in accordance with this model) known as the Kirton Adaption-innovation Inventory (KAI).
- 6. Method of Control Most formal organizations like secondary schools are aimed at effective and efficient management of the human and material resources available for the attainment of organizational goals. The classroom teacher is charged with lots of functions to perform in the teaching and learning process. One of the most challenging functions of the classroom teacher is classroom management and control. The teacher’s effectiveness in teaching is assessed by his ability to use varied classroom management techniques to control students towards effective and meaningful learning during instruction. Meaningful teaching and learning cannot be achieved in a classroom environment characterized by noise making and other distractions by students. Classroom control is a prerequisite for achieving instructional objectives and safeguarding the well-being of students for whom the teaching and learning activities are centered (Ogunu,2000). Classroom control entails planning, supervising, controlling and coordinating the activities of pupils in teaching –learning process. Classroom control techniques as used in this study, refers to tactics adopted by teachers to ensure decorum in the classroom and thus create a healthy and conducive atmosphere for learning. Statement of Problem The importance of good classroom control in the realization of the objectives of education cannot be over emphasized. Teaching and learning are very embracing involving a wide range of activities such as writing on chalkboard, discussing with
- 7. students, demonstrating a procedure, supervising student’s class work, reading and marking assignments. Research has revealed an increasing rate of behavior problems among secondary school students during lessons (Yaduma and Abdulhamid,2007). Research Questions The study provides answers to two research questions: 1. What is the classroom management techniques considered effective during lesson? 2. What are the effects of teacher’s classroom management effectiveness on students learning? Hypotheses Two hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study as follows: 1. There is no significant difference between female and male teachers in their perception on the identified classroom management techniques considered effective during lessons. 2. There is no significant difference among principals, vice-principals and teachers in their perception on the effects of teacher’s classroom effectiveness on students learning. Methodology • Explain to your students that if they are communicating in class without permission that they will receive a warning. Take a few minutes to talk about how this is not meant to embarrass them or to treat them like little kids but as a way for you to give them a warning without stopping your teaching. Explain that if they talk again, you will give them another warning. If they get a third warning in the same class, they will receive a consequence. Some teachers prefer to give a consequence after one or two warnings and that can work well, too. (The consequence given, of course, will vary depending on your school’s policies. If you need some ideas, click here to request our consequences idea list.)
- 8. • Watch carefully for the very first person who talks and be sure to give him a warning. This shows right away that you mean what you say. When you give the first warning, say something such as, “Taylor, you see I am giving you a warning. Remember that talking is not permitted and that this is just a warning to you that you were talking and that you need to stop. You are not in trouble at this point, but you will be if you continue to talk without permission.” This shows the class that you are not demeaning the student and that he isn’t yet in trouble but that he is being warned to correct his behavior. • From then on, simply use your chosen method (see options below) whenever you need to give a warning. The student is warned, the incorrect behavior ceases, and the flow of your teaching is not interrupted. • Be ready and willing to give a consequence. You do need to be ready to hand out the penalty when a student gets too many warnings. Otherwise, the students will quickly see that you don’t mean what you say. 8 WAYS TO GIVE A WARNING There are a lot of different options for how you can give a warning. The key to any method you choose is that you
- 9. 1. personalize the warning to the student and 2. don’t interrupt your flow of teaching. Here are a few ideas: • Write student names on the board This method has been used by teachers for years and it's the way I gave a warning in my classroom. I would write names on the board of students who were talking out of turn and put a checkmark on the names for a second warning. If the behavior continued after that, I would give a consequence. This method is very visual, which can be a positive (noticeable to student) or a negative (it's public, not private). • Bubble method Each student has a laminated card on their desk with 3 bubbles on it. To give a warning, the teacher "pops" a bubble by putting an X on it with a wet erase marker. • Post-it Notes- One method is to give a student a warning by putting a post-it on their desk. You could write a note to the student on it or simply explain to the class in the beginning of the school year that if they receive a post-it notes on their desk, it's a warning and then explain what it means. • Yellow Cards Another idea would be to pass out “yellow cards” (like in soccer). Simply laminate yellow cards and place them on a students’ desk as a warning. You can also have a reminder printed on the card of what a warning means. For example, "You now have a warning. If you continue talking out of turn, you will receive a consequence." • Colors Remember pulling a card in elementary school? That's another version of this method. All students start on green; a student pulls a card and turns it to yellow when they receive a warning, and if they continue, they get a red card, which means a consequence. Some teachers add positive colors above green, such as purple, for students who are showing extra appropriate behavior. • Class Dojo You can use a tool, such a class dojo, to give a warning as well. Students may lose a class dojo point as a warning before they get a consequence. However, students may not know "in real time" when they
- 10. have lost a point unless you have Class Dojo projected and they're actively watching the screen, so you may also need to tell them face-to-face. • A clipboard/notebook A clipboard or a notebook can be utilized to track which students you have given warnings to. However, you will still need to let the student know you've given them a warning. These sheets can end up being great daily behavior data for conferences, IEPs, etc., if you save them. • A behavior reflection sheet Some teachers will give a student a warning by placing a behavior reflection sheet on their desk. The student needs to fill out the reflection sheet and return it to the teacher. This is another method that provides great data for conferences, IEPs, and meetings, especially because it is written by the student him/herself. It may look something like: o What behavior I was doing: _________. o Why I was doing it: _________. o What I need to do instead: ___________. This method may not be a good fit for everyone. But if you’ve had trouble keeping order in your classroom, I do highly recommend that you try it. For me, it was a miracle worker.
- 11. Strategies to Control of a Classroom • Begin with something simple Rearrange seating for students who are causing the most disruptions/interruptions. Oftentimes one or two students can take control of a classroom. If and when this happens, moving those students to sit by themselves can be a wakeup call. You can also try to sit them by a student with exemplary behavior and sometimes that will help the student see what appropriate behavior looks like. You can also compliment the student(s) who are doing the right thing which will draw attention to what you want students to do rather than emphasizing negative behaviors by calling out students who are making bad choices. • Get parents on your side So many times, young and inexperienced teachers are nervous or intimidated to call parents; but the majority of parents want their child to behave and follow teacher expectations. Make that phone call and start with something positive about their child and then lovingly explain what is holding them back from their full potential (oftentimes negative behaviors are due to academic frustration). If you and the parent are on the same page and come up with a daily behavior expectation, a way to document it, and a way to reward the child and communicate about it, then the child will know they are expected to follow it.
- 12. • Have a fishbowl lesson on behavior Choose a few behaviors that you would like to see disappear from your classroom and then collaborate with the school counselor, another teacher, or even an administrator and do a fishbowl lesson on those specific behaviors. This keeps the students out of the spotlight and also brings some other respected adults into your classroom to allow for them to model positive student behavior in a fun way. This will help start a positive discussion in your classroom and get students to reflect on their behavior. • Reward students for their positive behaviors If your school does not use PBIS, you can implement a system in your classroom to reward students for their positive behaviors. It doesn’t have to drain your bank account either! You can use free rewards such as sitting with a friend at lunch, bringing a furry friend to school, homework pass, no shoes day, etc. You can also incorporate other adults in the building to help you, such as have lunch with the principal or make the morning announcements on the news. If you want students to have a tangible option, you can have a prize box for students who earn a lot of cards, stickers, or whatever you decide to use for them to keep up with the points earned. These can be little trinkets from your local dollar store or even meal toys from local fast food restaurants. • Work toward a class incentive If you do not have certain students who are causing major issues and it is just a really talkative class, you can work toward a classroom incentive such as an extra recess, movie day, or pizza party with your administrator’s approval. This would be something you discuss as a class and work toward achieving a goal such as working 10 consecutive minutes during math without talking to my neighbor. • Work with your school counselor to implement behavior interventions If you have students for whom nothing else is working, talk to your school counselor and establish behavior interventions. This is something you will also want to include with the parents. Behavior intervention meetings often reveal a deeper issue that a child is struggling with and the intervention team can utilize other resources to deal with the heart of the matter.
- 13. The most important thing to remember is that you are in charge of your classroom, not your students. You need to set expectations and procedures and be firm and consistent when students are not following those expectations and procedures. When students see that you follow through with what you say and do then they will begin to realize that they need to do what is asked of them. Model ideal behavior Make a habit of demonstrating behavior you want to see, as many studies show that modeling effectively teaches students how to act in different situations. A straightforward way to model certain behaviors is holding a mock conversation with an admin, other teacher or student helper in front of the class. Talking about a test or other relatable topic, be sure to: • Use polite language • Maintain eye contact • Keep phones in your pockets • Let one another speak uninterrupted • Raise concerns about one another’s statements in a respectful manner After, start a class discussion to list and expand upon the ideal behaviors you exemplified.