![First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ghosh, Uttam, editor.
Title: Internet of things and secure smart environments : successes and
pitfalls / edited by Uttam Ghosh, Vanderbilt University, USA, [and three others].
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. |
Series: Chapman & Hall/CRC big data series | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020037222 | ISBN 9780367266394 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780367276706 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things—Security measures.
Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 I63 2021 | DDC 005.8—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037222
ISBN: 978-0-367-26639-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-27670-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion
by codeMantra](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-9-320.jpg)
![xii List of Figures
7.6 Accuracy of the classifiers for the mic_off and mic_on
cases. (a) Grouping in a window of N packets. (b) Group-
ing in a window of ∆t seconds. 289
7.7 Accuracy of the classifiers for the mic_on and mic_on_
noise cases. (a) Grouping in a window of N packets.
(b) Grouping in window of ∆t seconds. 290
7.8 Confusion matrix for selected methods in different use
cases. (a) AB: ∆t = 500 - mic_off vs mic_on. (b) DT:
∆t = 15 - mic_on vs mic_on_noise. 291
7.9 Importance of traffic features that can be used to leak
information about smart speakers. (a) AB: ∆t = 500
- mic_off vs mic_on. (b) DT: ∆t = 15 - mic_on vs
mic_on_noise. 293
8.1 Taxonomy of IoT security. 301
8.2 A typical IC design and supply chain with its potentially
vulnerable locations. Although, in principle, all steps can
be vulnerable to HTH attacks with some reasonable as-
sumptions the in-house team and stages are considered
as trusted [15]. (Adapted with modifications.) 305
8.3 Trojan designs: a structural classification [15]. (Adapted
with modifications.) 306
8.4 Structural models of HTHs [15,18]. (a) Combinational
Trojan, (b) sequential Trojan (synchronous), (c) sequen-
tial Trojan (asynchronous), (d) hybrid Trojan, (e) analog
Trojan triggered based on logic values, (f) analog Trojan
triggered based on circuit activity, and (g) side-channel
Trojan. 307
8.5 Classification of HTH countermeasures with respect to
their attack models. 312
8.6 Examples of different types of counterfeit ICs [135]. 324
8.7 Taxonomy of counterfeit IC detection [136]. 326
8.8 Modeling attacks taxonomy. 330
9.1 Examples of IoT applications. 364
9.2 Hardware threats in IC life-cycle. 367](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-17-320.jpg)
![List of Figures xiii
10.1 Elements of a typical IoBT environment. 386
10.2 Sample network topology in tactical scenario. 387
10.3 Blockchain-enabled IoBT architecture [8]. 393
10.4 State-of-art blockchain system. 395
10.5 Components of a Hyperledger Sawtooth node. 397
10.6 Sample IoBT relevant topologies for evaluation. (a) Full
connectivity, (b) mesh topology, (c) tree topology and
(d) edge-based topology. 398
10.7 Maintenance packets for (a) 1 Gbps, (b) 100 Mbps,
and (c) 64 Kbps simulations. Full – 5S is an abbrevi-
ated format for full topology – “x” transactions every
five seconds. 1T is an abbreviated format for one trans-
action. 401
10.8 Maintenance packets for edge-based simulations. 402
10.9 Data packets for (a) 1 Gbps, (b) 100 Mbps, and (c) 64
Kbps simulations. Full - 5S is an abbreviated format for
full topology - “x” transactions every five seconds. 1T is
an abbreviated format for 1 transaction. 403
10.10 Data packets for edge-based simulations. 404
10.11 Success rate of 100 Mbps. Full is an abbreviated format
for full topology. 1T/2S is an abbreviated format for 1
transaction every two seconds. 406
10.12 Success rate of 64 Kbps. Full is an abbreviated format
for full topology. 1T/2S is an abbreviated format for 1
transaction every two seconds. 407
10.13 Success rate for edge-based simulations. 408
11.1 Expected number of IoT devices by 2050. 419
11.2 IoT-enabled 5G networks. 419
11.3 Narrow-band IoT carrier. 421
11.4 Proposed algorithm. 424
11.5 Two-state model. 427
11.6 Traffic model. 428
11.7 Discrete-time Markov chain for the M/M/m/m system. 429
11.8 Task blocking probabilities at 1.4 MHz. 430](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-18-320.jpg)
![Wireless Localization 3
monitor and inform the vitals and activities of a child towards a
hazardous situation can be of help to the family [1].
• Elderly Monitoring: Assistance in navigation and operation is a
primary concern arising with the old in a domestic environment.
Presence of location-aware devices with intelligent functionalities
can prove to be of substance [2–8].
• Appliance Control: Maintenance of temperature conditioning in
the house, controlling appliances such as washing machines and
refrigerators, and adjusting illumination based on the human
presence requires location-related information to automate intel-
ligently. This requirement gives an open floor for localization to
come into play [9–14].
• Security: Accessibility control for admission to restricted places
and locating security breaches require precise positioning and
tracking methods. Safeguarding against theft and planning for
emergencies can be assisted with location-based services [15–18].
Similarly, non-residential infrastructures, where horizontal and vertical
constructions are frequent, present additional spatial requirements for
automation [19,20]. In such environments, resource and service provi-
sioning [21–25] is of great concern due to the underlying cost [26–29].
This requires support of optimization techniques to achieve efficient op-
eration goals such as energy conservation. In the following, we present
a few use cases that demonstrate the applicability of indoor localization
for commercial and public spaces:
• Occupancy Analysis: Conserving electric energy is of great concern
for commercial environments. Activities of employees and assisting
appliances trigger continuous electricity consumption at times,
raising the need for optimal energy usage frameworks. Such
intelligent techniques require knowledge about occupants in the
space of consideration. Localization can be useful in identifying and
locating the inhabitants for objectives such as automated lighting
control and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
[30–33].
• Patient Monitoring: Recording and monitoring the vitals and
activities of a patient in a medical facility are of high impor-
tance for doctors and nursing staff. This requires the dissemi-
nation of accurate information in real time. Hence, detection of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-46-320.jpg)
![4 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments
critical conditions and informing them to the relevant available
nursing stations or doctors can be of great help with location-based
information [34–40].
• Assisting Handicapped: For a person with physical disability, espe-
cially with vision impairment, the assist of a localization system
for identification, navigation, and interaction can turn out to be
of great help [41–43].
• Underground Locations: Establishments such as mineral mines
require a lot of human and machine mobility in challenging
environmental conditions. The location information in the form of
applications, delivering digitized maps and navigation assistance,
can be of great help for the workers and machinery deployed in
such depths [44–53].
• Surveillance: Defence establishments and government organiza-
tions of high importance require a robust service framework for
monitoring every private entity without fail. Hence, positioning
and tracking based applications can play a vital role in such sce-
narios [54–61].
The above description explains the motivation behind the need for in-
door localization solutions. The concept of an indoor localization sys-
tem is bound to be formed upon the implementation of positioning
methods. Past researches in this regard have experimented localization
with technologies such as Radio communication standards, Visible Light,
Magnetic Field, Vibration, Sound, and Inertial sensors deployed with
suitable algorithms for position estimation. Each implementation of a
localization solution can be segregated into two parts, namely method
and technology. Methods of positioning are mostly algorithms, built to
work on the technologies as mentioned above. They can be categorized
into the following two types depending on the metric of observation
undertaken:
• Transmission: The usual parameters associated with this type of
method are time of transmission, angle of arrival (AoA), and phase
of arrival (PoA).
• Characteristic: This division utilizes the signal strength and
channel information of the underlying communication method to
localize.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-47-320.jpg)
![Wireless Localization 5
The earlier efforts in summarizing the positioning technologies have
adopted different perspectives. The literature by Mao et al. [62] presents
localization techniques for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). They clas-
sified the localization algorithms based on the number of hops, i.e.,
single or multi-hop, and further investigated the underlying approaches
from the connectivity and distance-based categorization. Liu et al. [63]
categorized the positioning methods by underlying estimation techniques
based on triangulation, scene analysis, and proximity. They presented
the performance evaluation metrics for a localization approach to be
accuracy, precision, complexity, scalability, robustness, and cost. Their
analysis concluded with the juxtaposition of the then existing wireless
localization solutions in reference to aforementioned metrics.
Gu et al. [64] have presented a systematic comparison of 17
commercial and research based solution for indoor positioning. They
have analyzed the methods and technologies used for position measure-
ments and proposed evaluation criteria to be security and privacy, cost,
performance, robustness, complexity, user preference, commercial avail-
ability, and limitations. Similar to Liu et al. [63], Farid et al. [65] have
presented three main categories of positioning measurements along with
further dividing of the triangulation-based methods to be based on di-
rection and distance. They presented the performance evaluation metrics
to be accuracy, responsiveness, coverage, adaptiveness, scalability, cost
and complexity of the positioning system. Their analysis considered the
positioning technologies to be of four types, namely Global Positioning,
Infra-red, Radio frequency, and Ultrasound. A comparative analysis of
methods and systems based on multiple metrics is also presented.
Mainetti et al. [66] have reviewed the enabling technologies for posi-
tioning from the objective of tracking animal in an indoor environment.
They have presented a comparison among the wireless and vision based
techniques and proposed a hybrid approach. Iliev et al. [67] have pre-
sented a detailed analysis of localization algorithms and implementation
with an intention to foster low-power WSNs. They divided the algo-
rithms into two categories, namely centralized and distributed, which
utilize machine learning techniques for learning and classification. Also,
their literature presents a combined review of methods and communi-
cation technologies falling under two major categories of interferomet-
ric and non-interferometric. It also presents a layered architecture for
localization from the algorithmic point of view comprising three layers,
namely application, location discovery, and physical layer. This approach
lacks a system outlook of communication technology.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-48-320.jpg)
![6 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments
Dwiyasa et al. [68] have presented three categories of positioning
methods based on different parameters calculated: power, time, and an-
gle. Further they demonstrated parametric and non-parametric models
for utilizing these parameter values to result in location estimates.
Over the past few decades, based on the technologies used in differ-
ent application domains for positioning and navigation such as global
positioning system (GPS), Laser Scanning, and Radio Frequencies, as
referenced in Figure 1.1, it is quite a clear notion by now that each ap-
proach has its limitations of accuracy and coverage. Thus, rationalizing
a hybrid solution seems justifiable in every sense.
With this brief overview of the domain, the rest of the chapter
is structured as follows: A categorical explanation of the positioning
methods which form the core of any localization technique is presented
in Section 1.2. Section 1.3 surveys the technologies used for localization
and describes the underlying methodologies. At the end of Sections 1.2
and 1.3 each, we critically analyze the methods and technologies respec-
tively with their limitations and opportunities. A suitability analysis of
localization methods and technologies for different indoor environments
is presented in Section 1.4. The chapter concludes in Section 1.5 with
the summary of its contributions with future directions.
Figure 1.1 Limitations with classical positioning technologies.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-49-320.jpg)
![Wireless Localization 7
1.2 POSITIONING METHODS
This section is intended to classify the mathematical foundation of
positioning. As mentioned earlier, all the forms of communication tech-
niques utilized for positioning require a medium which is essentially a
wave signal. A transmitter and receiver can communicate via a signal
by observing its physical attributes or modifying its characteristic prop-
erties. In other words, for positioning purposes, a communication signal
can be analyzed to provide transmission related observations such as
time, direction, and phase or its strength and channel characteristics.
To process above gathered data two types of approaches are generally
followed, namely absolute and relative. Following is the description of
the two:
• Absolute: These methods approach to calculate the coordinates
of the location under observation with reference to the system’s
primary coordinate system, which is then mapped to the relevant
location information.
• Relative: In case of a hybrid environment or due to the limitation
of infrastructure, these approaches calculate the location of the
position by classifying the signal strength measurements to result
in relative location information. These methods typically deploy
machine learning and probabilistic approaches over the raw obser-
vations.
In the following subsection, a categorized description of various position-
ing methods used for localization have been explained with their funda-
mental methodology. Figure 1.2 presents the categorical classification of
positioning methods.
1.2.1 Transmission
This category concerns with calculating the position estimate of re-
quested location based on the to and fro communication between service
points and users. Following are the major categories for transmission-
based approaches:
1.2.1.1 Time
Methods that calculate time as a parameter of observation for posi-
tioning are typically researched with the titles of Time of Flight (ToF)
[69], Time of Arrival (ToA) [70], Round Trip Time (RTT) [71], and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-50-320.jpg)
![8 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments
Figure 1.2 Categories of positioning methods with examples.
Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) [72,73]. Position computation by
these methods utilizes the fundamental equation of distance = time ×
velocity for ranging in combination with multilateration. Further, we cat-
egorize these methods based on the type of measurements undertaken,
namely Direct and Difference.
• Direct: ToA/ToF method typically involves the two ends of
communication to be time synchronized as represented in
Figure 1.3. In these methods, the time of transmission start is
embedded in the signal, which upon reception at the receiver side
is used to compute the duration of flight. This information is used
to calculate the distance between the two nodes. On the other
hand, as shown in Figure 1.4, RTT approach doesn’t require time
synchronization. The signal is intended to be transmitted to target
receiver and returned back, which gives the total raw RTT informa-
tion at the sending reference station. Also, the packet processing
at the target and other protocol overhead delays must be sub-
tracted from the raw RTT to calculate the effective transmission
time which can further be converted to distance measurements.
The two types of methods explained above have their intrinsic
pros and cons as listed in the following:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-51-320.jpg)
![Wireless Localization 11
1.2.1.2 Direction
Directional methods involve calculation of angular position of an un-
known transmitting node by relative geometric angular measurements
of known receiving antennas. These approaches usually implement ad-
ditional array of antennas to improve positional accuracy. Direction of
Arrival (DoA) [74] and AoA [75–77] are frequently used names for the
methods falling in this category. These methods are often implemented
along with the TDoA method between the antenna array to improve
the location accuracy. As a variation of this approach, angular measure-
ments can also be carried out using a microphone array to localize by
sound waves. The practical implementation of this methodology gets
limited by its design requirement of multiple antennas. Also, the spa-
tial separation among the antennas makes it an unworthy candidate
when space and cost requirement for additional hardware are limiting
factors.
1.2.1.3 Phase
Phase-based localization has been attempted with either PoA [78,79]
or Phase Difference of Arrival (PDoA) [80] techniques. In both cases a
sinusoidal model relating the phase and the distance is assumed. As
shown in Figure 1.6, in PoA approach, an unknown node transmits
a signal to multiple receivers with known locations available in its
proximity. Upon reception of the signal, based on the signal model, the
location is resolved via multiple observations collected by different re-
ceivers. On the other hand, in PDoA, a source transmits two signals
to the receiver having slight offset in time. On the arrival of the signal
at the receiver, the PDoA in conjunction with the signal model concludes
the location. Though effective, these methods involve the overhead of
computation and additional hardware.
1.2.2 Characteristics
1.2.2.1 Strength
The methods of this domain have been most researched of all the
localization approaches. Received Signal Strength (RSS) of a transmis-
sion from an unknown sender to a known receiver is the fundamental
of all the calculations herein. One of the two approaches of RSS mea-
surements assumes a path loss model for the signal transmission and
later utilizes triangulation, lateration, or neighborhood algorithms to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11077825-250529024208-2656355a/85/Internet-Of-Things-And-Secure-Smart-Environments-Successes-And-Pitfalls-Uttam-Ghosh-54-320.jpg)
Internet Of Things And Secure Smart Environments Successes And Pitfalls Uttam Ghosh
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- 6. Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments
- 7. Chapman & Hall/CRC Big Data Series Series Editor: Sanjay Ranka A Tour of Data Science Learn R and Python in Parallel Nailong Zhang Big Data Computing A Guide for Business and Technology Managers Vivek Kale Big Data Management and Processing Kuan-Ching Li, Hai Jiang, Albert Y. Zomaya Frontiers in Data Science Matthias Dehmer, Frank Emmert-Streib High Performance Computing for Big Data Methodologies and Applications Chao Wang Big Data Analytics Tools and Technology for Effective Planning Arun K. Somani, Ganesh Chandra Deka Smart Data State-of-the-Art Perspectives in Computing and Applications Kuan-Ching Li, Qingchen Zhang, Laurence T. Yang, Beniamino Di Martino Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments Successes and Pitfalls Uttam Ghosh, Danda B. Rawat, Raja Datta, Al-Sakib Khan Pathan For more information on this series please visit: https://www.crcpress.com/ Chapman–HallCRC-Big-Data-Series/book-series/CRCBIGDATSER
- 8. Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments Successes and Pitfalls Edited by Uttam Ghosh Vanderbilt University, USA Danda B. Rawat Howard University, USA Raja Datta Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur, India Al-Sakib Khan Pathan Independent University, Bangladesh
- 9. First edition published 2021 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ghosh, Uttam, editor. Title: Internet of things and secure smart environments : successes and pitfalls / edited by Uttam Ghosh, Vanderbilt University, USA, [and three others]. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Series: Chapman & Hall/CRC big data series | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020037222 | ISBN 9780367266394 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367276706 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things—Security measures. Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 I63 2021 | DDC 005.8—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020037222 ISBN: 978-0-367-26639-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-27670-6 (ebk) Typeset in Minion by codeMantra
- 10. “Dedicated to the memory of my father, late Gopal Chandra Ghosh, who always believed in my ability to be successful in the academic arena. Although he is not here, I always feel his presence that used to urge me to strive to achieve my goals in life.” – Uttam Ghosh “Dedicated to my family.” – Danda Rawat “Dedicated to my family.” – Raja Datta “To my loving wife, Labiba Mahmud, whose cooperation always helps me do various projects with ease.” – Al-Sakib Khan Pathan
- 12. Contents LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES xv PREFACE xvii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii EDITORS xxv CONTRIBUTORS xxix Chapter 1 Wireless Localization for Smart Indoor Environments 1 Ravi Sharma and Venkataramana Badarla Chapter 2 An Approach towards GIS Application in Smart City Urban Planning 71 Sourav Banerjee, Chinmay Chakraborty, and Debashis Das Chapter 3 A Review of Checkpointing and Rollback Recovery Protocols for Mobile Distributed Computing Systems 111 Houssem Mansouri and Al-Sakib Khan Pathan Chapter 4 Softwarized Network Function Virtualization for 5G: Challenges and Opportunities 147 Deborsi Basu, Raja Datta, and Uttam Ghosh Chapter 5 An Effective Deployment of SDN Controller in Smart City Renovation 193 Madhukrishna Priyadarsini and Padmalochan Bera vii
- 13. viii Contents Chapter 6 Flying Ad Hoc Networks: Security, Authentication Protocols, and Future Directions 223 Aiswarya S. Nair and Sabu M. Thampi Chapter 7 Investigating Traffic of Smart Speakers and IoT Devices: Security Issues and Privacy Threats 273 Davide Caputo, Luca Verderame, Alessio Merlo, and Luca Caviglione Chapter 8 Hardware Security in the Context of Internet of Things: Challenges and Opportunities 299 Pranesh Santikellur, Rajat Subhra Chakraborty, and Jimson Mathew Chapter 9 Security Challenges in Hardware Used for Smart Environments 363 Sree Ranjani Rajendran Chapter 10 Blockchain for Internet of Battlefield Things: A Performance and Feasibility Study 383 Abel O. Gomez Rivera, Deepak Tosh, and Jaime C. Acosta Chapter 11 Internet of Things in 5G Cellular Networks: Radio Resource Perspective 417 Ajay Pratap and Sajal K. Das Chapter 12 An SDN-IoT–Based Framework for Future Smart Cities: Addressing Perspective 441 Uttam Ghosh, Pushpita Chatterjee, Sachin Shetty, and Raja Datta Index 469
- 14. List of Figures 1.1 Limitations with classical positioning technologies. 6 1.2 Categories of positioning methods with examples. 8 1.3 An example representation of time synchronization be- tween stations in ToA/ToF methods. The times of signal transmission, i.e., T1, T2, T3, from reference stations to target along with the speed of signal c is used to for- mulate the system of range equations by calculating Euclidean distances. This system is solved for target co- ordinates by methods such as multilateration. 9 1.4 An example representation of methods involving RTT calculation of packet transmission. A single clock at ref- erence station minimizes the effort in synchronization, though, the amount of packet processing at target must be calculated/calibrated. 9 1.5 An example representation of a TDoA method where dif- ference in arrival times of signals on reference stations from the target is used to formulate range equations solved for target coordinates. 10 1.6 An example representation of PoA/PDoA methods where the difference in phase difference of the incident wavefronts on the antenna array of reference stations is used to measure the location information. 12 2.1 GIS and urban planning. 73 2.2 GIS application in urban planning. 77 2.3 Smart city applications and challenges. 78 2.4 GIS and transportation. 83 2.5 The interrelationship between the functional elements in a waste management system. 87 ix
- 15. x List of Figures 2.6 The framework of the regional planning model system. 90 2.7 GIS in emergency management and related areas. 100 3.1 System model. 113 3.2 Various techniques for checkpointing in MDCS environment. 115 4.1 Overview of the current network. 150 4.2 Snap of a real-time scenario of the current network. 151 4.3 Current network architecture with SDN. 152 4.4 The basic SDN architecture. 152 4.5 SDN architecture concept. 154 4.6 SDN application plane functions and interfaces. 155 4.7 Realization of virtualized network functions. 157 4.8 NFVO functions govern VNF managers and virtualized infrastructure managers in the NFV Management and Orchestration (MANO) section as well as the virtualiza- tion layer of the NFV Infrastructure (NFVI). (European Telecommunication Standards Institute, ETSI.) 158 4.9 Relationship between software defined networking and network function virtualization challenges for network function virtualizations. 161 4.10 System and interface definition. 164 4.11 Basic 5G network architecture. 166 4.12 5G network core architecture. (VIAVI Solution Inc. Home – 5G Architecture.) 167 4.13 5G network core service-based architecture. 167 4.14 SDN-/NFV-enabled 5G architecture. 172 5.1 SDN architecture consists of three different layers, and are accessible through Open application programming interface (API). 195 5.2 Proposed SDN deployed design framework for smart city communication. 201
- 16. List of Figures xi 5.3 Performance comparison of proposed SDN deployed design framework and existing systems in terms of throughput, computation time, and energy consumption. (a) Throughput comparison of proposed SDN framework with state-of-the-art technologies. (b) Computation time comparison of various technologies along with proposed SDN frame-work. (c) Energy consumption comparison of four technologies. 216 5.4 Accuracy comparison of the proposed SDN deployed design framework with state-of-the-art systems. 217 6.1 Centralized and decentralized FANET architecture. 227 6.2 UAV subsystems. 230 6.3 Applications of UAV network in various domains. 232 6.4 Vulnerabilities and attacks in FANET. 235 6.5 FANET security solutions. 238 6.6 Authentication process. 241 6.7 Proposed taxonomy of the authentication schemes. 242 6.8 Emerging areas in authentication. 254 6.9 PUF authentication. 257 7.1 General system architecture used by smart speakers to control nodes in smart home scenarios. 277 7.2 Reference threat model targeting the encrypted traffic for privacy-breaching attacks. 280 7.3 Different policies for grouping packets used for the com- putation of statistical information. (a) Packets grouped in a window of ∆t seconds. (b) Packets grouped in a window of N data units. 285 7.4 Average values for the packet length, TCP window, IPT, and TTL computed over the entire dataset. (a) Mean packet length, (b) mean TCP window, (c) mean IPT, and (d) mean TTL. 288 7.5 Correlation analysis on all the performed measurements for the TTL, IPT, TCP window, and packet length. (a) Correlation of mic_off. (b) Correlation of mic_on. (c) Correlation of mic_on_noise. 288
- 17. xii List of Figures 7.6 Accuracy of the classifiers for the mic_off and mic_on cases. (a) Grouping in a window of N packets. (b) Group- ing in a window of ∆t seconds. 289 7.7 Accuracy of the classifiers for the mic_on and mic_on_ noise cases. (a) Grouping in a window of N packets. (b) Grouping in window of ∆t seconds. 290 7.8 Confusion matrix for selected methods in different use cases. (a) AB: ∆t = 500 - mic_off vs mic_on. (b) DT: ∆t = 15 - mic_on vs mic_on_noise. 291 7.9 Importance of traffic features that can be used to leak information about smart speakers. (a) AB: ∆t = 500 - mic_off vs mic_on. (b) DT: ∆t = 15 - mic_on vs mic_on_noise. 293 8.1 Taxonomy of IoT security. 301 8.2 A typical IC design and supply chain with its potentially vulnerable locations. Although, in principle, all steps can be vulnerable to HTH attacks with some reasonable as- sumptions the in-house team and stages are considered as trusted [15]. (Adapted with modifications.) 305 8.3 Trojan designs: a structural classification [15]. (Adapted with modifications.) 306 8.4 Structural models of HTHs [15,18]. (a) Combinational Trojan, (b) sequential Trojan (synchronous), (c) sequen- tial Trojan (asynchronous), (d) hybrid Trojan, (e) analog Trojan triggered based on logic values, (f) analog Trojan triggered based on circuit activity, and (g) side-channel Trojan. 307 8.5 Classification of HTH countermeasures with respect to their attack models. 312 8.6 Examples of different types of counterfeit ICs [135]. 324 8.7 Taxonomy of counterfeit IC detection [136]. 326 8.8 Modeling attacks taxonomy. 330 9.1 Examples of IoT applications. 364 9.2 Hardware threats in IC life-cycle. 367
- 18. List of Figures xiii 10.1 Elements of a typical IoBT environment. 386 10.2 Sample network topology in tactical scenario. 387 10.3 Blockchain-enabled IoBT architecture [8]. 393 10.4 State-of-art blockchain system. 395 10.5 Components of a Hyperledger Sawtooth node. 397 10.6 Sample IoBT relevant topologies for evaluation. (a) Full connectivity, (b) mesh topology, (c) tree topology and (d) edge-based topology. 398 10.7 Maintenance packets for (a) 1 Gbps, (b) 100 Mbps, and (c) 64 Kbps simulations. Full – 5S is an abbrevi- ated format for full topology – “x” transactions every five seconds. 1T is an abbreviated format for one trans- action. 401 10.8 Maintenance packets for edge-based simulations. 402 10.9 Data packets for (a) 1 Gbps, (b) 100 Mbps, and (c) 64 Kbps simulations. Full - 5S is an abbreviated format for full topology - “x” transactions every five seconds. 1T is an abbreviated format for 1 transaction. 403 10.10 Data packets for edge-based simulations. 404 10.11 Success rate of 100 Mbps. Full is an abbreviated format for full topology. 1T/2S is an abbreviated format for 1 transaction every two seconds. 406 10.12 Success rate of 64 Kbps. Full is an abbreviated format for full topology. 1T/2S is an abbreviated format for 1 transaction every two seconds. 407 10.13 Success rate for edge-based simulations. 408 11.1 Expected number of IoT devices by 2050. 419 11.2 IoT-enabled 5G networks. 419 11.3 Narrow-band IoT carrier. 421 11.4 Proposed algorithm. 424 11.5 Two-state model. 427 11.6 Traffic model. 428 11.7 Discrete-time Markov chain for the M/M/m/m system. 429 11.8 Task blocking probabilities at 1.4 MHz. 430
- 19. xiv List of Figures 11.9 Task blocking probabilities at 3 MHz. 431 11.10 Task blocking probabilities at 10 MHz. 432 11.11 Task blocking probabilities at 15 MHz. 432 11.12 Task blocking probabilities at 20 MHz. 433 11.13 Task blocking probabilities at QPSK 1/3, AMR-WB 23.85 kbps 433 11.14 Task blocking probabilities at QPSK 1/3, AMR-WB 12.65 kbps. 434 12.1 Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) mechanism. 444 12.2 A layering architecture of SDN. 445 12.3 Working principles of SDN. 447 12.4 Topology detection using LLDP. 447 12.5 Internet of Things (IoT). 448 12.6 The three-layered architecture of IoT. 449 12.7 Overview of Smart city components. 450 12.8 IP version 4 (IPv4) header format. 451 12.9 IP version 6 (IPv6) header format. 451 12.10 An SDN-IoT–based smart city framework. 456 12.11 An SDN-IoT–based layered smart city framework. 456 12.12 Address allocation tree in the SDN-IoT–based smart city: a simplified example. 459
- 20. List of Tables 1.1 Comparative Analysis of Limitations in Localization Methods 14 1.2 Suitability of Positioning Technologies 29 1.3 Mapping Combinations of Methods and Technologies for Applicability in Different Conditions 34 2.1 GIS Analysis Software 82 3.1 Classification of Various Works Covered in This Survey 130 4.1 The Relationship between Different Use Cases and Network Solutions of 5G Networks 182 5.1 Notations Used in the Proposed SDN Deployed Design Framework 203 5.2 Notations Used in NF Virtualization Architecture 210 5.3 SMT-LIB Reduction of Query Specification 215 5.4 Overhead, Loss Rate (Packet Drops), and Delay of TCP/IP, GPS, GDGPS, and SDN Framework 218 6.1 Features of FANET 226 6.2 A Few Important Surveys in the Area of FANET 233 6.3 Attacks, Definition, and Countermeasures 236 6.4 Mutual Authentication Methods 243 6.5 User Authentication Techniques 244 6.6 Drone Authentication Techniques 245 6.7 UAV Simulators 253 xv
- 21. xvi List of Tables 7.1 Training Times for the Used Classifiers with Different Windows of Length Δt 291 7.2 Training Times for the Used Classifiers with Different Windows of Length N 292 9.1 Hardware Threat Scenarios in IC Design Flow 369 10.1 Data Packet Comparison for “Unlimited” and 1 Gbps Bandwidths 399 11.1 AMR Codec Radio Bandwidths 423 11.2 Parameter Values 430 11.3 Task Blocking Probability at Different Bandwidths 435 12.1 Comparison of Address Allocation Approaches in Smart Cities 461
- 22. Preface INTRODUCTION The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the billions of intelligent phys- ical devices with some processing power and storage capacity, which have unique identifiers which connect them to the Internet for collect- ing and sharing data. The main goal of IoT is to make secure, reliable, and fully automated smart environments, e.g., buildings, smart homes, smart cities, smart healthcare, smart grids, smart agriculture, and smart vehicles. However, there are many technological challenges in deploy- ing IoT. This includes connectivity and networking, timeliness, power and energy consumption dependability, security and privacy, compati- bility and longevity, and network/protocol standards, etc., with respect to resource-constrained embedded sensors and devices. AIM SCOPE OF THE BOOK The major aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive base to the recent research and open problems in the areas of IoT research. We have felt that it is the much-needed ingredient to the researchers/scholars who are about to start their research in this emerging area. State-of-the-art problems, present solutions, and open research directions will always be positively welcomed by all the research groups, postgraduate programs, and doctoral programs around the globe in the field of computer science and information technology. TARGET GROUP This book will provide a comprehensive aid to prospective researchers and scholars who are considering working in this area from both industry and academia. The major aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive base to the recent research and open problems in the areas of IoT re- search as well as fundamental IoT architecture. Being an emerging area, xvii
- 23. xviii Preface IoT and related aspects have become a matter of great interest of bud- ding researchers in the area. Collecting and streamlining all these works in a single book require large collaborative efforts from the community across the globe. It has also been envisaged that this book will continue to become a source of great interest for the time to come and would require adaptations from time to time. ABOUT THE TOPICS The book aims to systematically collect and present quality research findings in the areas of recent advances in IoT to give wide benefit to a huge community of researchers, educators, practitioners, and industry professionals. We provide a typical list of chapters/areas to cover both fundamental and advanced areas of IoT for a secure and smart environ- ment. Submissions were solicited on, but not limited to, the following topics: 1. IoT architectures for smart environments 2. Networking technology in IoT (SDN, 5G, LTE, Narrowband, WBAN/BAN/BSN, WSN, RFID, NFC, etc.) 3. IPv6 Addressing, Naming, and Discovery in IoT 4. Infrastructure identity management and access control systems in IoT for smart environments 5. Distributed computing aspect of IoT for smart environments 6. Data handling and management (accumulation, abstraction, stor- age, processing, encryption, fast retrieval, security, and privacy) in IoT for smart environments 7. Availability and resilience aspects in IoT for smart environments 8. Cloud computing and fog computing in IoT for smart environments 9. Energy management and green IoT for smart environments 10. Quality assurance in IoT for smart environments 11. Trust management in IoT for smart environments 12. Incentive mechanisms of IoT applications for smart environments
- 24. Preface xix 13. Threat and attack models of IoT applications for smart environ- ments After careful selections, we have been able to put together a total of 12 chapters in this book. Here, we discuss the chapters in brief. Chapter 1: Wireless Localization for Smart Indoor Environments analyzes the fundamental techniques of wireless localization on the no- table applications with different underlying wireless standards. A quali- tative assessment of the localization methods for their compatibility with the indoor localization has also been provided here. Chapter 2: An Approach towards GIS Application in Smart City Urban Planning provides an overall implication of Geographical Infor- mation System (GIS) technology in urban management and development and information about evolution and redefines satisfactory areas for im- proving urban safety. Some recent advancements along with the current impact of GIS in Smart City development have also been explained. Chapter 3: A Review of Checkpointing and Rollback Recovery Pro- tocols for Mobile Distributed Computing Systems elaborates the impact of checkpointing in Mobile Distributed Computing Systems (MDCS) for achieving smartness of the system. Along with some solutions based on a traditional distributed environment, this chapter elaborates the present classifications of innovative approaches specifically for MDCS. It also includes the scope of improvements, which were previously absent and have now been suitably handled by MDCS. Chapter 4: Softwarized Network Function Virtualization for 5G: Challenges and Opportunities gives a detailed and fundamental idea re- garding the collaborative impact of Software Defined Networking and Network Function Virtualization in next-generation 5G telecommuni- cation networks. It provides a detailed analysis regarding the crucial challenges inside present-day network and how those can be eliminated in future networks using Softwarized Network Function Virtualization (SNFV) technology. It ends with some interesting open research areas and future scope for the readers in this field. Chapter 5: An Effective Deployment of SDN Controller in Smart City Renovation deals with energy-efficient controller placement in Smart City environment using Software Defined Networking (SDN) tech- nology. How the controller placement supports traffic management and weather monitoring has been explained nicely. Here, the proposed suit- able network framework has come up with satisfactory accuracy when compared with the TCP/IP and existing GPS system.
- 25. xx Preface Chapter 6: Flying Ad Hoc Networks: Security, Authentication Protocols, and Future Directions introduces Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) technology and its revolutionary impacts on various industry and academic sectors. Its versatile roles including military and disaster man- agement have been explained. This chapter also gives an insight into the latest trends in the field of authentication and the possibilities for de- veloping lightweight and novel mechanisms for Flying Ad Hoc Network applications. Chapter 7: Investigating Traffic of Smart Speakers and IoT Devices: Security Issues and Privacy Threats demonstrates the risks involved in machine-learning-capable techniques to develop black-box models to au- tomatically classify traffic and implement privacy leaking attacks. It also provides the suitable advantages of smart speakers in controlling the IoT devices. Here, some practical and experimental results collected from different realistic scenarios along with the possible countermeasures are discussed. Chapter 8: Hardware Security in the Context of Internet of Things: Challenges and Opportunities showcases the unique challenges of secure IoT implementations, especially from the perspective of hardware secu- rity and their solutions. A survey based on different kinds of security attacks and vulnerabilities on IoT devices and some proposed methods for solution has been done here. The Physically Unclonable Function (PUF)-based lightweight IoT security solution concludes the chapter. Chapter 9: Security Challenges in Hardware Used for Smart Envi- ronments addresses the hardware vulnerabilities in IoT devices, which cause major threats while transferring information. An overview of vari- ous hardware security issues in IoT-based devices used in smart environ- ments is given along with discussions on the essential countermeasures that can be implemented in order to secure the future IoT concepts and architectural models. Chapter 10: Blockchain for Internet of Battlefield Things: A Per- formance and Feasibility Study delivers the effective use of evolving Blockchain technology to improve operational efficiency of mission- oriented tasks in the battlefield. Here, a permissioned blockchain, namely Hyperledger Sawtooth, has been introduced, and its performance analy- sis has been done in order to determine its ability in the context of Inter- net of Battlefield Things (IoBT). Different advantages and disadvantages of different types of blockchains along with their characteristics, feasibil- ity, and integration challenges in IoBT environment are provided here.
- 26. Preface xxi The chapter concludes with some plans for future research directions in the blockchain technology. Chapter 11: Internet of Things in 5G Cellular Networks: Radio Resource Perspective aims to deliver the advanced modulation schemes supported with different codec standards to find their impacts on cell capacity in order to improve the performance of IoT-enabled 5G net- works. How the system capacity has been improved with lower codec modulation schemes has also been elaborated here. Finally, the chapter draws the conclusion with future implications of the modulation schemes and scope of implementing the concepts in future IoT-enabled cellular networks. Chapter 12: An SDN-IoT–Based Framework for Future Smart Cities: Addressing Perspective discusses a software-defined network (SDN)-based framework for future smart cities. It also comprises a dis- tributed addressing scheme to facilitate the allocation of addresses to devices in the smart city dynamically. The proposed addressing scheme, a new IoT device, receives its IP address from one of their existing neigh- boring peer devices. This allows devices in the city to act as a proxy and generate a set of unique IP addresses from their own IP addresses, which can then be assigned to new (joining) devices. This scheme significantly reduces addressing overhead and latency. We hope that the chapters will help both the experts and general readers of the field gain some important insight and current knowledge relevant to their interests.
- 28. Acknowledgements The impact of our parents on each of our lives is inexpressible. We are very much indebted to their continuous encouragement for us to grow in the field that we love. Of course, without the lifetime given by the Almighty, none of our works would have been possible to be completed. It has been another incredible book editing experience, and our sincere gratitude is to the publisher for facilitating the process. This book editing journey enhanced our patience, communication, and tenacity. We are thankful to all the contributors, critics, and the publishing team. Last but not the least, our very best wishes are for our family members whose support and encouragement contributed significantly to complete this project. It should be specifically noted that for this project, Danda B. Rawat has been partly supported by the U.S. NSF under grants CNS 1650831 and HRD 1828811, and by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security under grant DHS 2017-ST-062-000003 and DoE’s National Nuclear Se- curity Administration (NNSA) Award DE-NA0003946. Uttam Ghosh, PhD Vanderbilt University, USA Danda B. Rawat, PhD Howard University, USA Raja Datta, PhD Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India Al-Sakib Khan Pathan, PhD Independent University, Bangladesh xxiii
- 30. Editors Uttam Ghosh is working as an Assistant Professor of the Practice in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Van- derbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA. Dr Ghosh obtained his PhD in Electronics and Electrical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India, in 2013, and has post-doctoral experience at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign, Fordham University, and Tennessee State University. He has been awarded the 2018–2019 Junior Faculty Teaching Fellow (JFTF) and has been promoted to a Graduate Faculty position at Vanderbilt University. Dr Ghosh has pub- lished 50 papers at reputed international journals including IEEE Trans- action, Elsevier, Springer, IET, Wiley, InderScience and IETE, and also in top international conferences sponsored by IEEE, ACM, and Springer. Dr Ghosh has conducted several sessions and workshops re- lated to Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), SDN, IoT and smart cities as co- chair at top international conferences including IEEE Globecom, IEEE MASS, SECON, CPSCOM, IEMCON, ICDCS, and so on. He has served as a Technical Program Committee (TPC) member at renowned inter- national conferences including ACM SIGCSE, IEEE LCN, IEMCON, STPSA, SCS SpringSim, and IEEE Compsac. He is serving as an Asso- ciate Editor of the International Journal of Computers and Applications (Taylor Francis), and also as a reviewer for international journals in- cluding IEEE Transactions (Elsevier, Springer, and Wiley). Dr Ghosh is contributing as a guest editor for special issues with IEEE Journal of IoT, IEEE Transaction on Network Science and Engineering (TNSE), ACM Transactions on Internet Technology (TOIT), Springer MTAP, MDPI Future Internet, and Wiley Internet Technology Letters (ITL). He is a Senior Member of the IEEE and a member of AAAS, ASEE, ACM, and Sigma Xi. He is actively working on seven edited volumes on Emerging CPS, Security, and Machine/Machine Learning with CRC Press, Chapman Hall Big Data Series, and Springer. His main research interests include Cybersecurity, Computer Networks, Wireless Networks, Information Centric Networking, and Software-Defined Networking. xxv
- 31. xxvi Editors Danda B. Rawat is a Full Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), founding director of Howard University Data Science and Cybersecurity Center (DSC2) and Cyber- security and Wireless Networking Innovations (CWiNs) Research Lab, graduate program director of Howard-CS Graduate Programs, and di- rector of Graduate Cybersecurity Certificate Program at Howard Uni- versity, Washington, DC, USA. Dr Rawat is engaged in research and teaching in the areas of cybersecurity, machine learning, and wireless networking for emerging networked systems including CPS, IoT, smart cities, software defined systems, and vehicular networks. His professional career comprises more than 15 years in academia, government, and in- dustry. He has secured over $4 million in research funding from the US National Science Foundation, US Department of Homeland Security, De- partment of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), DoD Research Labs, Industry (Microsoft, Intel, etc.), and private Foun- dations. Dr Rawat is the recipient of the NSF CAREER Award in 2016, the US Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) Summer Faculty Vis- iting Fellowship in 2017, Outstanding Research Faculty Award (Award for Excellence in Scholarly Activity) at GSU in 2015, the Best Paper Awards, and Outstanding PhD Researcher Award in 2009. He has deliv- ered over 15 keynotes and invited speeches at international conferences and workshops. Dr Rawat has published over 200 scientific/technical ar- ticles and 9 books. He has been serving as an editor/guest editor for over 30 international journals. He has been in the Organizing Committees for several IEEE flagship conferences such as IEEE INFOCOM, IEEE CNS, IEEE ICC, IEEE CCNC, and so on. Dr Rawat received his PhD degree from Old Dominion University (ODU), Norfolk, Virginia. Dr Rawat is a Senior Member of IEEE and ACM, a member of ASEE, and a Fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). Raja Datta completed his MTech and PhD from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur, India. He is a professor in the Department of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering (E ECE) at IIT Kharagpur and is currently the head of G. S. Sanyal School of Telecommunication. Earlier, he worked with North Eastern Regional In- stitute of Science and Technology, Itanagar, India, where he was also the head of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering (CSE) for several years. Prof. Datta is a Senior Member of IEEE and has to his credit a number of publications in high impact factor journals (that includes IEEE Transactions, IET, Elsevier, Springers, etc.) and
- 32. Editors xxvii international conferences. Apart from being a consultant to several or- ganizations in India, he has been associated with many institutes and universities as examiner, member of Academic Boards, etc. Prof. Datta was the Chairman of IEEE Kharagpur Section in 2014. He was also the secretary and vice chair of IEEE Kharagpur Section in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Apart from organizing a lot of activities, the section also received the best small section award in Region 10 during his tenure as an office bearer. From February 2011, he has been the Prof-in-charge of the Technology Telecom Centre (TTC) of IIT Kharagpur. His main re- search interests include Computer Communication Networks, Network Function Virtualization (NFV), 5G Edge Computing, Vehicular Net- works, Mobile Ad-hoc and Sensor Networks, Optical Elastic Networks, Inter Planetary Networks, Computer Architecture, Distributed Operat- ing Systems, and Distributed Processing. Al-Sakib Khan Pathan is a professor of CSE. Currently, he is with the Independent University, Bangladesh, as an adjunct professor. He received his PhD degree in computer engineering in 2009 from Kyung Hee Univer- sity, South Korea, and BSc degree in computer science and information technology from Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh, in 2003. In his academic career so far, he worked as a faculty member in the CSE Department of Southeast University, Bangladesh, during 2015– 2020, Computer Science Department, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Malaysia during 2010–2015; at BRAC University, Bangladesh from 2009–2010, and at New South University (NSU), Bangladesh, during 2004–2005. He was a guest lecturer for the STEP project at the Department of Technical and Vocational Education, IUT, Bangladesh, in 2018. He also worked as a researcher at Networking Lab, Kyung Hee University, South Korea, from September 2005 to August 2009, where he completed his MS leading to PhD. His research interests include Wireless Sensor Networks, Network Security, Cloud Computing, and e-Services Technologies. Currently, he is also working on some multi- disciplinary issues. He is a recipient of several awards/best paper awards and has several notable publications in these areas. So far, he has de- livered over 20 keynotes and invited speeches at various international conferences and events. He has served as a General Chair, Organizing Committee Member, and TPC member in numerous top-ranked interna- tional conferences/workshops like INFOCOM, GLOBECOM, ICC, LCN, GreenCom, AINA, WCNC, HPCS, ICA3PP, IWCMC, VTC, HPCC, SGIoT, etc. He was awarded the IEEE Outstanding Leadership Award
- 33. xxviii Editors for his role in IEEE GreenCom’13 conference. He is currently serving as the Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Computers and Ap- plications, Taylor Francis, UK; Associate Technical Editor of IEEE Communications Magazine; Editor of Ad Hoc and Sensor Wireless Net- works, Old City Publishing; International Journal of Sensor Networks, Inderscience Publishers; and Malaysian Journal of Computer Science; Associate Editor of Connection Science, Taylor Francis, UK; Interna- tional Journal of Computational Science and Engineering, Inderscience; Area Editor of International Journal of Communication Networks and Information Security; Guest Editor of many special issues of top-ranked journals, and Editor/Author of 21 books. One of his books has been included twice in Intel Corporation’s Recommended Reading List for Developers, second half 2013 and first half of 2014; three books were in- cluded in IEEE Communications Society’s (IEEE ComSoc) Best Read- ings in Communications and Information Systems Security, 2013; two other books were indexed with all the titles (chapters) in Elsevier’s ac- claimed abstract and citation database, Scopus, in February 2015 and a seventh book has been translated to simplified Chinese language from English version. Also, two of his journal papers and one conference pa- per were included under different categories in IEEE ComSoc’s Best Readings Topics on Communications and Information Systems Security, 2013. He also serves as a referee of many prestigious journals. He received some awards for his reviewing activities, such as one of the most active reviewers of IAJIT several times and Elsevier Outstanding Reviewer for Computer Networks, Ad Hoc Networks, FGCS, and JNCA in multiple years. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, USA.
- 34. Contributors Jaime C. Acosta earned his PhD from the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) in 2009. He has worked for the army as a government civilian for over 15 years and as a visiting researcher and adjunct pro- fessor at UTEP for over 8 years. He is the ARL South site lead at UTEP, where he spearheads the Cybersecurity Rapid Innovation Group (CyberRIG) consisting of faculty, members of the regional FBI’s Cy- ber and Forensics groups, the Infragard, the Department of Homeland Security, and the El Paso Water and Electric Utilities, among others. Dr Acosta’s primary focus is to collectively and collaboratively solve critical cybersecurity problems through research, tool development, and rapid innovation activities. Venkataramana Badarla conducts his research broadly in Computer Networks, specifically in Wireless Networks, Cloud Computing, IoT, and Named Data Networking. He is also interested in the application of ICT to solve the problems in the areas of Precision Agriculture and Smart Infrastructure. He has published over 40 research papers in various peer- reviewed journals and conferences and won the best of the conference award for his work on low-cost infrastructure for rural communication. He has successfully guided 4 PhD theses and 12 master’s thesis and over 70 BTech projects. He has been a reviewer and also served as a mem- ber of the TPC for various top-tier journals and conferences. He is a senior member of the professional bodies ACM and IEEE. He obtained his PhD from IIT Madras, India, in 2007 for his work on reliable data transport solutions for multi-hop wireless networks. After his PhD, he worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the Hamilton Institute, Ireland, for 4 years. Then he worked in the Department of CSE at IIT Jodhpur for 6 years. Since 2017, he has been working as an associate professor in the Department of CSE at IIT Tirupati, India, where he is also chairing the department. xxix
- 35. xxx Contributors Sourav Banerjee holds a PhD degree from the University of Kalyani, India, in 2017. He is currently an assistant professor at the Department of CSE of Kalyani Government Engineering College at Kalyani, West Bengal, India. He has authored numerous reputed journal articles, book chapters, and international conferences. His research interests include Big Data, Cloud Computing, Cloud Robotics, Distributed Computing and Mobile Communications, IoT. He is a member of IEEE, ACM, IAE, and MIR Labs as well. He is a SIG member of MIR Labs, USA. He is an editorial board member of Wireless Communication Technology. His profile can be found here: https://www.kgec.edu.in/department/CSE/. Deborsi Basu is working as a junior researcher at the Communication Networks Lab in the Department of E ECE, IIT Kharagpur with the Joint collaboration of G.S. Sanyal School of Telecommunication, IIT, Kharagpur Department of EECS, University of Vanderbilt, Nashville, Tennessee, USA. He completed his MTech from Kalyani Government Engineering College, Kalyani, West Bengal, India in Department of Elec- tronics and Communication Engineering in 2018 and BTech from Her- itage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India in Depart- ment of ECE in 2016. He is a Graduate Student Member of IEEE and a student member of IET and ACM. The broad area of his research is Wireless Communication and Network Performance Optimization. Cur- rently, he is working on SDN, OpenFlow Protocol Architecture Design, NFV, Network Scalability in Distributed System, Techno-Economic Ar- chitecture Development for 5G, and beyond. Padmalochan Bera is working as an assistant professor in the Depart- ment of CSE in IIT, Bhubaneswar, India. His research interests include Network Security, Cryptography, Access Control, SDNs, Cloud Comput- ing, Formal Verification, and Optimization. He completed his PhD from IIT, Kharagpur, India and he was a postdoctoral fellow in CyberDNA Research Center, University of North Carolina Charlotte, USA from 2010 to 2011. Davide Caputo is a second-year PhD student in computer science at the University of Genova, Genova, Italy. He obtained both his BSc and MSc in computer engineering at the University of Genova, and is now working under the supervision of Prof. Alessio Merlo. His research topic focuses on Mobile Security and IoT Security.
- 36. Contributors xxxi Luca Caviglione received his PhD in electronics and computer engi- neering from the University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy. He is a research scientist with the Institute for Applied Mathematics and Information Technologies of the National Research Council of Italy, Genoa. His re- search interests include Optimization of Large-Scale Computing Frame- works, Wireless and Heterogeneous Communication Architectures, and Network Security. He is an author or co-author of more than 140 aca- demic publications and several patents in the field of p2p and energy- aware computing. He has been involved in many research projects funded by the European Space Agency, the European Union, and the Italian Ministry of Research. He is a Work Group Leader of the Italian IPv6 Task Force, a contract professor in the field of networking/security and a professional engineer. He is a member of the TPC of many international conferences. From 2016, he has been an associate editor of International Journal of Computers and Applications, Taylor Francis. Chinmay Chakraborty is an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Birla Institute of Technol- ogy (BIT), Mesra, India. His primary areas of research include Wireless Body Area Network, Internet of Medical Things, Energy-Efficient Wire- less Communications and Networking, and Point-of-Care Diagnosis. He has authored more than 50 articles in reputed journals, books, book chapters, and international conferences. He received a Young Research Excellence Award, Global Peer Review Award, Young Faculty Award, and Outstanding Researcher Award. He was the speaker for AICTE, DST sponsored FDP, and CEP Short Term Course. His profile can be found here: https://sites.google.com/view/dr-chinmay-chakraborty. Rajat Subhra Chakraborty received his PhD in computer engineer- ing from Case Western Reserve University. He is currently an associate professor in the CSE Department, IIT Kharagpur, India. He has held po- sitions with National Semiconductor, Bangalore, India, and Advanced Micro Devices, Inc., Santa Clara, California, USA. His research inter- ests include Hardware Security, VLSI Design, Digital Content Protec- tion, and Digital Forensics. He holds two US patents, is the co-author of three books, and has close to 100 publications in international journals and conferences of repute, which have received about 3,200 citations till date. He is a recipient of IBM Faculty Award (2012), Royal Academy of Engineering (UK) “RECI Fellowship” (2014), IBM SUR Award (2015), IEI Young Engineers Award (2016), and Outstanding Faculty Award
- 37. xxxii Contributors from IIT Kharagpur (2018). He is currently an associate editor of IEEE TCAD and IEEE TMSCS journals, and has previously served as a guest editor of ACM TECS. He also regularly serves in the program committee of top international conferences. Dr Chakraborty is a Senior Member of both IEEE and ACM. Pushpita Chatterjee is a research consultant at Old Dominion Uni- versity (ODU), Norfolk, Virginia, USA. Pushpita received her PhD from IIT Kharagpur, India in 2012 under the supervision of Prof. Indranil Sen- gupta and Prof. Soumya K Ghosh. She received her MTech in computer engineering and MS in computer and information science from the Uni- versity of Calcutta, India, in 2004 and 2002, respectively. Prior to joining ODU, she was a senior research lead in SRM Institute of Science and Technology (a Unit of SRM University, Chennai), Bangalore, India. She was responsible for leading a group of 20+ researchers who were working for OpenFlow and SDN and Deep Learning related application research with NEC, Japan, and NTT, Japan. She has a good number of publi- cations to her credit in international journals, conferences, and books. Her research interests include Mobile Computing, Distributed and Trust Computing, Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks, Information-Centric Networking and SDN. She is a Member of the IEEE. Debashis Das is currently working as a university research scholar at Kalyani University, India. He completed the M Tech in CSE from Kalyani Government Engineering College, India. He also completed B Tech in CSE from the Government College of Engineering and Leather Technology. His fascinating research areas are Cloud Computing, IoT, and Applications of Blockchain. He is currently engaged in broad research on blockchain applications. Sajal K. Das is a professor of computer science and the Daniel St. Clair Endowed Chair at the Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA, where he was the Chair of Computer Science De- partment from 2013–2017. He served the NSF as a Program Director in the Computer Networks and Systems division during 2008–2011. Prior to 2013, he was a University Distinguished Scholar Professor of CSE and founding director of the Center for Research in Wireless Mobility and Networking at the University of Texas at Arlington. His research interests include Wireless and Sensor Networks, Mobile and Pervasive Computing, Mobile Crowdsensing, CPS and IoT, Smart Environments
- 38. Contributors xxxiii (e.g., smart city, smart grid, smart transportation, and smart health care), Distributed and Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, Biological and Social Networks, and Applied Graph Theory and Game Theory. He has published extensively in these areas with over 700 research articles in high quality journals and refereed conference proceedings. Dr Das holds 5 US patents and co-authored four books – Smart Environments: Technol- ogy, Protocols, and Applications (John Wiley, 2005), Handbook on Secur- ing Cyber-Physical Critical Infrastructure: Foundations and Challenges (Morgan Kauffman, 2012), Mobile Agents in Distributed Computing and Networking (Wiley, 2012), and Principles of Cyber-Physical Systems: An Interdisciplinary Approach (Cambridge University Press, 2020). His h- index is 85 with more than 31,500 citations according to Google Scholar. He is a recipient of 10 Best Paper Awards at prestigious conferences like ACM MobiCom and IEEE PerCom, and numerous awards for teaching, mentoring, and research, including the IEEE Computer Society’s Tech- nical Achievement Award for pioneering contributions to sensor networks and mobile computing, and University of Missouri System President’s Award for Sustained Career Excellence. Dr Das serves as the founding Editor-in-Chief of Elsevier’s Pervasive and Mobile Computing Journal, and as associate editor of several journals including IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, and ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks. He is an IEEE Fellow. Abel O. Gomez Rivera is a research assistant in computer science at The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), Texas, USA, and is work- ing toward the PhD degree in computer science at UTEP, where his dissertation focus is toward developing a blockchain empowered plat- form for identity management and process integrity for sensors in fossil power plants. Prior to that he was a Service Information Developer II at DXC Technology. He received his MSc degree in software engineering from UTEP in 2018. His research interests include Identity Management Mechanisms, Physical Unclonable Functions, Blockchain, Secure Com- munication Protocols, Internet of Battlefield Things, and CPS. Houssem Mansouri received his engineering degree in computer sci- ence from the University of Farhat Abbes, Sétif, Algeria, in 2004, and his masters and PhD, both in computer science, from the University of Ab- derrahmane Mira, Bejaia, Algeria, in 2007 and 2015, respectively. He is working as an associate professor at the Computer Science Department,
- 39. xxxiv Contributors Faculty of Sciences, Ferhat Abbas Sétif University 1, Algeria. Sétif. His research interests are Fault Tolerance Techniques for Distributed Sys- tems in Mobile and Ad Hoc Networks. Jimson Mathew received his master’s degree in computer engineering from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, and PhD in com- puter engineering from the University of Bristol, Bristol, UK., Currently, he is the head of the CSE Department, IIT Patna, India. He is also an Honorary Visiting Fellow with the Department of CSE, University of Bristol. He has held positions with the Centre for Wireless Communi- cations, National University of Singapore; Bell Laboratories Research Lucent Technologies North Ryde, Australia; Royal Institute of Technol- ogy KTH, Stockholm, Sweden; and Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, United Kingdom. His research interests include Fault-Tolerant Computing, Computer Arithmetic, Hardware Security, VLSI Design and Automation, and Design of Nano-Scale Circuits and Systems. Alessio Merlo received his PhD in computer science in 2010 and he is currently serving as a senior (tenured) assistant professor at the Uni- versity of Genoa. His main research interests focus on Mobile and IoT Security, and he leads the Mobile Security research group at the Uni- versity of Genoa. He has published more than 100 scientific papers in international conferences and journals. Aiswarya S. Nair is a doctoral research scholar at the Centre for Research and Innovation in Cyber Threat Resilience (CRICTR), Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management-Kerala (IIITM-K), India. She received her MTech degree in Embedded Systems from Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Coimbatore, India, in 2012 and BTech in Electronics and Communication from Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India, in 2010. Her research interests in- clude IoT, Cybersecurity, and Embedded System Design. Ajay Pratap is an assistant professor with the Department of CSE, National Institute of Technology Karnataka (NITK), Surathkal, India. Before joining the NITK, he was a postdoctoral researcher at the De- partment of Computer Science, Missouri University of Science and Tech- nology, Rolla, Missouri, USA, from August 2018 to December 2019. He completed his PhD in computer science and engineering from IIT, Patna,
- 40. Contributors xxxv India, in July 2018; MTech in CSE from IIIT Bhubaneswar, India, in 2014; and BTech in CSE from Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Luc- know, India, in 2011. His research interests include QoS level issues at the MAC layer, resource allocation, and algorithm design for next-generation advanced wireless networks. His current work is related to HetNet, Small Cells, Fog Computing, IoT, and D2D communication underlaying cellu- lar 5G and beyond. Madhukrishna Priyadarsini is currently pursuing her PhD in the Department of CSE in IIT, Bhubaneswar, India. Her current work in- cludes Computer Network Management, SDN, and Security Issues in SDN. She is also interested in Image Processing and Game Theoretical Approaches. She is an active IEEE student member and has organized certain workshops in real-time implications of SDN. Sree Ranjani Rajendran is a postdoctoral researcher in RISE Lab, Department of CSE, IIT Madras, India. She received her PhD from Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India. She is a passionately curious researcher, in pursuit of knowledge and expertise in the broader domain of Hardware Security, with specific interest in “Design for a se- cured hardware.” She completed her internship in the research project titled “Design and Implementation of Trojan checker circuit for Hard- ware Security,” sponsored by Microsoft Research India, undertaken in the Department of CSE of IIT KGP. She also completed “Hardware Security” (Grade: 91.5%) from the University of Maryland in Cours- era. She has more than 9 years of professional experience in research and university teaching. She received a best paper award for her pa- per titled “A Novel Logical Locking Technique against Key-Guessing Attacks” and third prize in VLSID 2019 design contest for the project titled “IoT based Smart Vehicle Automation and Control with Enhanced Safety, Security and Tracking System using Wireless Sensors Networks.” Her broader area of interest includes VLSI Testing; Hardware Verifica- tion; Hardware Security and Trust, with emphasis on anti-counterfeiting, anti-Trojan, authentication, and anti-piracy solutions. She has authored about 20+ research articles published in refereed conference proceedings and renowned journal publications. Her research impact is 57+ citations and h-index is 3. She has been a member of IEEE since 2016. Pranesh Santikellur is currently a PhD student in the Department of CSE, IIT Kharagpur, India, under the guidance of Dr Rajat Subhra
- 41. xxxvi Contributors Chakraborthy. He received his BE degree in CSE from SDM College of Engineering and Technology, Dharwad (India) in 2010. He worked as “Firmware Engineer” with a total of 6 years of industry experience at Horner Engineering India, Bangalore and Processor Systems, Bangalore. His research interests include Deep Learning, Hardware Security, Net- work Security, and PLC Automation. Ravi Sharma is currently a research scholar with the Department of CSE at IIT Jodhpur, India. His work is oriented towards designing multi- objective optimization strategies for Indoor Beacon Placement Problems. From January to March 2020, he has worked as a senior project engineer in IIT Kanpur, India. From July 2013 to May 2014, he was also a visiting assistant professor with the Department of CSE, The LNMIIT Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. He received his master’s degree (MTech) in 2013 from IIT Kanpur and graduate degree (BTech) in 2010 from KIIT University, India. He is a recipient of travel awards by Microsoft Research India, IEEE COMSOC, ACM SIGBED, and COMSNETS India for presenting his research at international and national venues. Sachin Shetty is an associate professor in the Virginia Modeling, Anal- ysis and Simulation Center at Old Dominion University (ODU), Nor- folk, Virginia, USA. He holds a joint appointment with the Department of Modeling, Simulation, and Visualization Engineering and the Cen- ter for Cybersecurity Education and Research. He received his PhD in Modeling and Simulation from ODU in 2007 under the supervision of Prof. Min Song. Prior to joining ODU, he was an associate professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at Tennessee State University, Nashville, USA. He was also the associate director of the Tennessee Interdisciplinary Graduate Engineering Research Institute and directed the CyberSecurity laboratory at Tennessee State Univer- sity. He also holds a dual appointment as an engineer at the Naval Sur- face Warfare Center, Crane, Indiana. His research interests lie at the intersection of Computer Networking, Network Security, and Machine Learning. His laboratory conducts cloud and mobile security research and has received over $10 million in funding from the National Science Foundation, Air Office of Scientific Research, Air Force Research Lab, Office of Naval Research, Department of Homeland Security, and Boeing. He is the site lead on the DoD CyberSecurity Center of Excellence, the Department of Homeland Security National Center of Excellence, the Critical Infrastructure Resilience Institute (CIRI), and Department of
- 42. Contributors xxxvii Energy, Cyber Resilient Energy Delivery Consortium (CREDC). He has authored and co-authored over 140 research articles in journals and con- ference proceedings and two books. He is the recipient of DHS Scientific Leadership Award and has been inducted in Tennessee State University’s million-dollar club. He has served on the TPC for ACM CCS and IEEE INFOCOM. Sabu M. Thampi is a professor at IIITM, Kerala, India. His current research interests include Cognitive Computing, IoT, Biometrics, and Video Surveillance. He is currently serving as the editor for Journal of Network and Computer Applications (JNCA) and associate editor for IEEE Access. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE and ACM. Deepak Tosh is an assistant professor in computer science at The Uni- versity of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), Texas, USA. Prior to that, he was a cybersecurity researcher at the DoD Sponsored Center of Excellence in Cybersecurity, Norfolk State University (NSU), Norfolk, Virginia. His research is focused on establishing data provenance mechanisms in cloud computing in addition to addressing research challenges in the area of distributed system security, blockchain, cyber-threat information shar- ing, cyber-insurance, and Internet of Battlefield Things (IoBT). Specifi- cally, he is interested in distributed consensus models in Blockchain tech- nology, cyber-resiliency in battlefield environments, and various practical issues in cloud computing security. He received his PhD in CSE from the University of Nevada, Reno, USA, where his dissertation was focused on designing market-based models to enable cybersecurity information shar- ing among organizations, which received the Outstanding Thesis Award from the CSE Department. Luca Verderame obtained his PhD in electronic, information, robotics, and telecommunication engineering at the University of Genoa, Italy, in 2016, where he worked on mobile security. He is currently working as a post-doc research fellow at the Computer Security Laboratory (CSEC Lab), and he is also the CEO and co-founder of Talos, a cybersecurity startup and university spin-off. His research interests mainly cover infor- mation security applied, in particular, to mobile and IoT environments.
- 44. C H A P T E R 1 Wireless Localization for Smart Indoor Environments Ravi Sharma Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur Venkataramana Badarla Indian Institute of Technology Tirupati CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction 2 ................................................. 1.2 Positioning Methods 7 ........................................ 1.2.1 Transmission 7 ........................................ 1.2.1.1 Time 7 .................................... 1.2.1.2 Direction 11 ................................ 1.2.1.3 Phase 11 ................................... 1.2.2 Characteristics 11 ...................................... 1.2.2.1 Strength 11 ................................ 1.2.2.2 Channel 13 ................................. 1.2.3 Critique 13 ............................................. 1.3 Positioning Technologies 15 .................................... 1.3.1 Radio Waves 15 ........................................ 1.3.2 Sound 24 ............................................... 1.3.3 Magnetic Field 25 ...................................... 1.3.4 Visible Light 26 ........................................ 1.3.5 Vibration 26 ............................................ 1.3.6 Evaluation Metrics 27 .................................. 1.3.7 Critique 28 ............................................. 1.4 A View for Research Prospects 31 ............................. 1.5 Conclusion 35 .................................................. Note 35 ................................................................ Bibliography 35 ....................................................... 1
- 45. 2 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments tion Among the possible technologies to provide the foundation for a smart solution, Indoor Localization carries a vast applica- potential in designing automation and control systems for smart cities, buildings, and homes. Also, this decade has witnessed a mani- fold growth in the research and development over localization for the use cases such as health care, appliance control, surveillance, naviga- tion, and tracking. Due to the vast end-user availability of handheld and wearable devices having wireless communication capabilities, tech- nologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth (basic rate (BR), enhanced data rate (EDR), low energy (LE)), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and Zigbee have been a significant role player in delivering smartness to indoor spaces. With this context, this chapter begins by detailing the reader about the fundamental techniques of localization. It expands on the notable applications of indoor localization with underlying different wireless standards. A qualitative assessment of localization techniques and wireless standards for their suitability in indoor localization is also provided. This assessment is intended to serve as a guideline for readers in rationalizing the needs of their research domain. The chapter con- cludes with a prospect of upcoming and ongoing development in this domain to gyrate innovative ideas. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The development of communication technology over the past few decades has spread its roots in every aspect of human life. Facilitation of auto- mated services is no longer a concern restricted to industries due to the increasing deployment of smart electronic units and advanced ma- chinery in commercial and residential indoor environments. Several at- tempts have been made in the past to identify structural requirements and formulate solution frameworks for automating indoor building en- vironments. In the hype cycle1 of emerging technologies, it is visible that the trend of connecting things and inducing smartness in indoor environments has shown sufficient potential for innovation and upholds expectations for service provisioning. Among the possible technologies to provide a foundation for an Indoor automation system, localization carries a vast application potential. For the residential environments, the following are few of the promising use cases: • Child Care: Monitoring the health and activity of infants and kids in an indoor environment is a challenging task spanning the entire day and night cycle. A wearable device or distant sensing unit to
- 46. Wireless Localization 3 monitor and inform the vitals and activities of a child towards a hazardous situation can be of help to the family [1]. • Elderly Monitoring: Assistance in navigation and operation is a primary concern arising with the old in a domestic environment. Presence of location-aware devices with intelligent functionalities can prove to be of substance [2–8]. • Appliance Control: Maintenance of temperature conditioning in the house, controlling appliances such as washing machines and refrigerators, and adjusting illumination based on the human presence requires location-related information to automate intel- ligently. This requirement gives an open floor for localization to come into play [9–14]. • Security: Accessibility control for admission to restricted places and locating security breaches require precise positioning and tracking methods. Safeguarding against theft and planning for emergencies can be assisted with location-based services [15–18]. Similarly, non-residential infrastructures, where horizontal and vertical constructions are frequent, present additional spatial requirements for automation [19,20]. In such environments, resource and service provi- sioning [21–25] is of great concern due to the underlying cost [26–29]. This requires support of optimization techniques to achieve efficient op- eration goals such as energy conservation. In the following, we present a few use cases that demonstrate the applicability of indoor localization for commercial and public spaces: • Occupancy Analysis: Conserving electric energy is of great concern for commercial environments. Activities of employees and assisting appliances trigger continuous electricity consumption at times, raising the need for optimal energy usage frameworks. Such intelligent techniques require knowledge about occupants in the space of consideration. Localization can be useful in identifying and locating the inhabitants for objectives such as automated lighting control and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) [30–33]. • Patient Monitoring: Recording and monitoring the vitals and activities of a patient in a medical facility are of high impor- tance for doctors and nursing staff. This requires the dissemi- nation of accurate information in real time. Hence, detection of
- 47. 4 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments critical conditions and informing them to the relevant available nursing stations or doctors can be of great help with location-based information [34–40]. • Assisting Handicapped: For a person with physical disability, espe- cially with vision impairment, the assist of a localization system for identification, navigation, and interaction can turn out to be of great help [41–43]. • Underground Locations: Establishments such as mineral mines require a lot of human and machine mobility in challenging environmental conditions. The location information in the form of applications, delivering digitized maps and navigation assistance, can be of great help for the workers and machinery deployed in such depths [44–53]. • Surveillance: Defence establishments and government organiza- tions of high importance require a robust service framework for monitoring every private entity without fail. Hence, positioning and tracking based applications can play a vital role in such sce- narios [54–61]. The above description explains the motivation behind the need for in- door localization solutions. The concept of an indoor localization sys- tem is bound to be formed upon the implementation of positioning methods. Past researches in this regard have experimented localization with technologies such as Radio communication standards, Visible Light, Magnetic Field, Vibration, Sound, and Inertial sensors deployed with suitable algorithms for position estimation. Each implementation of a localization solution can be segregated into two parts, namely method and technology. Methods of positioning are mostly algorithms, built to work on the technologies as mentioned above. They can be categorized into the following two types depending on the metric of observation undertaken: • Transmission: The usual parameters associated with this type of method are time of transmission, angle of arrival (AoA), and phase of arrival (PoA). • Characteristic: This division utilizes the signal strength and channel information of the underlying communication method to localize.
- 48. Wireless Localization 5 The earlier efforts in summarizing the positioning technologies have adopted different perspectives. The literature by Mao et al. [62] presents localization techniques for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). They clas- sified the localization algorithms based on the number of hops, i.e., single or multi-hop, and further investigated the underlying approaches from the connectivity and distance-based categorization. Liu et al. [63] categorized the positioning methods by underlying estimation techniques based on triangulation, scene analysis, and proximity. They presented the performance evaluation metrics for a localization approach to be accuracy, precision, complexity, scalability, robustness, and cost. Their analysis concluded with the juxtaposition of the then existing wireless localization solutions in reference to aforementioned metrics. Gu et al. [64] have presented a systematic comparison of 17 commercial and research based solution for indoor positioning. They have analyzed the methods and technologies used for position measure- ments and proposed evaluation criteria to be security and privacy, cost, performance, robustness, complexity, user preference, commercial avail- ability, and limitations. Similar to Liu et al. [63], Farid et al. [65] have presented three main categories of positioning measurements along with further dividing of the triangulation-based methods to be based on di- rection and distance. They presented the performance evaluation metrics to be accuracy, responsiveness, coverage, adaptiveness, scalability, cost and complexity of the positioning system. Their analysis considered the positioning technologies to be of four types, namely Global Positioning, Infra-red, Radio frequency, and Ultrasound. A comparative analysis of methods and systems based on multiple metrics is also presented. Mainetti et al. [66] have reviewed the enabling technologies for posi- tioning from the objective of tracking animal in an indoor environment. They have presented a comparison among the wireless and vision based techniques and proposed a hybrid approach. Iliev et al. [67] have pre- sented a detailed analysis of localization algorithms and implementation with an intention to foster low-power WSNs. They divided the algo- rithms into two categories, namely centralized and distributed, which utilize machine learning techniques for learning and classification. Also, their literature presents a combined review of methods and communi- cation technologies falling under two major categories of interferomet- ric and non-interferometric. It also presents a layered architecture for localization from the algorithmic point of view comprising three layers, namely application, location discovery, and physical layer. This approach lacks a system outlook of communication technology.
- 49. 6 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments Dwiyasa et al. [68] have presented three categories of positioning methods based on different parameters calculated: power, time, and an- gle. Further they demonstrated parametric and non-parametric models for utilizing these parameter values to result in location estimates. Over the past few decades, based on the technologies used in differ- ent application domains for positioning and navigation such as global positioning system (GPS), Laser Scanning, and Radio Frequencies, as referenced in Figure 1.1, it is quite a clear notion by now that each ap- proach has its limitations of accuracy and coverage. Thus, rationalizing a hybrid solution seems justifiable in every sense. With this brief overview of the domain, the rest of the chapter is structured as follows: A categorical explanation of the positioning methods which form the core of any localization technique is presented in Section 1.2. Section 1.3 surveys the technologies used for localization and describes the underlying methodologies. At the end of Sections 1.2 and 1.3 each, we critically analyze the methods and technologies respec- tively with their limitations and opportunities. A suitability analysis of localization methods and technologies for different indoor environments is presented in Section 1.4. The chapter concludes in Section 1.5 with the summary of its contributions with future directions. Figure 1.1 Limitations with classical positioning technologies.
- 50. Wireless Localization 7 1.2 POSITIONING METHODS This section is intended to classify the mathematical foundation of positioning. As mentioned earlier, all the forms of communication tech- niques utilized for positioning require a medium which is essentially a wave signal. A transmitter and receiver can communicate via a signal by observing its physical attributes or modifying its characteristic prop- erties. In other words, for positioning purposes, a communication signal can be analyzed to provide transmission related observations such as time, direction, and phase or its strength and channel characteristics. To process above gathered data two types of approaches are generally followed, namely absolute and relative. Following is the description of the two: • Absolute: These methods approach to calculate the coordinates of the location under observation with reference to the system’s primary coordinate system, which is then mapped to the relevant location information. • Relative: In case of a hybrid environment or due to the limitation of infrastructure, these approaches calculate the location of the position by classifying the signal strength measurements to result in relative location information. These methods typically deploy machine learning and probabilistic approaches over the raw obser- vations. In the following subsection, a categorized description of various position- ing methods used for localization have been explained with their funda- mental methodology. Figure 1.2 presents the categorical classification of positioning methods. 1.2.1 Transmission This category concerns with calculating the position estimate of re- quested location based on the to and fro communication between service points and users. Following are the major categories for transmission- based approaches: 1.2.1.1 Time Methods that calculate time as a parameter of observation for posi- tioning are typically researched with the titles of Time of Flight (ToF) [69], Time of Arrival (ToA) [70], Round Trip Time (RTT) [71], and
- 51. 8 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments Figure 1.2 Categories of positioning methods with examples. Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) [72,73]. Position computation by these methods utilizes the fundamental equation of distance = time × velocity for ranging in combination with multilateration. Further, we cat- egorize these methods based on the type of measurements undertaken, namely Direct and Difference. • Direct: ToA/ToF method typically involves the two ends of communication to be time synchronized as represented in Figure 1.3. In these methods, the time of transmission start is embedded in the signal, which upon reception at the receiver side is used to compute the duration of flight. This information is used to calculate the distance between the two nodes. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 1.4, RTT approach doesn’t require time synchronization. The signal is intended to be transmitted to target receiver and returned back, which gives the total raw RTT informa- tion at the sending reference station. Also, the packet processing at the target and other protocol overhead delays must be sub- tracted from the raw RTT to calculate the effective transmission time which can further be converted to distance measurements. The two types of methods explained above have their intrinsic pros and cons as listed in the following:
- 52. Wireless Localization 9 Figure 1.3 An example representation of time synchronization between stations in ToA/ToF methods. The times of signal transmission, i.e., T1, T2, T3, from reference stations to target along with the speed of sig- nal c is used to formulate the system of range equations by calculat- ing Euclidean distances. This system is solved for target coordinates by methods such as multilateration. Figure 1.4 An example representation of methods involving RTT calcula- tion of packet transmission. A single clock at reference station minimizes the effort in synchronization, though, the amount of packet processing at target must be calculated/calibrated. – Synchronization: ToF or ToA methods are efficient in terms of avoiding consecutive propagation of a signal as it happens in RTT, though the overhead of synchronization is there. Sensor networks of high density and population are prone to latency and demand high precision in synchronization to avoid error propagation. Moreover, the overhead of keeping two clocks at both the receiving and sending sides increases with the sensor count, which is absent in the RTT approach.
- 53. 10 Internet of Things and Secure Smart Environments – Dynamic Nodes: Computing RTT at multiple devices in par- allel can induce unwanted delays, which gets even severe in case of moving sensor nodes. Though the effect of multiple simultaneous calculation gets mitigated while choosing ToA calculation over RTT due to one way communication at the cost of time synchronization among sensor nodes. • Difference: TDoA method doesn’t require the time synchronization between the sender and the receiver. Rather, a signal originating from an unknown clocked target T gets delivered to mutually synchronized reference stations Ri, ∀i = 1..n. From this, the time difference of signal arrival can be formulated as a difference in distance measurements of each (T, Ri) pair. This removes the requirement of users to be synchronized with the communication infrastructure. From here, as shown in Figure 1.5, the system of parabolic equations 2 di,j = ||T − Ri|| − ||T − Rj||, ∀i, j = 1..n, can be solved using methods such as linearization and regression for the unknown target location. The issue of synchronization among the reference stations can be mitigated by managing the choice of precision of synchronization among the hierarchy of the installed infrastructure. Figure 1.5 An example representation of a TDoA method where difference in arrival times of signals on reference stations from the target is used to formulate range equations solved for target coordinates.
- 54. Wireless Localization 11 1.2.1.2 Direction Directional methods involve calculation of angular position of an un- known transmitting node by relative geometric angular measurements of known receiving antennas. These approaches usually implement ad- ditional array of antennas to improve positional accuracy. Direction of Arrival (DoA) [74] and AoA [75–77] are frequently used names for the methods falling in this category. These methods are often implemented along with the TDoA method between the antenna array to improve the location accuracy. As a variation of this approach, angular measure- ments can also be carried out using a microphone array to localize by sound waves. The practical implementation of this methodology gets limited by its design requirement of multiple antennas. Also, the spa- tial separation among the antennas makes it an unworthy candidate when space and cost requirement for additional hardware are limiting factors. 1.2.1.3 Phase Phase-based localization has been attempted with either PoA [78,79] or Phase Difference of Arrival (PDoA) [80] techniques. In both cases a sinusoidal model relating the phase and the distance is assumed. As shown in Figure 1.6, in PoA approach, an unknown node transmits a signal to multiple receivers with known locations available in its proximity. Upon reception of the signal, based on the signal model, the location is resolved via multiple observations collected by different re- ceivers. On the other hand, in PDoA, a source transmits two signals to the receiver having slight offset in time. On the arrival of the signal at the receiver, the PDoA in conjunction with the signal model concludes the location. Though effective, these methods involve the overhead of computation and additional hardware. 1.2.2 Characteristics 1.2.2.1 Strength The methods of this domain have been most researched of all the localization approaches. Received Signal Strength (RSS) of a transmis- sion from an unknown sender to a known receiver is the fundamental of all the calculations herein. One of the two approaches of RSS mea- surements assumes a path loss model for the signal transmission and later utilizes triangulation, lateration, or neighborhood algorithms to
- 55. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 56. I did think of it in fact, because I knew I could give him a run for his money, but America, I recollected, was noted for its telephone service and I couldn't quite fancy having to resort to a hiding-place near the banks of the Ohio or perchance a field of corn somewhere in Indiana. So I followed them down to the corner. We stopped at a small wooden shanty on the door of which was a board bearing the sign Daniel S. Tomkin, Attorney-at-Law. My friend the speed cop pushed open the door and ushered me into a passage. On the right was another marked Justice Tomkin. Come in: come in, shouted a shrill seedy voice as the cop knocked at the door. I've got a case for you, Judge, said he, when we got inside. Oh yes, oh yes!—and then to me—Take a seat, sir, please, and er —make yourself at home. I'm afraid at that juncture I began to laugh. The Judge was just the kind of man that we love to see on the pictures in England, but who we never believe really exists. I had seen his prototype dozens of times before. Tall and wiry, thin legs and tight trousers, Uncle Sam physiognomy with the usual goat's beard and with stars and stripes printed in indelible ink all over him. He sat at a desk bare of papers, books, letters or other impedimenta. How long the desk had been cleared for action I know not, but his duties as a Justice of the Peace evidently did not involve any overtime from the look of things. The room was small and dingy and its walls were covered with shelves piled with books of all colours, shapes and sizes. Judge.—And what has this gentleman been doing? Speed Cop (producing notebook and reading therefrom).—Driving a motor-cycle in excess of the legal speed limit, namely at forty-five miles an hour.
- 57. Judge (after reaching from a bookcase a large red book marked Laws, Bye-Laws and Regulations existent in the State of Maryland, or words to that effect).—I will proceed to read Statoot number 51, article 13, section 321b, subsection 2a of the 'Regulation of Traffic in the State of Maryland Act, 1898.'—(Submerged chuckle from self) —And it is hereby enacted that anyone found guilty of exceeding 25 miles per hour but not exceeding 30 miles per hour will be liable to a fine of not less than 5 dollars for the first offence and of 50 dollars for a second and any subsequent offence; and anyone found guilty of exceeding 30 miles an hour but not exceeding 35 miles per hour will be liable to a fine of not less than 10 dollars for the first offence, etc., etc.; and anyone found guilty of exceeding 35 miles per hour but not exceeding 45 miles per hour will be liable to a fine of not less than 25 dollars for the first offence, etc., etc.—(Considerable amusement visible on the face of self)—and anyone found guilty of exceeding 60 miles per hour will be liable to a fine of 100 dollars, etc., etc.—(Feeling of merriment subsides)—but anyone found guilty of exceeding 60 miles per hour will be liable to a fine of 250 dollars for the first offence and of 1,000 dollars and imprisonment for any subsequent offence. I am afraid, sir, in view of the evidence and of the dictates of Statoot number 51, article 13, section—etc., etc., I shall have to administer the minimum fine of 25 dollars. (I breathe again). Self.—Say, Judge, we seem to have got a bit ahead, don't we? Aren't I going to have a chance to say anything? Judge (a little peeved. Evidently that aspect of the case hadn't occurred to him).—By all means, sir, by all means. Say jest what you like. Now I have neither the eloquence of a Disraeli nor the declamation of a Demosthenes, but I do claim to have no small power of persuasion when it comes to an argument or a question of opinion. So I mustered up every effort and summoned every resource to convince this malevolent Judge that he had been reading his Statoots upside down and that, far from being incriminated, I
- 58. should, on the contrary, be granted a handsome award. I invoked the aid of every artifice known to humanity. Every inflexion of the voice; every modulation of speech; every appeal for sympathy, innocence, ignorance and youth known to me was conjured up. And to what purpose? Did the Judge budge?—I might as well have read him Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in five minutes for all the good it did. I am very sorry, sir, he said, but the Statoot says that the minimum fine is 25 dollars, so it must be 25 dollars. But, my dear good Judge, said I, I've only got about 25 dollars in the world at the present moment. Well, I'm very sorry, but the fine is 25 dollars—(and then an afterthought)—Oh! and costs as well. Costs! I gasped in amazement. Yes, my costs will be 75 cents, and that makes 25 dollars 75 cents altogether. Then ensued more argument, more persuasion, more eloquence, more appeals, but it was all in vain. I took out my wallet and counted out my belongings. I had just 25 dollars and a few odd bits. And then the humour of the situation appealed to me once more, and stronger than ever before. I laughed at the Cop and I laughed at the Judge and I laughed at myself for laughing and paid over the 25 dollars 75 cents. Thank you very much. Good-day, sir, said the Judge as he put the bucks loosely in the drawer in his desk. Here the Cop spoke up: I have another charge against the defendant, of riding without his registration certificate, but it's getting late, and I think we might as well overlook it in view of the
- 59. circumstances. (He was evidently thinking of his girl waiting outside.) I suggested it would be as well and left the Judge to gloat over his ill-gotten gains. The idea of that goat-faced Judge and his sleek-eyed friend the speed cop having a good dinner together at my expense did not appeal to my better self. How was I going to travel 450 miles, buy petrol, oil and food with about tenpence in my pocket? On the opposite side of the road stood Lizzie with her carrier piled high and dusty, waiting, patiently waiting, for her lord and master. Ah, pathetic sight!—An idea—I return to the sanctum of the Attorney- at-Law. He was counting over the notes again. Say, Judge. S'posing you give me those notes back again. What'll it mean in imprisonment? I had always since childhood cherished a wild desire to spend a night in prison. The Statoot stipulates that there will be an equivalent of one day's imprisonment for every dollar fine. (Depths of despair once more, then enlightenment.) Can you show me the statute that says that? Sure, and he reached for the volume. All right, don't bother, said I, and left him once more to count his 25 dollars 75 cents. Somehow I couldn't help laughing at everything. Such interesting sidelights into the workings of the ragtime laws of America are not met with every day of the year, I mused. But what fun to be all alone in America with nothing but a motor-bike and tenpence! I guess the Judge was wondering what I was laughing at as he watched me through the fly-net at his window while I kicked the engine to a roar and rode away. Truth to tell, I didn't quite know myself.
- 60. I was wondering when the petrol would give out.
- 61. CHAPTER V ACROSS THE ALLEGHANIES Strange to say, I felt not the slightest bit peeved about this occurrence, but facts have to be faced, and anyone who has ever found himself in a strange land 4,000 miles from home, with a motor-bike and tenpence, will agree that something has got to be done about it sooner or later. All sorts of ways and means of making money quickly—the eternal problem!—occurred to me, but I dismissed them all for one reason or another. I could hold up the next car I passed and shoot the occupants after relieving them of their surplus cash. But that I thought was a distasteful way of getting money. I had seen it done in the movies, but decided to leave that modus operandi for a last extremity. What was it to be—a week's work or trading away the watch? I pondered. I got very little inspiration from my surroundings on a problem of such moment. Instead I was exhorted at almost every hundred yards to Say it with flowers or to Chew our famous Smello'mint Gum. A huge yellow sign would then loom in sight bearing the legend Playtime Biscuit. Every mile or so would appear another and more ominous inscription, Sell it and buy a Ford. For all internal ailments 'Kewrit' is the Sovereign remedy, blurted forth another placard. The Sovereign remedy, I mused.—But say! What was that? The Sovereign remedy?—Inspiration at last. Lizzie's throttle seemed to close its eyes with a snap. The brakes went on of a sudden and in a few moments I was taking off my tunic at the roadside. The memory had dawned upon me of a kind sister sewing some golden sovereigns in the lining of the belt of that very same tunic months ago way back in good old Brum. She had no doubt imagined me falling into the hands of Mexican bandits at some
- 62. period in my peregrinations. At first I remembered I had protested against such a seemingly unnecessary precaution. Thank Heaven that argument against a woman is never of any avail! I searched and I found; a few stitches carefully removed with a pocket-knife revealed two glittering yellow boys to my anxious gaze. On we sped once again, bounding, spinning ever faster onward. Truly we toiled not, but we sure did spin. If the sky was blue, it was bluer than ever before. If the road had been good, 'twas never so good as now. Refreshing breezes rolled down from the hills; sweet vistas sprang into sight; charming dells and streamlets flitted by, and never did the call of nature sound so strong. And all because of two forgotten coins. Hagerstown hardly welcomed me with open arms. A fair-sized, prosperous little town, it boasted a tramway service and two banks. My heart went not forth in joy at the contemplation of the tramway service. It did at the sight of the banks. Dusty, dishevelled, and of dilapidated attire, I leant Lizzie up against the kerb and mounted the marble steps of the First National Bank. The massive swing-doors frowned back as they squeaked and groaned to my command. I stood in the midst of a gilded palace replete with austere-looking deities in white shirt-sleeves behind marble counters and fancy-work grids. Nothing daunted, I flicked my precious sovereigns on the counter before the very quintessence of immaculate manhood with a Change those, please as if it were the kind of thing I did every day of my life. Once upon a time I had often with swelling pride expanded my chest at the thought of a British sovereign being honoured in every country of the world and any corner of the globe. I had reckoned without Hagerstown. It seemed that the austere-looking deity before referred to was not at all impressed by my view of the situation. It must have been the personal tout ensemble that put him on his
- 63. guard. He might oblige me by sending it along to New York to the Head Office, he said. Couldn't wait a couple of days? he supposed. It was no use. He didn't like my face and didn't want my gold. I scraped the dirt from my boots on his marble steps and crossed the road to the Incorporated Bank of Holland. After conducting a lengthy battle of argument and exhortation with all the clerks in succession and all to no avail, I began to realize that British currency was of no more worth than the little sea-shells that in the earliest days of trade were supposed to be used by the enterprising natives of prehistoric communities. With a gallant show of indignation I demanded that the manager be produced forthwith. Strange to say, he appeared. I took him on one side and into my confidence. Look here, old man, quoth I, I'm in a bit of a hole. All your worthy satellites here think I'm a sort of cross between a rubberneck and a highway robber. Fact is, I've been rushed for speeding at the last village and I've only got two sovereigns to take me to Cincinnati. Now don't tell me you won't change them. Whereupon he looked warily at me and then at the gold, examining it minutely. Guess I might fix it for you, but just hang on a minute till I can get some one to identify them. We never see such things as these, y'know. In a few minutes he returned with an accomplice, who glared with amazement at the coins as they lay on the counter. Gor' blimey! said he, don't that do yer blinkin' eyes good! Strike me pink, an' you've brought these ole yallerboys orl the way from England? and he picked them up reverently and gloated over their merry chinkle as he dropped them again on the counter. Lor', I've spent many a one on 'em! How much d'ye want for them, gev'nor? Four dollars eighty each, I replied. Done! Pass him the 'oof, boss. Nuthin' wrong wi' them.
- 64. Verily is it said that music hath charms for the savage breast. Once again Lizzie burst into a roar, and once again I turned her nose to the west. Music? That Cockney's dialect seemed like a wonderful fragrant melody pealing forth through the strains of a ponderous fugue. It was like a sudden rift in the thunderclouds through which burst a cheering shaft of sunlight. It was sacrilege even to think of those nine paper dollars that I had thrust so anxiously into my hip-pocket. Thank Heaven there is at least one spot in the U.S.A. where the King's English is spoken undefiled, I murmured to myself. The road to Cumberland was good going. We had now to commence crossing the Alleghany Mountains. This wonderful range, which also goes by the name of the Appalachians, has, in my opinion, no rival in the American Rockies as regards the loveliness of its scenery and the infinite variations of colour of its slopes. The best scenery in the world, sir, an American would say, and he would not be so very far wrong either. Perhaps its heights are not so majestic as those of the Rockies; there may be no glaciers on its slopes nor crests of eternal glistening white on its peaks, but there is an unparalleled wealth of natural beauty in the blue and purple pine forests of its less aspiring heights and the myriad glistening streams and rivers that find their source in the thickly-wooded foothills clustering around its borders. Cumberland is a comparatively large town in the middle of the hills and is well named. Undoubtedly the surrounding district reminded the early settlers so forcibly of our own lake district that they were inspired to perpetuate its memory, as they have done in so many other districts, towns and rivers in the far-eastern or New England States. Although the descent from the mountains was in places almost precipitous, the road was excellent, and excepting the concrete boulevards of California, afforded undoubtedly the best running that I met in the whole country. Although I stopped several
- 65. times for considerable periods to allow the brakes to cool, there was nothing left of the brake-linings when ultimately I arrived in Cumberland, where I ministered adequate and well-earned refreshment to the inner man of both Lizzie and myself. The road now lay clear of obstructions ahead and led over undulating country for several hundred miles. Once more thoughts of Cincinnati in the distance with a vague anticipation of something approaching England, Home and Beauty—and money as well— occupied the hours as we sped along, leaving the mile-posts quickly behind us. In places travelling was good. In places it was distinctly bad. Here and there were stretches of several miles of brick road, and now and then would reappear our old friend the Natural Gravel, that so much conspired to make life on two wheels not worth living. At times even that provided quite a respectable surface. My firm intentions not to be baulked in my aim to reach Cincinnati next day, however, kept up the pace even if to our mutual discomfort, and made the going good. At Uniontown, about seventy-five miles past Cumberland, various trivial little knocks and rattles in the engine disturbed my peace of mind. The speedometer registered only about 800 miles, and I had hardly expected to commence tightening things internally at that stage. A little farther on and one cylinder, after a few peremptory misfires, gave up the ghost altogether, and I proceeded a few miles on three only. I changed the sparking plug, hoping for better results, but in vain. After a few more miles I tried another plug and then another, but always with the same result. After travelling a few dozen miles in this unsatisfactory manner, I put Lizzie once again on her stand. This time I examined closely and found the valves, tappets and clearances all in good condition. There was apparently nothing wrong with the ignition either, or the carburettor, and there seemed no reason at all why such a trouble should arise— particularly, I reflected, as I was anxious to lose no valuable time. On trying still another plug out of one of the other cylinders and finding that No. 1 was still obstinate, I got on again, determined to
- 66. do the journey on three cylinders only. I found I could touch well over forty-five even at that, so after all there wasn't much to complain about. Every motorist, however, who has a regard for his engine and can sense the moral fitness of even running and good rhythm will understand that travelling under such circumstances is decidedly unpleasant and monotonous. At Waynesburg I passed Pittsburg some miles to the right, the Birmingham of America, the centre of a huge coal and iron industry and, next to Philadelphia, the largest town in Pennsylvania. A few miles farther on, and I crossed the borderline and entered West Virginia once again. It was now quite dark and I had to pick out the road as best I could by my headlight. I was getting tired and was very hungry, not having had anything to eat for ten hours. After half an hour the headlight flickered and went out, leaving me with only a dimmer, as the Americans call the small auxiliary light, with which to keep on the road and find the way. The engine, which before sounded pretty loose, now emitted noises signifying extreme agony of mind. Then a thick ground mist settled over everything, making it next to impossible to keep on the road at all, much less to keep on the right one. Occasionally I dismounted in an endeavour to bring the headlight back to life. Frequently I narrowly avoided being run down by large cars with powerful searchlights that couldn't see me at all. It generally meant pulling into the side of the road, getting off and waving my arms frantically to signify my presence. Between time I got more hungry and more tired, and kept asking myself the same question, Why, oh why did I leave England? The answer always came: Search me! Shortly before midnight I reached the small town of Moundsville, on the Ohio River and on the borders of West Virginia and Ohio. Every shop in the place was closed except that of a corpulent Italian dealer in bananas, oranges and ice-cream sodas. I entered his door with thanksgiving. The worthy proprietor scrutinized me open- mouthed. Finally he gave it up. I could see he had been wondering to himself, What is this thing, and whence came it? I sat on the
- 67. counter in his presence and consumed three ice-cream sodas, four bananas and two oranges. After witnessing their consumption, he let drop his bottom jaw and ventured, Whare yer from? Doanchew worry your old think-box about where I'm from, brother, but just tell me where I'm goin'. I wonna get to Cincinnati. Now for the love of Mike don't tell me I'm not on the right road. His jaw dropped through a further angle of ten degrees. Finally he volunteered the information that I was miles and miles from the road to Cincinnati, and that he hadn't the goldarnest notion how I should ever get back on it again. In disgust I filled my pockets with bananas and oranges and presented one more ice-cream soda to the minister for the interior and quitted his establishment. My next duty was to find somewhere to lay my weary head. I decided to choose a spot where water was convenient, so that I could wash in the morning. The river was quite inaccessible from the road and the only places where there chanced to be a stream were infested with frogs and mosquitoes. After a half-hour of weary searching and climbing of long winding hills in the thick damp fog, I eventually gave it up in disgust. I found an open space at the roadside sheltered by a few trees, and here laid down my rainproof coat with the thick blanket doubled on top of it, and with my suit- case as a pillow, soon convinced myself that I was comfortably settled down for sleep. In a few minutes I was well in the land of dreams. I dreamed that I was journeying to the North Pole on a twelve-cylinder Ford which went so fast that it melted the ice as it passed and ultimately crashed into the Pole at such a terrific velocity that the equilibrium of the earth was entirely upset, as also my own. At this point a lusty mosquito inflicted a tremendous bite on the very tip of my nose, and I woke up with a start. Then I dreamed that I had undertaken a banana-eating tournament with an army of Italians, and was just finishing off the ninety-ninth when another bite in the middle of my left eyelid brought me again to normal consciousness, and thus the night passed.
- 69. CHAPTER VI THE DIXIE HIGHWAY In the morning everything was wet with dew. The mist was disappearing quickly, and I arose refreshed in body and mind. Specialists would have prognosticated acute rheumatism. Doctors would have foretold death within forty-eight hours. But I was never so free from rheumatism as I am now; moreover, I live to tell the tale, with the probability of continued existence for several years to come. Lizzie looked disconsolate and rusty in every nut and bolt, but with a few kicks she rattled into life once more. The driver of a passing Ford informed me that I was twenty miles from the right road, which meant returning into Moundsville and crossing over the broad, muddy Ohio River, spanned by a lofty suspension bridge made almost entirely of wood. The Ohio River, once seen, is never to be forgotten. It is verily a flowing mass of dirty, yellow-brown mud. The natives of Ohio refer to it as the Golden River, I believe, but when I first made its acquaintance, I was in no mood to appreciate such poetic nomenclature. Instead I was bent on reaching Wheeling and breakfast. Wheeling was reached in a couple of hours' riding along the banks of the river. It need hardly be said that I did justice to a substantial breakfast, which put an entirely new aspect on affairs in general. I struck the main pike through to Cincinnati, and continued hopefully on three cylinders with the best of intentions of reaching it that evening, although it meant a ride of over 300 miles. I did 150 in fairly good time and reckoned on having my lunch-tea- dinner-supper meal at Columbus, the State capital, about five in the afternoon. But about twenty miles from that city a most distressing
- 70. sound arose from the engine. I had previously slackened down to a steady thirty miles an hour so as to give Lizzie the best chance of holding out over the journey. But now a series of violent thumps and bangs disturbed once and for all my hopeful frame of mind. Undoubtedly there was a big breakage somewhere and it was evidently quite impossible to continue another mile. With a final thud the engine stopped and the machine came to a standstill near a little bridge where a tiny streamlet trickled under the roadway. Near the bridge was, as might be expected, the inevitable hoarding: Sell it and buy a Ford. Strange that Fate should at times be so ironical! I made myself comfortable on a grassy slope and proceeded to take the engine down. This I soon discovered was no mean task. It took nearly three hours to remove the cylinders. Woe be unto the man hereafter who puts nuts where they cannot be loosened or places cylinders where they cannot be removed save by an Indian sword- swallower! The result of my investigations was that I found the front piston in fragments, mainly in the bottom of the crank-case. The gudgeon pin was broken in half and the connecting rod was waggling about merrily in the cylinder. All the bearings were loose, and although there was plenty of oil in the sump, one was devoid of metal altogether. This was discovered at the bottom in the form of powder. An encouraging outlook indeed! Although my motto where a refractory motor is concerned—to get it home somehow—could have been ignored, I was not even in walking distance of anywhere. There was no town or village for miles around, and only a solitary farmhouse here and there. Further, an empty stomach does not improve one's outlook on life under such circumstances, and mine was very empty. I took stock of the whole situation. What should it be? Walk to Columbus and take the train, or stick by Lizzie and get along somehow? I counted out my money. It amounted to three dollars and thirty-five cents, not even enough for the railway fare. No, I've set out to cross these infernal States on a motor-cycle, and I'll do it, I resolved, and sat down again to patch Lizzie's engine together.
- 71. The rumble of cart wheels on the brick road attracted my attention. The cart was drawn by a weary horse in the charge of a more weary driver. Hi, brother, got anything edible on board? I shouted. I gotta lot o' old boots here, he replied, evidently in ignorance of the meaning of the word edible. No, thanks, I gotta good pair of my own to start on before I come to that. Aincher got any oranges? Yep, I got one box left, four fer a quarter. Bang went seventy-five cents for a dozen, leaving me with two dollars sixty. Now, thought I, I have enough provisions to last a couple of days. Let Old Harry do his worst. The vendor of boots, furniture, and oranges went on his weary way. From a bough of a willow tree I shaped a neat gudgeon pin that fitted dead into the loose end of the connecting rod to guide it up and down in the cylinder. I fished out all the big lumps of the broken piston that remained in the crank-case and tightened up the bearings as well as I could. By the time it was dark I had everything replaced ready to start on the road once more. Before daybreak, I was up and on the road; my plan was to keep on all day at a steady twenty miles an hour and reach Cincinnati about five in the afternoon. The machine ran well considering its wooden gudgeon pin, although it was not easy to avoid being reminded continually of Lizzie's indisposition, and as time went on the rattles became worse, the clanks became gradually louder, and I began to wonder where my next stop would be. I passed through Columbus about breakfast-time, but did not stop for breakfast. There was no money for breakfasts. Now, although I did not stop at Columbus, I cannot with but a few words dismiss it entirely from consideration. Although not by any means the largest
- 72. town in Ohio, it is the State capital. That feature, as I have pointed out before, is not at all unique in the States. In fact, I do not think I could name a single State capital that is the largest town of the State, without referring to the authority of one Baedeker. Not only are there over 125,000 people in Columbus, but it appeared to me to be a very fine city. The streets are wider and are better paved than those of most American cities, and in places are illuminated by large electric arches. Although there are seven towns throughout America boasting this title (each one in a different State), I think Columbus, Ohio, must be the élite of all the Columbuses. Outside Columbus I stopped, had lunch—three oranges—and continued. There was really no necessity to stop, but I liked to feel that lunch was just as important an occasion as when it wasn't oranges. The engine was by now getting rather noisy. People who passed in cars, many of whom I had passed two days before, slowed down as they approached and looked at me wonderingly, as if to ask if I knew anything about it. They probably came to the conclusion that I was a deaf-mute. Then we got to Springfield, and a noticeable feature at the side of the road, on a special track of its own, was an electric train service connecting up all the large towns in the district, even though the distances amounted to thirty and forty miles, in some cases even fifty, as is the case between Columbus and Springfield. Perhaps I am complimenting them by referring to them as trains, as they are more in the nature of single or double-coach trams, but I was surprised not only by the speed at which they travelled, but also by the number of passengers who availed themselves of the service. In a way, the presence of that track was comforting, particularly when some new noise or rattle emanated from my thrice-weary steed. On the other hand it is distinctly humiliating to be astride a 10 h.p. motor-cycle de luxe, jogging along side-saddle (to ease the growing soreness!) at fifteen or twenty miles per hour on three crotchety cylinders, when a tram-load of disinterested Americans flies past
- 73. with a shriek at forty or fifty. Generally the driver realized the position and sounded a piercing whistle with a supercilious air, as if to say: Make way for the fast traffic, please! At Springfield the speedometer flicked off the 1,000th mile, and I branched away from the Pike's Peak Ocean-to-Ocean Highway (for such it appeared to be), and turned south-westward towards Dayton, a flourishing manufacturing and business centre. Detours and sub-detours were the order of the day and were conspicuous by their presence, as also by the general looseness and rottenness of their surface. In theory I was travelling upon the Dixie Highway, reputed (by advertisements thereon appearing) to be the finest and most luxurious highway in the States. As far as my experience was concerned, I found it paved with good intentions and bad cobblestones. Sometimes, when the paving blocks had been pulled up preparatory to new ones being laid down, the surface was tolerably good, but then would appear a detour heralded by an insolently-improvised notice-board which led the unfortunate traveller miles and miles from his appointed path and over the most disgusting road-surface imaginable. I was pleased with Dayton. As I left it behind me, I wished it prosperity. It seemed to have the right kind of air about it. A friendly policeman held up a bunch of traffic for two minutes for me while he put me wise to the road to take. He noticed my New York number- plate and finished his chat with Well, good day, brother, and the best of luck to you. I wouldn't even have killed a mosquito in Dayton! It was now well after midday. Cincinnati was still about sixty miles away. Would it be safe to have a meal in the next town? I had filled up with gas and oil in Dayton and had about fifty cents (2s.) left. With a three days' diet of oranges, I had cultivated an appetite of great latent possibilities. I determined to be rash. Next stop, I told myself, I would look around for a bakeshop.
- 74. An hour later I arrived at a little town called Lebanon. It was very small, very picturesque, and very unpretentious. But it boasted an excellent bakeshop. I leant Lizzie against the kerb outside and pressed my nose against the window-pane. The sight of all those nice cakes was almost as good as a feed—but not quite! I espied one, plain and large but tasty-looking. I valued it at twenty-five cents. Well, it'll last a long time, I thought, and entered meekly to inquire the price. Five cents, replied the lady of the counter. Done! It's mine, all of it! Long live Lebanon! A few miles out, I halted near a bridge under which ran a little stream of crystal water. It was a treat to be out of the glare of the baking sun, so I sat down on the bank underneath the bridge and settled down in earnest to a sumptuous dinner. The bill of fare was as follows:— Hors d'œuvresGâteau de Lebanon (varié). Consommé Eau Naturelle. Entrée Gâteau de Lebanon. Plat du jour Ditto. Légumes Ditto. Dessert Ditto. Wines Vin blanc d'Adam (direct from the distillery). And oh, what a meal was there, my countrymen! There was enough and to spare. The cooking was excellent, the service irreproachable, and there were no gratuities. After a leisurely half-hour I stuffed what little cake I couldn't contain into the tool-box, took one last, lingering draught from the cool crystal stream, and again kicked Lizzie into a rattle. Once more towards Cincinnati! Two hours only, now, I reminded myself, and all the trees and birds in hearing. Gradually those two
- 75. hours became shorter as mile after weary mile rattled past. Sure enough, in about the time I had reckoned the pot-holes in the road grew larger and the ruts deeper, a sure sign of approaching civilization. Then a huge signboard appeared, Cincinnati, the Queen City of the West. Make your home in Cincinnati. The Cincinnati Speedway was passed on the right, and after a couple of miles or more I struck tram-lines. The reader can well imagine how glad and relieved I felt when I spotted trams and tram- lines, those things which in normal life I rightly detest and abhor. Whereas once upon a time I considered them to be the motorist's greatest enemy, I now smiled upon them with friendly gaze. By the time I was actually on the outskirts of the town, I was baked to a frizzle. And such a thirst! For three days I had been amassing a good thirst. Ohio mud is not really a good beverage. It might perhaps put one over the near beer that I have tasted in various American towns, but that's not to be wondered at. The man who first called it near beer wasn't much of a judge of distance! Never could I remember having been so hot, so thirsty, and so fed up, all in one. I pulled up at the first drug store and literally squandered twenty-five cents in an orgy of ice-cream sodas. I took the precaution to retain ten cents, however, in case anything turned up. At about half-past four we arrived. A wealth of meaning rests in those two words. My friend Steve heard the noise as he sat reading on the verandah of 3,450 Clifton Avenue. That can't be Shep. That's somebody wheeling a lawn-mower, he said to himself without looking-up, and went on with his book. But when the lawn-mower had overrun itself and turned round and came back and continued indefinitely to lawn-mow outside the same 3,450, he looked up and saw that it was indeed a motor-cycle or, at any rate, the unmistakable remnants of one. When he saw the rider, he thought: No, that can't be Shep after all; that's the dustman.
- 76. But fact will always triumph over fiction. In the same way soap, thank Heaven, will always triumph over dirt. But what a relief to be once again in a comfortable house, that could almost be considered home, and once more to know the joys of a good hot bath and feel the luxurious embrace of clean clothes again!
- 77. CHAPTER VII CINCINNATI AND ONWARDS I spent in all twelve days in Cincinnati. They were twelve happy days; days of leisure, days of interesting experiences, followed by days of longing to be on the road again. The first of July, 1919, will live in the mind of every free-born American citizen as the day when Prohibition became law throughout the entire States. Not by design, but by coincidence, was it also the date of my departure from my friends in Cincinnati to explore the perils of the West. My sojourn there was brought to a sudden close by the astounding discovery that Lizzie's overhaul was completed. I had a few warm things to observe when I was presented with the repair bill. It amounted to a mere seventy-five dollars, half of which represented the alleged value of the somewhat indifferent labours of a more indifferent mechanic and a small boy. On the various occasions when I had visited the shop, the mechanic was generally conspicuous by his absence, and were it not for the occasional activities of the small boy, who seemed to delight in salivating at frequent intervals on every available inch of the floor surrounding Lizzie's remains, I feel inclined to think that I should even now be enjoying myself in Cincinnati. The other half of the bill represented sundry replacements which, to my way of thinking, should have been made free under the firm's guarantee, which had still three- fourths of its term to expire. After much argument, the proprietor and myself agreed to differ on this point. The early afternoon witnessed my departure. The kindly attentions of mine hostess had provided me with good things for the journey. Meat sandwiches in boxes; fresh butter in tins; fruit and nuts galore.
- 78. Little packages were squeezed in here and big ones strapped on there. Odd corners and crevices revealed an unsuspected orange or banana and hard-boiled eggs or biscuits in twos and threes lurked amongst the shirts and socks. With a light heart I spun down the beautiful, well-paved avenues that set at defiance the rigid, straight-edge avenues of more modern American cities. I hummed over the cobble-stones of the lesser streets and swung past trams and over bridges and was soon speeding along the road to Indianapolis, thinking like a true pessimist that Lizzie didn't feel as well as I had hoped, and that I should be hung up again at a not far-distant date. In America, in the east, it is the easiest thing in the world to take the wrong road. Moreover it is generally the most difficult thing to find out whether one is on the right road or not. I have no objection to make when roads in towns and villages will run either north and south or east and west, because for town life this arrangement spells efficiency. In the country, however, the raison d'être of these chess- board roads is somewhat obscure. When combined with old-time roads that originally followed goat-paths or sheep-tracks, its effect is confusing. But when taken to the extreme, and one finds the main highways connecting large cities abound with sharp right-angle turns at every few miles, sometimes going north to make up a little latitude, then continuing west, then returning south to lose the latitude gained, and afterwards continuing west again, the result is ridiculous and sometimes exasperating; very often two, three, four, or more roads run parallel and only a few yards distant, all leading to the same place. Sometimes they lead to different places. Sometimes they lead nowhere at all. Sign-posts are not popular anywhere in the United States. Instead the roads are identified by painting every third or fourth or tenth or nth telegraph pole with different colours. When properly carried out, this principle is a very commendable one, and without it travel would be absolutely impossible. But when followed only imperfectly, or when the colours become faded and
- 79. obliterated, so that one trail can be easily mistaken for another, the traveller has many troubles and trials ahead. I had ample moral consolation, therefore, for completely losing my way only ten miles out of Cincinnati, and wasted a full hour in trying to get on the right pike without going back. Incidentally the system of decorating telegraph poles in accordance with the trail they follow has its humorous side. There are, all told, over a hundred different trails or National Highways in different parts of the States, and each one is supposed to have its distinctive sign. Thus the Pike's Peak Ocean-to-Ocean Highway is identified by a circle of scarlet above a circle of white, and the Lincoln Highway by circles of red, white, and blue. Sometimes, as in the cases of the Blackhawk Trail and Mackinaw Indian Trail, the sign is of a more or less complex nature, including the profile of an Indian's head, for instance. The humour of the situation will be apparent when a single stretch of road coincides with say four or five separate trails. Each telegraph pole is truly a thing of beauty and a joy for ever, with its inscriptions, circles, squares, profiles, bales of cotton, etc., etc., painted on in various colours from top to bottom! In large towns and cities where several trails meet, it requires the quintessence of alertness and deduction to find one's way by the telegraph poles, which, save for a few exceptions, represent the only means of identification. Strange, in a country using twenty times the number of cars per head found in any other country in the world, that facilities for using them should be so meagre as at times to be almost prehistoric! It is strange also that some of the roads that were constructed even in modern times were the achievement of personal enterprise and are even now boosted and advertised by their promotors. An outstanding case is that of the Pike's Peak Highway just mentioned, which is one of the three trails that cross the Continent from east to west. This road boasts a President, three Vice- Presidents, and a Secretary-Treasurer! Between them these worthy
- 80. gentlemen are responsible for the proper maintenance of the road (experience compels a sarcastic smile), and for the furnishing of information to travellers thereon, etc. Where the money comes from I wot not, unless it be from the various motoring clubs in the country. In a booklet, published apparently by them, it is described as The Appian Way of America. Permit me to quote passages from this remarkable publication:— Increased attention is this year being focussed on the 'See America' idea, and motorists planning a trans- continental trip will naturally select the route of greatest scenic and historic interest. That is why the discriminating tourist will travel over the Pike's Peak Ocean-to-Ocean Highway, the improved central route from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. From New York it follows the National Old Trails Road to Indianapolis; from that city to Salt Lake City, it has its own Distinctive Organisation; and west of Salt Lake City it follows the line of the Lincoln Highway. History places the stamp of approval on this as the Logical trans-continental Highway. Etc., etc. (pages of it).... The trip has no dreariness and no monotony.... (More pages). Never was such a grossly misleading impression of ease, comfort, and luxury perpetrated upon an unsuspecting Englishman! It was well said that the pen is mightier than the sword. If ever again I find myself so utterly demented as to motor-cycle across the United States before proper roads have been constructed, may Heaven preserve me from The Appian Way of America! The reader may think that I am dwelling unduly on the subject of roads, but I do so at this juncture because it was a subject which now became of increasing magnitude. Practically the last sign of paved road of any kind between this point and the Pacific Coast (some 2,500 miles away) would be encountered at Indianapolis, and from there onwards were universally the execrable dirt roads that so seriously threaten not only the comfort but the safety of motor- cycling. I was not even disappointed at the outlook, because I came
- 81. to America without even expecting any form of trail or route across its entirety to be at my disposal. But I feel the natural resentment of the Englishman when I am led to believe that there is a luxurious highway ahead, only to find an aggravated series of dust-heaps, mud-pools, and cow-paths! The road, however, to Indianapolis was not of the Appian Way variety. It was comparatively good in places, and ran for many miles along the valley of the Miami River, amidst beautiful scenery of ever- changing variety. After a few miles, the Ohio-Indiana boundary was crossed, and here, as many times afterwards, I was struck by the apparently sudden change of landscape, the same as the home tourist can almost always discern by the feel of the country whether he is in England or Wales, no matter if he be without his map for reference. I do not mean that either Ohio or Indiana is particularly mountainous. On the other hand, the latter is on the whole somewhat flat, as if in preparation for the weary stretches of monotonous prairie that are to be encountered the more one travels westward until the Rockies are reached. I made little headway that afternoon, and at 10.30 in the evening I was still some distance from Indianapolis, the capital of the State. I therefore looked around as best I could in the pitch-darkness, with only my lights as a guide, for a likely spot for my night's abode. Water is a sine qua non for the camping vagrant, and when I came to a large steel bridge I decided that that was the place for me. It evidently spanned a pretty big river, but it was so far below, or seemed so far, I could not see the water. A lengthy reconnoitre from the road led me to the edge of a field of corn whence I could hear the river but could not see it for dense masses of vegetation. I propped Lizzie up on her stand and found to my dismay that when the engine stopped the lights went out. Not feeling in the mood for investigating the cause of the trouble, I was satisfied to keep the engine running slowly as long as illumination was necessary in unstrapping my baggage and making my bed. Then I set out to find the river and enjoy the luxury of a wash.
- 82. Easier said than done! I could find openings in the thick undergrowth where I deemed the river should be, but could find no way of making closer acquaintance with its waters. As I continued my search, the bank suddenly gave way beneath me, and I was plunged up to the waist in the river I had been so diligently seeking! My exit was more difficult to negotiate than my entrance. The bushes and weeds on the banks were not strong enough to enable me to pull myself out, but came away, roots and all, and left me sinking in the muddy river-bed. I eventually extricated myself, however, and decided to retire unwashed! Pulling off my soaking top-boots was a herculean task, and this done, I hung my wet breeches on a tree to dry in the warm summer night. I passed a splendid night and awoke with the dawn, only to find my clothes wetter than they were the night before, thanks to a heavy dew. Such conditions, I reflected, were of mere trifling importance in the life of a bona fide tramp, and I was soon humming along once more through the fresh, crisp morning air. We arrived in Indianapolis at breakfast time and with a hearty appetite. I remember Indianapolis chiefly as a city with long wide streets full of cobble-stones, tram-lines, and traffic policemen. My first duty was to take Lizzie to see the vet. I didn't like the sound of her at all, and she seemed but a rickety shadow of her former self. I was taking no chances now. As if by instinct we went right there. The Henderson agent took Lizzie under his protecting wing, and while I settled down to consume a hefty breakfast of cantaloupe, puffed rice, and coffee, he took her for a spin along the few miles of concrete road that I had left behind with such regret. Waal, I guess there ain't very much wrong with her, boy, was the verdict, although he did not seem over-exuberant about it. How far you goin'? he added. Just to the end of the road, I replied.
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