Introduction to basic statistics 1 Don Ozisco

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1
COURSE OUTLINE (ECO107 BASIC-STATISTICS I)
1. Definition and scope of statistics, use of statistics in
everyday life
2. Levels of measurement in social sciences
3. Distributions and comparisons
4. Types and techniques of data presentation
5. Sources and nature of published statistical data in
Nigeria and their uses and limitations

2
LECTURE ONE
DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE OF STATISTICS
Introduction:
Statistics is a very broad subject, with applications in a vast number of different
fields. In the modern world of computer and information technology, the
importance of statistics is very well recognized by all the disciplines. The word
‘Statistics’ and ‘Statistical’ are all derived from the Latin word Status, meaning a
political state. The theory of statistics as a distinct branch of scientific method is
of comparatively recent growth. Research, particularly into the mathematical
theory of statistics is rapidly proceeding and fresh discoveries are being made all
over the world. It has originated as a science of statehood and found applications
slowly and steadily in Agriculture, Economics, Commerce, Biology, Medicine,
Industry, Planning, Education, etc. Today, there is no other aspect of human life,
where statistics cannot be applied.
Meaning of Statistics:
Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing,
summarizing, presenting and analyzing data as well as interpreting and drawing
valid conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis.
Putting it in other words, statistics is the methodology which scientists and
mathematicians have developed for interpreting and drawing conclusions from
collected data. Statistics is concerned with the systematic collection of numerical
data and its interpretation.

3
The word ‘statistic’ is used to refer to:
1. Numerical facts, such as the number of people living in particular area.
2. The study of ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting these facts.
Definitions:
Statistics is defined differently by different authors over a period of time. In the
olden days statistics was confined to only state affairs but in modern days it
embraces almost every sphere of human activity. Therefore a number of old
definitions, which was confined to narrow field of enquiry, were replaced by more
definitions, which are much more comprehensive and exhaustive.
Definitions by A.L. Bowley:
Statistics are numerical statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed in
relation to each other. - A.L. Bowley
Statistics may be called the science of counting in one of the departments
according to Bowley. Obviously this is an incomplete definition as it takes into
account only the aspect of collection and ignores other aspects such as analysis,
presentation and interpretation. Bowley gives another definition for statistics,
which states ‘statistics may be rightly called the scheme of averages’. This
definition is also incomplete, as averages play an important role in understanding
and comparing data and statistics provide more measures.
Definition by Croxton and Cowden:
Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation analysis and
interpretation of numerical data from the logical analysis. It is clear that the
definition of statistics by Croxton and Cowden is more scientific and realistic.
According to this definition there are four stages:

4
1. Collection of Data: It is the first step and the foundation upon which the entire
data set. Careful planning is essential before collecting the data. There are
different methods of collection of data such as census, sampling, primary,
secondary, etc., and the investigator should make use of correct method.
2. Presentation of data: The mass data collected should be presented in a
suitable, concise form for further analysis. The collected data may be presented in
tabular form, diagrammatic or graphic form.
3. Analysis of data: The data presented should be carefully analyzed for making
inference from the presented data such as measures of central tendencies,
dispersion, correlation, regression etc.
4. Interpretation of data: The final step which is the objective of statistics is
drawing conclusion from the data collected. A valid conclusion must be drawn on
the basis of analysis. A high degree of skill and experience is necessary for the
interpretation. Based on the results of statistical data analysis, decisions could be
taken, rules could be regulated, actions could be made, and polices could be
modified.
Definition by Horace Secrist:
Statistics may be defined as the aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent by
multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according
to a reasonable standard of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner, for a
predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other. The above definition
seems to be the most comprehensive and exhaustive one.
From above, it should be clear that statistics is much more than just the
tabulation of numbers and the graphical presentation of these tabulated

5
numbers. But it is the science of gaining information from numerical and
categorical (or qualitative) data. Statistical methods can be used to find answers
to the questions like:
• What kind and how much data need to be collected?
• How should we organize and summarize the data?
• How can we analyze the data and draw conclusions from it?
• How can we assess the strength of the conclusions and evaluate their
uncertainty?
That is, statistics provides methods for
1. Design: Planning and carrying out research studies.
2. Description: Summarizing and exploring data.
3. Inference: Making predictions and generalizations about phenomena
represented by the data.
Furthermore, statistics as a science deals with uncertain phenomenon and events
such as daily temperatures, the number of vehicle accidents, share prices, stock
market index, monthly consumption of water or electricity, number of credits
passed, sports competition results, etc. Statistics in practice is applied
successfully to study the effectiveness of medical treatments, the reaction of
consumers to television advertising, the attitudes of young people toward
marriage, and much more. It’s safe to say that nowadays statistics is used in every
field of science.
Example; Consider the following problems:
–Agricultural problem: Is new grain seed or fertilizer more productive?
–Medical problem: What is the right amount of dosage of drug to treatment?

6
–Political science: How accurate are the gallops and opinion polls?
–Economics: What will be the unemployment rate next year?
–Technical problem: How to improve quality of product?
Functions of Statistics:
There are many functions of statistics. Let us consider the following five
important functions.
1. Condensation
Generally speaking the word ‘to condense’, mean to reduce or to lessen.
Condensation is mainly applied at embracing the understanding of a huge mass of
data by providing only few observations. If in a particular class in School, only
marks in an examination are given, no purpose will be served. Instead if we are
given the average mark in that particular examination, definitely it serves the
better purpose. Similarly the range of marks is also another measure of the data.
Thus, Statistical measures help to reduce the complexity of the data and
consequently to understand any huge mass of data.
2. Comparison
Classification and tabulation are two methods that are used to condense data.
They help us to compare data collected from different sources. Grand totals,
measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams,
coefficient of correlation, etc. provide ample scope for comparison. If we have
one group of data, we can compare within it.
If the oil production (in barrels) in an oil producing region is known, then we can
compare one company with another within the region. Or, if the oil production (in
barrels) of two different regions within a country is known, then also a

7
comparative study can be made. As statistics is an aggregate of facts and figures,
comparison is always possible and in fact comparison helps us to understand the
data in a better way.
3. Forecasting
By the word forecast, we mean to predict beforehand. Given the data of the last
ten years connected to a number of births/deaths in a particular state, it is
possible to predict or forecast the births/deaths for the near future. In business
also forecasting plays a dominant role in connection with production, sales,
profits, etc. The analysis of time series and regression analysis plays an important
role in forecasting.
4. Estimation
One of the main objectives of statistics is drawing inference about a population
from the analysis of the sample drawn from that population. The four major
branches of statistical inference are
1. Estimation theory
2. Tests of Hypothesis
3. Non Parametric tests
4. Sequential analysis
In estimation theory, we estimate the unknown value of the population
parameter based on the sample observations. Suppose we are given a sample of
scores of hundred students in a department, based upon the scores of these 100
students, it is possible to estimate the average scores of all students in that
department.
5. Tests of Hypothesis

8
A statistical hypothesis is some statement about the probability distribution,
characterizing a population on the basis of the information available from the
sample observations. In the formulation and testing of hypothesis, statistical
methods are extremely useful. Whether crop yield has increased because of the
use of new fertilizer or whether the new medicine is effective in eliminating a
particular disease or whether the new policy is effective in curbing inflation are
some examples of statements of hypothesis and these are tested by proper
statistical tools.
Scope of Statistics:
Statistics is not a mere device for collecting numerical data, but a means of
developing sound techniques for their handling, analyzing and drawing valid
inferences from them. Statistics is applied in every sphere of human activity –
social as well as physical – like Biology, Commerce, Education, Planning, Business
Management, Information Technology, etc. It is almost impossible to find a single
department of human activity where statistics is not be applied. We now discuss
briefly the applications of statistics in other disciplines.
1. Statistics and Industry
Statistics is widely used in many industries. In industries, control charts are widely
used to maintain a certain quality level. In production engineering, to find
whether the product is conforming to specifications or not, statistical tools,
namely inspection plans, control charts, etc., are of extreme importance. In
inspection plans we have to resort to some kind of sampling – a very important
aspect of Statistics.
2. Statistics and Commerce:

9
Statistics are lifeblood of successful commerce. Any businessman cannot afford to
either by under stocking or having overstock of his goods. In the beginning he
estimates the demand for his goods and then takes steps to adjust with his output
or purchases. Thus statistics is indispensable in business and commerce.
3. Statistics and Agriculture:
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) which is one of the statistical tools developed by
Professor R. A. Fisher, plays a prominent role in agriculture experiments. In tests
of significance based on small samples, it can be shown that statistics is adequate
to test the significant difference between two sample means. In analysis of
variance, we are concerned with the testing of equality of several population
means.
For an example, five fertilizers are applied to five plots each of wheat and the
yield of wheat on each of the plots are given. In such a situation, we are
interested in finding out whether the effect of these fertilizers on the yield is
significantly different or not. In other words, whether the samples are drawn from
the same normal population or not. The answer to this problem is provided by the
technique of ANOVA and it is used to test the homogeneity of several population
means.
4. Statistics and Economics:
Statistical methods are useful in measuring numerical changes in complex groups
and interpreting collective phenomenon. Nowadays the uses of statistics are
abundantly made in every economic study. Both in economic theory and practice,
statistical methods play an important role.
Alfred Marshall said, “Statistics are the straw only which I like every other
economists have to make the bricks”. It may also be noted that statistical data

10
and techniques of statistical tools are immensely useful in solving many economic
problems such as wages, prices, production, distribution of income and wealth
and so on. Statistical tools like Index numbers, time series Analysis, Estimation
theory, Testing Statistical Hypothesis are extensively used in economics.
5. Statistics and Education:
Statistics is widely used in education. Research has become a common feature in
all branches of activities. Statistics is necessary for the formulation of policies to
start new course, consideration of facilities available for new courses, etc. There
are many people engaged in research work to test the past knowledge and evolve
new knowledge. These are possible only through statistics.
6. Statistics and Planning:
Statistics is indispensable in planning. In the modern world, which can be termed
as the “world of planning”, almost all the organizations in the government are
seeking the help of planning for efficient working, for the formulation of policy
decisions and execution of the same.
In order to achieve the above goals, the statistical data relating to production,
consumption, demand, supply, prices, investments, income, expenditure, etc.,
and various advanced statistical techniques for processing, analyzing and
interpreting such complex data are of importance.
7. Statistics and Medicine:
In Medical sciences, statistical tools are widely used. In order to test the efficiency
of a new drug or medicine, t - test is used to compare the efficiency of two drugs
or two medicines. More and more applications of statistics are at present used in
clinical investigation.
8. Statistics and Modern applications:

11
Recent developments in the fields of computer technology and information
technology have enabled statistics to integrate their models and thus make
statistics a part of decision making procedures of many organizations. There are
so many software packages available for solving, design of experiments,
forecasting simulation problems, etc.
Limitations of statistics:
Statistics with all its wide application in every sphere of human activity has its
own limitations. Some of them are given below.
1. Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon: Since
statistics is basically a science and deals with a set of numerical data, it is
applicable to the study of only these subjects of enquiry, which can be expressed
in terms of quantitative measurements. As a matter of fact, qualitative
phenomenon like honesty, poverty, beauty, intelligence etc., cannot be expressed
numerically and any statistical analysis cannot be directly applied on this
qualitative phenomenon. Nevertheless, statistical techniques may be applied
indirectly by first reducing the qualitative expressions to accurate quantitative
terms. For example, the intelligence of a group of students can be studied on the
basis of their marks in a particular examination.
2. Statistics does not study individuals: Statistics does not give any specific
importance to the individual items; in fact it deals with an aggregate of objects.
Individual items, when they are taken individually do not constitute any statistical
data and do not serve any purpose for any statistical enquiry.
3. Statistical laws are not exact: It is well known that mathematical and physical
sciences are exact. Statistical laws are not exact and statistical laws are only

12
approximations. Statistical conclusions are not universally true. They are true only
on an average.
4. Statistics table may be misused: Statistics must be used only by experts;
otherwise, statistical methods are the most dangerous tools on the hands of the
inexpert. The use of statistical tools by the inexperienced and untraced persons
might lead to wrong conclusions. Statistics can be easily misused by quoting
wrong figures of data.
5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a problem:
Statistical method do not provide complete solution of the problems because
problems are to be studied taking the background of the countries culture,
philosophy or religion into consideration. Thus the statistical study should be
supplemented by other evidences.

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934
Of ðe-self sal ðin erward ten,
Of thyself shall thine heir come.
erward = eruweard, heir. 939 nam god kep = took good heed to,
attended carefully to. kep = care. See R. of Gl. 177, 191. Owl and
Night. l. 1226. Hampole's P. of C. ll. 381, 597. 941 Euerilc, each,
every one. euerilc is the same as the O.E. euerich, Mod. Eng. every.
943
Vndelt hes leide quor-so hes tok,
Undivided he laid them where-
so he took (brought)
them.
This line refers to the "duue and a turtul," in the following line. See
Genesis xv. 10. 945 on-rum the same as a-rum, apart, aside.
"Tho Alisaundre sygh this,
Aroum anon he drow, ywis,
And suththe he renneth to his
muthe (army)."
—(Kyng Alys., 1637.)
946
And of ðo doles kep he nam.
And of the pieces care he took.

P. 28. l. 949 kagte is wei, drove them away. kagte is the pret. of
kache, to drive.
"And he ansuered als he war
medde,
And said, Allas and wailewaye.
That ever I com at yon abbaye,
For in na chaffar may I winne
Of tha lurdanes that won
tharinne
For likes nan of thaim my play,
Bot alle thar kache me away."—
(Met. Hom. p. 151.)
953-954 God said to him in true dream, the future condition of his
seed. beren-tem = barn-teem, offspring, descendants.
"We are alle a (one) man barn-
teme."—(Cursor Mundi,
fol. 27b.)
956
And uten erdes sorge sen.
And in foreign lands sorrow see
(experience).
Cp.
"Outen sones to me lighed þai,
Outen sones elded er þai."—(Ps.
xvii. 46.)

"Filii alieni mentiti sunt mihi, filii
alieni inveteraverunt."
Cf. uten stede, l. 1741. O.E. utenlande, a foreigner. Havelok, l. 2153.
958 Hor = or, before. 960 ðat hotene lond, that promised land. 964
untuderi, barren. The usual O.E. term is unberand, unbearing. See
O.E. Hom. 2nd S. p. 177. 965 abre = to Abram. 969-971 And Sarai
would not suffer it, that Hagar were thus swollen (with pride). She
held her hard in thrall's wise (treated her as a slave). 974 one and
sori, solitary and sad. 975 wil and weri, lonely and weary. Wil literally
signifies astray, wild, from the verb wille, to go astray. See Gloss. to
Allit. Poems, s.v. Wyl.
"He is hirde, we ben sep;
Silden he us wille,
If we heren to his word
ðat we ne gon nowor wille."—
(O.E. Miscell. p. 2.)
"And child Jesus willed them
fra."—(Met. Hom. p. 108.)
977
wiste hire drogen sori for ðrist.
Knew her to be suffering sorely
for thirst.
drogen may be an error for drogende = suffering. sori as an
adjective is not sorrowful, as most editors interpret the word, but
heavy, painful, and hence anxious, etc. See l. 974.

"Quen thai him (Jesus) missed,
thai him soht
Imang thair kith and fand him
noht,
And forthi Joseph and Mari
War for him sorful and sari."—
(Met. Hom. 108.)
978 quemede hire list, satisfied her desire.
P. 29. l. 984 folc frigti, formidable folk, frigti does not here signify, as
in other parts of the poem, afraid, but to be feared. 991 in sunder
run, secret speech or secret communing, private conversation. See
O.E. Hom. 2nd S. p. 29. 1010 ðe ton = the one. ton = that one the
first; toðer = that other, the second.
P. 30. l. 1019 quamede = quemede, pleased.
1021-1024
Quoth this one, "this time next
year,
Shall I appear to thee here;
By that time shall bliss befall
Sarah,
That she shall of a son
conceive."
1026
And it hire ðogte a selli ðhing,

And it appeared to her a
marvellous thing.
1028 on wane, wanting one, i.e. one less. "In þis burh was
wuniende a meiden swiðe ȝung of ȝeres, two wone of twenti."—(St.
Kath. 69.)
1032
And it wurð soð binnen swilc sel,
And it became so (came to
pass) within such time.
1035 stelen = go away stealthily or secretly.
1036
Ne min dede abraham helen,
Nor my deed from
Abraham hide.
1037 sinne dwale = complaint of sin (see l. 1220); dwale may be
taken as an adj. = grievous, mischievous. 1038 miries dale, an error
for mirie dale = pleasant dale. See l. 1121.
1039-40
ðo adde abram-is herte sor,
for loth his newe wunede ðor,
Then had Abraham's heart grief,
For Lot, his nephew, dwelt
there.

1041-4 "Lord," quoth he, "how shalt thou do (this), if thou shalt take
vengeance thereon; shalt thou not the righteous protect (spare), or
for them (for their sake) to the others mercy bear (show)?" með
beren = to bear mercy, to show mercy to. See ll. 1046, 1242.
1046
Ic sal meðen ðe stede for ðo,
I shall have mercy upon the
place for those (for their
sake).
Meðen signifies to use gently, act with moderation towards any one,
to compassionate, to show mercy to. (See Allit. Poems, p. 45, l. 247;
p. 51, l. 436; p. 54, l. 565; O.E. Hom. 2nd S. p. 153.) 1049 at-wot,
departed. There is no such verb as æt-wítan, to depart, in
Bosworth's A.Sax. Dict. The only meaning given to atwiten by
Stratmann is to reproach, twit. At-wot may be a blunder for at-wond,
departed. See l. 3058. Laȝ. l. 87. We have the O.E. at-flegen, at-gon,
at-scape, etc. The simple verb wite is not uncommon in Early English
authors.
"The first dai sal al the se
Boln and ris, and heyer be
Than ani fel of al the land,
. . . . . . . . .
And als mikel the tother day
Sal it sattel and wit away."—
(Met. Hom., p. 25.)
"When this was sayd, scho wyte
away."—(Ibid., p. 169.)

1054 quake is evidently an error for quate = wait, look for.
P. 31. l. 1055
He ros, and lutte, and scroð him
[hem?] wel.
He rose, and bowed, and urged
(invited) them well.
1060
He wisten him bergen fro ðe
dead.
They wished to preserve him
from death.
bergen is literally to preserve, but it may be here used passively, as
the infinitive often is by O.E. writers, and we must then render the
line as follows:—"They wished him to be preserved from death."
1062
And he him gulden it euerilc del.
And they him requited it every
whit.
1063
Oc al ðat burgt folc ðat helde
was on.
But all that townsfolk that were
old enough.

1073
ðat folc vn-seli, sinne wod.
That wretched folk, mad with
sin.
1076 wreche and letting = vengeance and failure.
1079
Wil siðen cam on euerilc on.
Blindness or bewilderment
afterwards came on every
one.
1082 fundend = funden + id = funden + it = found it. 1084 don red
= do (obey) counsel, i.e. take advice.
P. 32. l. 1095 in sel = in time, timely, opportunely.
1097
ðat here non wente agen.
That none of them should turn
back.
1101 gunde under dun, under yond hill. 1103 sren, if correct, might
signify screen, but it seems to be an error for fren, to set free, and
hence to save.
1105

Ai was borgen bala-segor.
Aye was saved Bela Zoar (little
Bela).
See Gen. xiv. 2; xix. 20, 22. 1107 hine = him, the name of the town
being regarded as of the masculine gender. 1108 erðe-dine =
earthquake.
"Á hundyr á thowsand and
seẅyntene yhere
Frá þe byrth of our Lord dere,
Erddyn gret in Ytaly
And hugsum fell all suddanly,
And fourty dayis frá þine
lestand."—(Wyntown, p.
i. 289.)
The verb dinne in O.E. has not only the sense of to din, but to
shake, quake. See Seinte Marherete, p. 20.
"Þe erth quok and dind again."
—(Cursor Mundi; Cott. MS.
Vesp. A. iii. fol. 11b.)
1109 Sone so, as soon as. 1110 brend-fier-rein, rain of burning fire.
1116
Ne mai non dain wassen ðor-on,
None may dare to wash therein.
dain, if not an error for darin = daren, dare, venture, may = ðain, a
man, a servant, or = duen, avail. 1119 wente hire a-gon, turned her

aback. See l. 1097. 1120 wente in to a ston, turned into a stone.
1121
So ist nu forwent mirie dale,
So is there now changed merry
(pleasant) dale.
ist = is + it, is it, there is. 1125 deades driuen, held (influenced) of
(by) death.
P. 33. l. 1127 They say the trees that are near it, come to maturity in
time, and bring forth fruit and thrive, but when their apples are ripe,
fire-ashes one may see therein. fier-isles, fire-ashes. For the
meaning of isle, see Gloss. to Allit. Poems, s.v. Vsle. 1131-2 That
land is called dale of salt, many a one taketh thereof little heed
(account).
"Of thair schepe thai gif na tale,
Whether thai be seke or hale."—
(MS. Harl. 4196, fol. 92.)
1137 biggede, dwelt. It signifies more properly to build. 1139-40
Here is an allusion to the destruction of the world by fire mentioned
in lines 640-644, p. 19. Those maidens erewhile heard some say that
fire should all this world consume. 1140 forsweðen, to burn up
entirely, from the O.E. swethe or swithe, to burn, scorch. See Ancren
Riwle, p. 306 (footnote). Gloss. to Allit. Poems, s.v. swythe. 1142
fieres wreche, vengeance (plague) of fire. 1143-4 The Cursor Mundi
says that Lot's daughters seeing only their father, thought that all
men had perished.

"Bot Loth him held þat cave wit-
in,
He and his doghtres tuin;
For þai nan bot þair fadre sau,
Þai wend alle men war don
odau,
Thoru þat ilk waful wrak;
Þe elder to þe yonger spak:
'Sister to þe in dern I sai,
Þou seis þe folk er alle awai;
Bot Loth our fader es carman
(male) nan,
Bot we twa left es na womman;
I think mankind sal perist be,
Bot it be stord wit me and
þe.'"—(fol. 18.)
1147 vnder-gon, (1) to go under, (2) to cheat, deceive. In line 1160
under-gon = to undertake, take up again.
Cp.
"ȝet our by-leave wole onder-
gon,
That thyse thre (Persons of the
Trinity) beth ryȝt al on."
—(Shoreham, p. 142.)
"Ope the heȝe eȝtynde day
He onder-ȝede the Gywen
lay."—(Ibid. p. 122.)
"And tus adam he [Christ] under-
gede,

reisede him up, and al mankin,
ðat was fallen to helle dim."—
(O.E. Miscell. p. 22.)
1151 eiðer here, each of them. Cf. O.E. eiðer eȝe, each eye, both
eyes. 1159-60 Now behoveth us to turn back and take up the song
concerning Abraham.
1162
Wið reuli lote and frigti mod.
With mournful cheer and
frightened mood (mind).
reuli = sad, rueful, from the verb rue, to pity, compassionate, grieve
for. Cf. O.E. rueness, compassion; Ruer, a merciful person; reuthe,
pity.
"He saith 'we ben ybore
euerichone
Making sorwe and reuly
mone.'"—(MS. Addit.
11305.)
lote, fare, cheer.
"Þis isah þe leodking
grimme heore lates."
The king saw this,
their grim gestures.
—(Laȝ. ii., 245.)

"Þat freond sæiðe to freonde,
mid fæire loten hende,
'Leofue freond, wæs hail!'"
That friend saieth to his friend
With fair comely looks,
"Dear friend, wassail!"
—(Ibid. ii., 175.)
P. 34. l. 1163 Roke, East Anglian for reke, smoke. See Prompt. Parv.
p. 436; Beve's, l. 2471.
1164
And ðe brinfires stinken smoke,
And the sulphur's stinking
smoke.
stinken = stinkende, stinking. 1166 him reu. The verb rewe is used
impersonally in O.E. 1167 suðen = southwards. (See Gen. xx. 1.)
1171-2 Erewhile as first Pharaoh her took, now taketh Abimelech her
also. 1177 wif-kinnes, womankind. 1178 wið-helð = wið-held. 1179-
80 In dream to him came tidings why he suffered and underwent
that misfortune. 1180 untiming is literally that which is
unseasonable. We have the same notion expressed in O.E. unhap
(mishap), misfortune; E. happen, happy, and E. hap, happen, etc.
Cp. untime, in Ancren Riwle, p. 344. 1184 ðat il sel, that same time,
immediately.
1186
And his yuel sort was ouer-gon,
And his evil lot was passed.

1188
ða ðe swinacie gan him nunmor
deren,
When the quinsy did him no
more vex (annoy).
Our author or his transcriber is certainly wrong about the "swinacie;"
for the punishment of "lecher-craft" was meselry (leprosy), the
quinsy being the penalty for gluttony. The seven deadly sins were
thus to be punished in Purgatory:—
1. Pride, by a daily fever.
2. Covetousness, " the dropsy.
3. Sloth, " the gout.
4. Envy, " boils, ulcers, and blains.
5. Wrath, " the palsy.
6. Gluttony, " the quinsy.
7. Lechery, " meselry or leprosy.
1192 ðat faire blod, that fair woman. blod in O.E. was used as a
term of the common gender, as also were such words as girl, maid,
etc. See Gloss. to Allit. Poems, s.v. blod.
1193
Bad hire ðor hir wið heuod ben
hid
= Bad hire ðor-wið hir heuod
ben hid?
Bad her there-with her head to
be hid,

(That is, she was to buy a veil
for her head).
1194 timing, good-fortune, happiness. See note to line 1180. 1195
bi-sewen, be seen. so in this line seems an unnecessary addition of
the scribe's. 1197 wurd = wurð, became; on elde wac, in age weak
(feeble). Woc = weak; the older form is wac. See Laȝ. ii. 24, 195,
411.
"Forr icc amm i me sellfenn wac,
& full off unntrummnesse."—
(Orm. ii. 285.)
"Vor nout makeð hire woc but
sunne one."
For nought maketh hir weak but
sin only.
—(Ancren Riwle, p. 4.)
See O.E. Miscell. p. 135; ll. 581, 595.
1198 trimede is, perhaps, for timede = teemed = brought forth; if
not it must be referred to O.E. trumen. See trimen in l. 1024.
P. 35. l. 1200 a-buten schoren = about shorn, is merely the
explanation of circumcized.
"O thritte yeir fra he was born,
was ysmael wen he was
schorn."—(Cursor Mundi,
fol. 16b.)

1201 lay is another form of law. Cf. O.E. daye and dawe. 1204 al
swilk sel, even at such time. 1206 is told, is reckoned. 1208 fro
teding don, removed from his mother's care (?). teding = tending
(?), nursing, care, not teðing = teething. "fro teding don" in the
Cursor Mundi is expressed by the phrase spaned fra the pap =
weaned from the breast.
1209
Michel gestninge made
abraham,
great feasting or entertainment
made Abraham.
gestninge (feasting) seems to be the same as the S.Saxon gistninge,
a banquet. The original meaning is hospitality; O.E. gesten, to
entertain a guest; S.Sax. gistnen, to lodge. See Ancren Riwle, p.
288a, 414. Laȝ. ii. 172.
1212
And ysmael was him vn-swac,
And Ishmael was to him (Isaac)
disagreeable.
vn-swac, displeasing, distasteful. There is no such word as un-swæc
to be found in the A.Sax. glossaries, but we have swæc, savour,
taste, from which I have deduced the meaning here given to un-
swac. See Ancren Riwle, p. 48, where spekung = swekung, and cp.
swæc, stenc, and hrepung, in Ælfric's Hom. i. 138.
1213 un-framen, to annoy, from O.E. frame, to benefit, to profit.

1216 Hir was ysmaeles anger loð, To her was Ishmael's anger
displeasing.
1217 Ghe bi-mente hire to abraham, She bemoaned her to
Abraham. bimente = pret. of bimene, to complain, lament.
"bimene we us, we hauen don
wrong."—(O.E. Miscell. p.
25; see R. of Gloucester,
p. 490.)
1220 dwale, complaint, grief. See l. 1037.
"Be þu neuere to bold, to chiden
agen oni scold,
ne mid mani tales to chiden
agen alle dwales."
(O.E. Miscell., p. 127. See p.
126, l. 414.)
1221 rapede, hastened, hurried away. See Rich. Cœur de Lion, 2206.
"The wretche stiward ne might
nowt slape;
Ac in the morewing he gan up
rape."—(Seven Sages, l.
1620.)
"The king saide, 'I ne have no
rape (I am in no hurry)
For me lest yit ful wel slape.'"—
(Ibid. l. 1631.)

1224
In sumertid, In egest sel,
In summer time, in the highest
time (the hottest season)
of the year.
Cp. 'in a hyȝ seysoun.'—Allit. Poems, p. 2, l. 39. 1228 hete gram,
fierce heat. 1229 wexon ðrist. The sense requires us to read wex on
ðrist, with fatigue and heat thirst waxed on them.
1231
Tid-like hem gan ðat water
laken,
Soon did that water fail them.
P. 36. l. 1238
Bi al-so fer so a boge mai ten,
By as far as a bow may reach.
1239 sik and sor, sighing and sadness. 1241 dede hire reed, brought
her help.
1242
An angel meðede hire ðat ned,
An angel alleviated her distress.

hire is the dative of the personal pronoun. 1244 seli timing, a
fortunate occurrence. See note to l. 1180. 1247 nam fro ðan, went
from that place. fro ðan = Sc. fra thine, from thence. 1252 mikil and
rif, great (powerful) and wide-spread. 1254 In Arabia his kin dwell.
1258 kungriche = kineriche, kingdom. Cf. kungdom = kunedon =
kingdom, l. 1260. kunglond, kunelond = kinglond, kingdom, l. 1262.
guglond = kunglond, kingdom, l. 1264.
1261-2
His ninth son was Tema,
Wherefore is there a kingdom
called Teman.
1264
Het a guglond esten (eften ?)
fro ða,
Was called a kingdom
afterwards from that
time.
esten fro ða = eastwards from those other kingdoms. 1269 siker
pligt, firm, sure pledge.
P. 37. l. 1275 feren pligt, pledged fellows.
1279
ðog [it] was nogt is kinde lond,
Nevertheless it was not his
native land.

1280
Richere he it leet ðan he it fond,
richer he left it than he found it.
1290
On an hil ðor ic sal taunen ðe,
on a hill where I shall show
thee.
1292 ðat he bed him two [to ?], that he commanded him to go to.
two, an error for to. See l. 3752. 1295-6 They say on that hill's side
was made the temple of Solomon. 1295 dune-is siðen = dune-is
siden, down's (hill's) sides. 1299 buxum o rigt, rightly obedient.
1301 sagt, an error for sag (saw). See l. 1334.
P. 38. l. 1308
ðo wurð ðe child witter and war,
Then became the child wise and
wary.
1315-20
Wonderfully art thou in the
world come,
Wonderfully shalt thou be hence
taken;
Without long suffering and fight
(struggle)

God will thee take from world's
night,
And of thyself holocaust have,
Thank Him that He would it
crave (demand).
1317 ðhrowing = throe, suffering, agony.
"ðrowwinge and pine."—(Orm. ii.
174.)
"Vor soð wisdom is don euere soule-hele biuoren flesches hele: and
hwon me ne mei nout boðe holden somed, cheosen er licomes hurt
þen þuruh to stronge vondunges, soule þrowunge."—(Ancren Riwle,
p. 372.) For true wisdom is ever to put soul-health before flesh-
health, and when one may not hold both together, to choose rather
bodily hurt than, through too strong trials, soul-agony (death). 1323
Supply don after wulde. 1328 nuge = nog, now. 1331 frigti fagen
may be either frigti and fagen, timid and glad, or else frigti-fagen,
timidly glad.
1332 for ysaac bi-leaf un-slagen, for Isaac remained unslain.
1333 Bi-aften, behind, abaft.
"Tacc þær an shep bafftenn þin
bacc
and offre itt forr þe
wennchell."—(Orm. ii.
156.)
1336 on ysaac stede, instead of Isaac.

P. 39. l. 1345
Sarra was fagen in kindes wune,
Sarah was naturally glad.
in kindes wune = after the manner of kinde (nature); kindes wune =
kind-wise, kin-wise. 1365 semeð is an error for semes, burdens,
loads, or for semed, burdened, loaded. See l. 1368. seme is properly
a load for a pack-horse.
"An hors is strengur than a mon,
Ac for hit non i-wit ne kon,
Hit berth on rugge grete semes,
And draȝth bi-vore grete temes."
—(Owl and Nightingale, ed.
Wright, p. 27.)
1372 min erdne ðu forðe selðhelike, mine errand do thou perform,
accomplish successfully. forðe = forðen. See Orm. l. 1834; Ancren
Riwle, p. 408; Laȝ. l. 31561. 1373 lene, grant, still exists in lend,
loan, etc.
1375
He bad hise bede on good sel,
He offered his prayer (in good
time) opportunely.
P. 40. l. 1379 ilc on = each one.
1382

Ne wor nogt so forð ðeuwe
numen,
The custom had not been so
forth (up to that time)
practised.
1388 bofte = bi-ofte, behoof; cf. O.E. byefþe, bi-ofþe. See l. 1408.
1390 beges = bracelets, armlets, probably from A.Sax. bugan (=
beogan), to bow, to bend. The original meaning of beg is crown. In
Piers Ploughman 346, beighe signifies a collar. In the Middle High
German version of the Book of Genesis (ed. Diemer) it is stated that
Eliezer, for love, gave Rebekah
"Zwêne ôringe
und zuêne arm-pouge
ûz alrôteme golde."
1391 ghe seems to be an error for he. 1394 kiddit = made it known,
showed it. 1397 good grið = good entertainment. 1398 Him (the
dative of the personal pronoun), for him.
1404
Quilc selðe and welðhe him wel
bi-cam,
What prosperity and wealth had
well befallen him.
1409 wið-ðan, with-that, thereupon.
1410
fagneden wel ðis sondere man,

welcomed well this messenger.
fagnen is literally to make fain or glad, to welcome, entertain;
sondere man. The proper form is sondes-man. Ancren Riwle, p. 190.
Cf. loder-man for lodes-man, l. 4110, p. 117; and sander-bodes, O.E.
Hom. 2nd S. p. 89.
P. 41. ll. 1411-12
When God hath it so ordained,
As he sendeth so it shall be.
1417 garen, to prepare (to set out), to make yare, to get ready.
1419-20
For entreaty nor meed not
would he there.
Over one night delay no (any)
more.
drechen is (1) to trouble, annoy, (2) to hinder, delay.
(1) "Sir Pilates wife dame
Porcula
Tille hir Lord thus gan say—
'Deme ȝe noght Ihesus tille ne
fra,
Bot menske him that ȝe may
I have bene drechid with
dremes swa,
This ilk night als I lay.'"

—(Gospel of Nichodemus,
Harl. MS. 4196.)
(2) "Quhen Claudius þe manhed
kend
Of þe Brettownys, he message
send
Tyl Arẅyragus, þan þe kyng
Þat Brettayne had in governyng,
For til amese all were and stryfe,
And tak his dochtyr til his wyfe,
And to Rowme þat Tribwte pay
Wycht-owtyn drychyng or
delay."—(Wyntown, vol. i.
p. 92.)
In the Cursor Mundi we are told that wanhope (despair) causes
"Lathnes to kirc at sermon here
Dreching o scrift (delay of
shrift)," etc.—(Cott. MS.
Vesp. A. iii.)
1427 Or or first ere, i.e. before. 1428 morgen-giwe = morgen-giue,
nuptial gift, the morning gift, the gift of the husband presented to
the wife on the morning after marriage. See Ancren Riwle, p. 94.
Hali Meid. p. 39. 1430 godun dai, good day. godun = godne, the
accusative of the adjective.
"He let clipie þe saterday:
Þe freres bifore him alle
And bed alle godne day."—(St
Dunstan, l. 200.)

1434 sondes fare, the journey of the messenger (Eliezer). 1437 on
felde = the O.E. afelde. 1439 Eððede = eðede, alleviated, is
connected with the O.E. eþe (eað), easy, and literally signifies
softened. 1440 Of faiger waspene, of fair form; waspene is evidently
an error for wasteme or wastene. "He seh þeos seli meiden
marherete ... þe schimede ant schan al of wlite (face) ant of wastum
(form)."—(Seinte Marherete, p. 2.) "In þis burh was wuniende a
meiden swiðe ȝung of ȝeres, two wone of twenti, feir ant freolich o
wlite & o westum."—(St Kath. p. 69.) 1442 Here samening, their
union, intercourse.
1444
And sge ne bi-spac him neuere a
del.
And she contradicted him never
a whit.
bispeke in O.E. also signifies to threaten. See Castle of Love, l. 221.
P. 42. l. 1448
Abraham dede hem siðen sundri
wunen,
Abraham assigned them
afterwards sundry
abodes.
1456
Him bi-stoden wurlike and wel,

Mourned for (bewailed) him
worthily and well.
See ll. 716, 3857. wurlike = wurðlike, worthily. 1461-4 Long it was
ere she him child bare, And he entreated God, when he became
aware of it (i.e. that Rebekah was barren), That he should fulfil that
promise, That he to Abraham erewhile made. 1463 fillen, to fulfil,
accomplish. See Orm. i. 91. quede, promise, saying, is the same as
the O.E. quede, a bequest, quide, a saying, from queðe, to say, still
existing in quoth. See Laȝ. i. 38, 43; ii. 151, 197, 613 ; iii. 3; Orm. ii.
321.
1467-8
At one burden she bore
Two, who were to her akin of
blood.
sibbe blod = O.H.G. sippe-bluot, blood relatives. Perhaps this line
was inserted by the author on account of the popular belief at this
time, that the birth of twins was an indication of unfaithfulness on
the part of the woman to her husband. 1469-71 Also it seemed to
her day and night, As (though) they wrought in fight (struggling,
conflict), Which of them should first be born. 1470 "And the children
struggled together within her."—(Gen. xxv. 22.) The following
curious paraphrase of this passage occurs in the Cursor Mundi, fol.
20b:—
"His wiif (Rebekah) þat lang had
child forgane,
Now sco bredes tua for ane,
Tuinlinges þat hir thoght na
gamen,

Þat in hir womb oft faght
samen.
Swa hard wit-in hir wamb þai
faght,
Þat sco ne might rest dai ne
naght;
At pray to Godd ai was sco
prest,
To rede hir quat þat hir was
best;
Þat hir war best he wald hir
rede.
Hir liif was likest to þe ded
(death).
Strang weird was giuen to þam
o were,
Þat þai moght noght þair strif
forbere
Til þai had o þaim-seluen might
To se quarfor þat þai suld fight.
Fra biginning o þe werld
O suilk a wer was never herd,
Ne suilk a striif o childer tuin
Þat lai þer moder wamb wit-in.
Þair strut it was vn-stern stith,
Wit wrathli wrestes aiþer writh.
Bituix unborn a batel blind,
Suilk an was ferli to find.
He þat on þe right side lai
Þe tother him wraisted oft awai;
And he þat lay upon þe left,
Þe tother oft his sted him reft."
1470 and = an = in; or else figt must be an error for fagt = fought;
and nigt = nagt. 1477 Ghe is evidently an error for ghet or get, yet.

liues = alive. Cf. newes, anew, etc.
P. 43. l. 1484 swete mel, sweet meal (food), not sweet speech. "And
Isaac loved Esau, because he did eat of his venison."—(Gen. xxv.
28.) 1487 seð a mete, sod a meat. "sod pottage."—(Gen. xxv. 29.)
1493 mattilike weri = mattilike and weri, overcome (faint) and
weary. Mattilike is connected with the O.E. mat, mote, faint, half
dead. See Allit. Poems, p. 12, l. 386.
1494
Iacob wurð war he was gredi,
Jacob became aware that he
(Esau) was hungry.
—(See Gloss. s.v. Gredi.)
1495-6 "Brother," quoth he, "sell me those privileges Which are said
to be the first (eldest) son's." 1499 bliðelike, quickly; blithelike has
often this sense in O.E. writers. 1501 wurði wune, a worthy (high,
great) privilege. 1503 offrende sel, offering time.
1504
Was wune ben scrid semelike
and wel,
Was wont to be clothed seemly
and well.
1506 dede his ending, came to his end (died). 1507 heg tide, hey
(high) days. 1510 twinne del, two-fold. 1511-12 And when the father
were (should be) buried, to have two portions of hereditary property.
ereward = erfeward, is properly the guardian, keeper of the erfe or

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