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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Introduction to biomedical engineering / [edited by] John Enderle, Joseph Bronzino. – 3rd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-12-374979-6 (alk. paper)
1. Biomedical engineering. I. Enderle, John D. (John Denis) II. Bronzino, Joseph D., 1937-
[DNLM: 1. Biomedical Engineering. QT 36]
R856.I47 2012
610.28–dc22 2010046267
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
For information on all Academic Press publications
visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com
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- 5. Introduction to biomedical engineering 3ed. Edition Enderle J. Digital Instant Download Author(s): Enderle J., Bronzino J. ISBN(s): 9780123749796, 0123749794 Edition: 3ed. File Details: PDF, 15.47 MB Year: 2011 Language: english
- 7. INTRODUCTION TO BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION
- 8. This is a volume in the ACADEMIC PRESS SERIES IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING JOSEPH BRONZINO, SERIES EDITOR Trinity College—Hartford, Connecticut
- 9. INTRODUCTION TO BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING THIRD EDITION JOHN D. ENDERLE University of Connecticut Storrs, Connecticut JOSEPH D. BRONZINO Trinity College Hartford, Connecticut
- 10. Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK # 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. MATLABW and SimulinkW are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLABW and SimulinkW software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLABW and SimulinkW software. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Introduction to biomedical engineering / [edited by] John Enderle, Joseph Bronzino. – 3rd ed. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-12-374979-6 (alk. paper) 1. Biomedical engineering. I. Enderle, John D. (John Denis) II. Bronzino, Joseph D., 1937- [DNLM: 1. Biomedical Engineering. QT 36] R856.I47 2012 610.28–dc22 2010046267 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. For information on all Academic Press publications visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com Printed in the United State of America 11 12 13 14 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- 11. This book is dedicated to our families.
- 12. This page intentionally left blank
- 13. Contents Preface xi Contributors to the Third Edition xiii Contributors to the Second Edition xiv Contributors to the First Edition xv 1. Biomedical Engineering: A Historical Perspective JOSEPH D. BRONZINO 1.1 The Evolution of the Modern Health Care System 2 1.2 The Modern Health Care System 9 1.3 What Is Biomedical Engineering? 16 1.4 Roles Played by the Biomedical Engineers 21 1.5 Recent Advances in Biomedical Engineering 23 1.6 Professional Status of Biomedical Engineering 29 1.7 Professional Societies 30 1.8 Exercises 32 2. Moral and Ethical Issues JOSEPH D. BRONZINO 2.1 Morality and Ethics: A Definition of Terms 36 2.2 Two Moral Norms: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 44 2.3 Redefining Death 45 2.4 The Terminally Ill Patient and Euthanasia 49 2.5 Taking Control 52 2.6 Human Experimentation 53 2.7 Definition and Purpose of Experimentation 55 2.8 Informed Consent 57 2.9 Regulation of Medical Device Innovation 62 2.10 Marketing Medical Devices 64 2.11 Ethical Issues in Feasibility Studies 65 2.12 Ethical Issues in Emergency Use 67 2.13 Ethical Issues in Treatment Use 70 2.14 The Role of the Biomedical Engineer in the FDA Process 71 2.15 Exercises 72 3. Anatomy and Physiology SUSAN BLANCHARD AND JOSEPH D. BRONZINO 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Cellular Organization 78 3.3 Tissues 93 3.4 Major Organ Systems 94 3.5 Homeostasis 126 3.6 Exercises 129 4. Biomechanics JOSEPH L. PALLADINO AND ROY B. DAVIS III 4.1 Introduction 134 4.2 Basic Mechanics 137 4.3 Mechanics of Materials 158 4.4 Viscoelastic Properties 166 4.5 Cartilage, Ligament, Tendon, and Muscle 170 4.6 Clinical Gait Analysis 175 4.7 Cardiovascular Dynamics 192 4.8 Exercises 215 5. Biomaterials LIISA T. KUHN 5.1 Materials in Medicine: From Prosthetics to Regeneration 220 5.2 Biomaterials: Types, Properties, and Their Applications 221 5.3 Lessons from Nature on Biomaterial Design and Selection 236 5.4 Tissue–Biomaterial Interactions 240 5.5 Biomaterials Processing Techniques for Guiding Tissue Repair and Regeneration 250 vii
- 14. 5.6 Safety Testing and Regulation of Biomaterials 258 5.7 Application-Specific Strategies for the Design and Selection of Biomaterials 263 5.8 Exercises 269 6. Tissue Engineering RANDALL E. MCCLELLAND, ROBERT DENNIS, LOLA M. REID, JAN P. STEGEMANN, BERNARD PALSSON, AND JEFFREY M. MACDONALD 6.1 What Is Tissue Engineering? 274 6.2 Biological Considerations 290 6.3 Physical Considerations 319 6.4 Scaling Up 339 6.5 Implementation of Tissue Engineered Products 343 6.6 Future Directions: Functional Tissue Engineering and the “-Omics” Sciences 347 6.7 Conclusions 349 6.8 Exercises 349 7. Compartmental Modeling JOHN D. ENDERLE 7.1 Introduction 360 7.2 Solutes, Compartments, and Volumes 360 7.3 Transfer of Substances between Two Compartments Separated by a Membrane 362 7.4 Compartmental Modeling Basics 379 7.5 One-Compartment Modeling 381 7.6 Two-Compartment Modeling 391 7.7 Three-Compartment Modeling 403 7.8 Multicompartment Modeling 418 7.9 Exercises 430 8. Biochemical Reactions and Enzyme Kinetics JOHN D. ENDERLE 8.1 Chemical Reactions 448 8.2 Enzyme Kinetics 458 8.3 Additional Models Using the Quasi-Steady-State Approximation 467 8.4 Diffusion, Biochemical Reactions, and Enzyme Kinetics 473 8.5 Cellular Respiration: Glucose Metabolism and the Creation of ATP 485 8.6 Enzyme Inhibition, Allosteric Modifiers, and Cooperative Reactions 497 8.7 Exercises 505 9. Bioinstrumentation JOHN D. ENDERLE 9.1 Introduction 510 9.2 Basic Bioinstrumentation System 512 9.3 Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, and Energy 514 9.4 Resistance 520 9.5 Linear Network Analysis 531 9.6 Linearity and Superposition 537 9.7 Thévenin’s Theorem 541 9.8 Inductors 544 9.9 Capacitors 548 9.10 A General Approach to Solving Circuits Involving Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors 551 9.11 Operational Amplifiers 560 9.12 Time-Varying Signals 572 9.13 Active Analog Filters 578 9.14 Bioinstrumentation Design 588 9.15 Exercises 591 10. Biomedical Sensors YITZHAK MENDELSON 10.1 Introduction 610 10.2 Biopotential Measurements 616 10.3 Physical Measurements 621 10.4 Blood Gas Sensors 639 10.5 Bioanalytical Sensors 647 10.6 Optical Sensors 651 10.7 Exercises 662 11. Biosignal Processing MONTY ESCABI 11.1 Introduction 668 11.2 Physiological Origins of Biosignals 668 11.3 Characteristics of Biosignals 671 11.4 Signal Acquisition 674 11.5 Frequency Domain Representation of Biological Signals 679 11.6 Linear Systems 700 11.7 Signal Averaging 721 viii CONTENTS
- 15. 11.8 The Wavelet Transform and the Short-Time Fourier Transform 727 11.9 Artificial Intelligence Techniques 732 11.10 Exercises 741 12. Bioelectric Phenomena JOHN D. ENDERLE 12.1 Introduction 748 12.2 History 748 12.3 Neurons 756 12.4 Basic Biophysics Tools and Relationships 761 12.5 Equivalent Circuit Model for the Cell Membrane 773 12.6 The Hodgkin-Huxley Model of the Action Potential 783 12.7 Model of a Whole Neuron 797 12.8 Chemical Synapses 800 12.9 Exercises 808 13. Physiological Modeling JOHN D. ENDERLE 13.1 Introduction 818 13.2 An Overview of the Fast Eye Movement System 821 13.3 The Westheimer Saccadic Eye Movement Model 828 13.4 The Saccade Controller 835 13.5 Development of an Oculomotor Muscle Model 838 13.6 The 1984 Linear Reciprocal Innervation Saccadic Eye Movement Model 852 13.7 The 1995 Linear Homeomorphic Saccadic Eye Movement Model 864 13.8 The 2009 Linear Homeomorphic Saccadic Eye Movement Model 878 13.9 Saccade Neural Pathways 905 13.10 System Identification 910 13.11 Exercises 927 14. Biomedical Transport Processes GERALD E. MILLER 14.1 Biomedical Mass Transport 938 14.2 Biofluid Mechanics and Momentum Transport 957 14.3 Biomedical Heat Transport 975 14.4 Exercises 992 15. Radiation Imaging JOSEPH D. BRONZINO 15.1 Introduction 995 15.2 Emission Imaging Systems 997 15.3 Instrumentation and Imaging Devices 1013 15.4 Radiographic Imaging Systems 1018 15.5 Exercises 1037 16. Medical Imaging THOMAS SZABO 16.1 Introduction 1040 16.2 Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging 1042 16.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1071 16.4 Magnetoencephalography 1099 16.5 Contrast Agents 1101 16.6 Comparison of Imaging Modes 1103 16.7 Image Fusion 1106 16.8 Summary 1107 16.9 Exercises 1108 17. Biomedical Optics and Lasers GERARD L. COTÉ, LIHONG V. WANG, AND SOHI RASTEGAR 17.1 Introduction to Essential Optical Principles 1112 17.2 Fundamentals of Light Propagation in Biological Tissue 1118 17.3 Physical Interaction of Light and Physical Sensing 1130 17.4 Biochemical Measurement Techniques Using Light 1139 17.5 Fundamentals of the Photothermal Therapeutic Effects of Light Sources 1147 17.6 Fiber Optics and Waveguides in Medicine 1158 17.7 Biomedical Optical Imaging 1165 17.8 Exercises 1170 Appendix 1175 Index 1213 ix CONTENTS
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- 17. Preface The purpose of the third edition remains the same as the first and second editions, that is, to serve as an introduction to and overview of the field of biomedical engi- neering. Many chapters have undergone major revision from the previous editions with new end-of-chapter problems added. Some chapters were eliminated completely, with several new chapters added to reflect changes in the field. Over the past fifty years, as the discipline of biomedical engineering has evolved, it has become clear that it is a diverse, seemingly all-encompassing field that includes such areas as bioelectric phenomena, bioinformat- ics, biomaterials, biomechanics, bioinstru- mentation, biosensors, biosignal processing, biotechnology, computational biology and complexity, genomics, medical imaging, optics and lasers, radiation imaging, tissue engineering, and moral and ethical issues. Although it is not possible to cover all of the biomedical engineering domains in this textbook, we have made an effort to focus on most of the major fields of activity in which biomedical engineers are engaged. The text is written primarily for engineer- ing students who have completed differen- tial equations and a basic course in statics. Students in their sophomore year or junior year should be adequately prepared for this textbook. Students in the biological sciences, including those in the fields of medicine and nursing can also read and understand this material if they have the appropriate mathematical background. Although we do attempt to be fairly rigor- ous with our discussions and proofs, our ulti- mate aim is to help students grasp the nature of biomedical engineering. Therefore, we have compromised when necessary and have occasionally used less rigorous mathematics in order to be more understandable. A liberal use of illustrative examples amplifies con- cepts and develops problem-solving skills. Throughout the text, MATLAB® (a matrix equation solver) and SIMULINK® (an exten- sion to MATLAB® for simulating dynamic systems) are used as computer tools to assist with problem solving. The Appendix pro- vides the necessary background to use MATLAB® and SIMULINK®. MATLAB® and SIMULINK® are available from: The Mathworks, Inc. 24 Prime Park Way Natick, Massachusetts 01760 Phone: (508) 647-7000 Email: info@mathworks.com WWW: http:/ /www.mathworks.com Chapters are written to provide some his- torical perspective of the major developments in a specific biomedical engineering domain as well as the fundamental principles that underlie biomedical engineering design, anal- ysis, and modeling procedures in thatdomain. In addition, examples of some of the problems encountered, as well as the techniques used to solve them, are provided. Selected problems, ranging from simple to difficult, are presented at the end of each chapter in the same general order as covered in the text. xi
- 18. The material in this textbook has been designed for a one-semester, two-semester, or three-quarter sequence depending on the needs and interests of the instructor. Chapter 1 provides necessary background to understand the history and appreciate the field of bio- medical engineering. Chapter 2 presents the vitallyimportantchapteronbiomedicallybased morals and ethics. Basic anatomy and physiol- ogy are provided in Chapter 3. Chapters 4–11 provide the basic core biomedical engineering areas: biomechanics, biomaterials, tissue engi- neering, compartmental modeling, biochemical reactions, bioinstrumentation, biosensors, and biosignal processing. To assist instructors in planning the sequence of material they may wish to emphasize, it is suggested that the chapters on bioinstrumentation, biosensors and biosignal processing should be covered together as they are interdependent on each other. The remainder of the textbook presents material on biomedical systems and biomedical technology (Chapters 12–17). Readers of the text can visit http:/ /www .elsevierdirect.com/9780123749796 to view extra material that may be posted there from time to time. Instructors can register at http:/ /www .textbooks.elsevier.com for access to solu- tions and additional resources to accompany the text. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have helped us in writing this textbook. Well deserved credit is due to the many contributors who provided chapters and worked under a very tight timeline. Special thanks go to our publisher, Elsevier, especially for the tireless work of the Publisher, Joseph Hayton and Associate Editor, Steve Merken. In addition, we appreciate the work of Lisa Lamenzo, the Project Manager. A great debt of gratitude is extended to Joel Claypool, the editor of the first edition of the book and Diane Grossman from Aca- demic Press, and Christine Minihane, the editor of the second edition. Also, we wish to acknowledge the efforts of Jonathan Simpson, the first editor of this edition, who moved onto to other assignments before this project was complete. A final and most important note concerns our co-author of the first two editions of this book, Susan Blanchard. She decided that she wanted to devote more time to her family and not to continue as a co-author. xii PREFACE
- 19. Contributors to the Third Edition Susan M. Blanchard Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Meyers, Florida Joseph D. Bronzino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Stanley A. Brown Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland Gerard L. Coté Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Robert Dennis University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina John Enderle University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut Monty Escabı́ University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut Liisa T. Kuhn University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut Jeffrey M. Macdonald University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Randall McClelland University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Yitzhak Mendelson Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts Katharine Merritt Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland Gerald E. Miller Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia Joseph Palladino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Bernard Palsson University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California Sohi Rastegar National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia Lola M. Reid University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Kirk K. Shung University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Jan P. Stegemann University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Thomas Szabo Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts LiHong V. Wang Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri xiii
- 20. Contributors to the Second Edition Susan M. Blanchard Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Meyers, Florida Joseph D. Bronzino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Stanley A. Brown Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland Gerard L. Coté Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Charles Coward Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Roy B. Davis III Shriners Hospital for Children, Greenville, South Carolina Robert Dennis University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina John Enderle University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut Monty Escabı́ University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut Robert J. Fisher University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts Liisa T. Kuhn University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut Carol Lucas University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Jeffrey M. Macdonald University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Amanda Marley North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Randall McClelland University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Yitzhak Mendelson, PhD Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts Katharine Merritt Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland Spencer Muse North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina H. Troy Nagle North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Banu Onaral Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Joseph Palladino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Bernard Palsson University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California Sohi Rastegar National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia Lola M. Reid University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Kirk K. Shung University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Anne-Marie Stomp North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Thomas Szabo Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts Andrew Szeto San Diego State University, San Diego, California LiHong V. Wang Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri Melanie T. Young North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina xiv
- 21. Contributors to the First Edition Susan M. Blanchard Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Meyers, Florida Joseph D. Bronzino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Stanley A. Brown Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland Gerard L. Coté Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Roy B. Davis III Shriners Hospital for Children, Greenville, South Carolina John Enderle University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut Robert J. Fisher University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts Carol Lucas University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina Amanda Marley North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Yitzhak Mendelson, PhD Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts Katharine Merritt Food and Drug Administration, Gaithersburg, Maryland H. Troy Nagle North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Joseph Palladino Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Bernard Palsson University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California Sohi Rastegar National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia Daniel Schneck Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, Virginia Kirk K. Shung University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Anne-Marie Stomp North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Andrew Szeto San Diego State University, San Diego, California LiHong V. Wang Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri Steven Wright Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas Melanie T. Young North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina xv
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- 23. C H A P T E R 1 Biomedical Engineering: A Historical Perspective Joseph D. Bronzino, PhD, PE O U T L I N E 1.1 The Evolution of the Modern Health Care System 2 1.2 The Modern Health Care System 9 1.3 What Is Biomedical Engineering? 16 1.4 Roles Played by the Biomedical Engineers 21 1.5 Recent Advances in Biomedical Engineering 23 1.6 Professional Status of Biomedical Engineering 29 1.7 Professional Societies 30 1.8 Exercises 32 Suggested Readings 33 AT THE CONCLUSION OF THIS CHAPTER, STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO: • Identify the major role that advances in medical technology have played in the establishment of the modern health care system. • Define what is meant by the term biomedical engineering and the roles biomedical engineers play in the health care delivery system. • Explain why biomedical engineers are professionals. 1 Introduction to Biomedical Engineering, Third Edition # 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
- 24. In the industrialized nations, technological innovation has progressed at such an acceler- ated pace that it has permeated almost every facet of our lives. This is especially true in the area of medicine and the delivery of health care services. Although the art of medicine has a long history, the evolution of a technologically based health care system capable of providing a wide range of effective diagnostic and therapeutic treatments is a relatively new phenomenon. Of particular importance in this evolutionary process has been the estab- lishment of the modern hospital as the center of a technologically sophisticated health care system. Since technology has had such a dramatic impact on medical care, engineering profes- sionals have become intimately involved in many medical ventures. As a result, the disci- pline of biomedical engineering has emerged as an integrating medium for two dynamic professions—medicine and engineering—and has assisted in the struggle against illness and disease by providing tools (such as biosensors, biomaterials, image processing, and artificial intelligence) that health care professionals can use for research, diagnosis, and treatment. Thus, biomedical engineers serve as relatively new members of the health care delivery team that seeks new solutions for the difficult problems confronting modern society. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of technology’s role in shaping our modern health care system, highlight the basic roles biomedical engineers play, and present a view of the professional status of this dynamic field. 1.1 THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN HEALTH CARE SYSTEM Primitive humans considered diseases to be “visitations”—the whimsical acts of affronted gods or spirits. As a result, medical practice was the domain of the witch doctor and the medicine man and medicine woman. Yet even as magic became an integral part of the heal- ing process, the cult and the art of these early practitioners were never entirely limited to the supernatural. Using their natural instincts and learning from experience, these indivi- duals developed a primitive science based upon empirical laws. For example, through acquisition and coding of certain reliable practices, the arts of herb doctoring, bone setting, surgery, and midwifery were advanced. Just as primitive humans learned from observation that certain plants and grains were good to eat and could be cultivated, the healers and shamans observed the nature of certain illnesses and then passed on their experiences to other generations. Evidence indicates that the primitive healer took an active, rather than simply intuitive, interest in the curative arts, acting as a surgeon and a user of tools. For instance, skulls with holes made in them by trephiners have been collected in various parts of Europe, Asia, and South America. These holes were cut out of the bone with flint instruments to gain access to the brain. Although one can only speculate the purpose of these early surgical operations, magic and religious beliefs seem to be the most likely reasons. Perhaps this procedure liberated from the skull the malicious demons that were thought to be the cause of extreme pain (as in the case of migraines) or attacks of falling to the ground (as in epilepsy). That this procedure was carried out on living patients, some of whom actually survived, is 2 1. BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
- 25. evident from the rounded edges on the bone surrounding the hole, which indicate that the bone had grown again after the operation. These survivors also achieved a special status of sanctity so that, after their death, pieces of their skull were used as amulets to ward off convulsive attacks. From these beginnings, the practice of medicine has become integral to all human societies and cultures. It is interesting to note the fate of some of the most successful of these early practitioners. The Egyptians, for example, have held Imhotep, the architect of the first pyramid (3000 BC), in great esteem through the centuries, not as a pyramid builder but as a doctor. Imhotep’s name signified “he who cometh in peace” because he visited the sick to give them “peaceful sleep.” This early physician practiced his art so well that he was deified in the Egyptian culture as the god of healing. Egyptian mythology, like primitive religion, emphasized the interrelationships between the supernatural and one’s health. For example, consider the mystic sign Rx, which still adorns all prescriptions today. It has a mythical origin: the legend of the Eye of Horus. It appears that as a child Horus lost his vision after being viciously attacked by Seth, the demon of evil. Then Isis, the mother of Horus, called for assistance to Thoth, the most important god of health, who promptly restored the eye and its powers. Because of this intervention, the Eye of Horus became the Egyptian symbol of godly protection and recov- ery, and its descendant, Rx, serves as the most visible link between ancient and modern medicine. The concepts and practices of Imhotep and the medical cult he fostered were duly recorded on papyri and stored in ancient tombs. One scroll (dated c. 1500 BC), which George Elbers acquired in 1873, contains hundreds of remedies for numerous afflictions ranging from crocodile bites to constipation. A second famous papyrus (dated c. 1700 BC), discovered by Edwin Smith in 1862, is considered to be the most important and complete treatise on surgery of all antiquity. These writings outline proper diagnoses, prognoses, and treatment in a series of surgical cases. These two papyri are certainly among the outstanding writings in medical history. As the influence of ancient Egypt spread, Imhotep was identified by the Greeks with their own god of healing: Aesculapius. According to legend, the god Apollo fathered Aesculapius during one of his many earthly visits. Apparently Apollo was a concerned parent, and, as is the case for many modern parents, he wanted his son to be a physician. He made Chiron, the centaur, tutor Aesculapius in the ways of healing (Figure 1.1). Chiron’s student became so proficient as a healer that he soon surpassed his tutor and kept people so healthy that he began to decrease the population of Hades. Pluto, the god of the underworld, complained so violently about this course of events that Zeus killed Aesculapius with a thunderbolt and in the process promoted Aesculapius to Olympus as a god. Inevitably, mythology has become entangled with historical facts, and it is not certain whether Aesculapius was in fact an earthly physician like Imhotep, the Egyptian. However, one thing is clear: by 1000 BC, medicine was already a highly respected profession. In Greece, the Aesculapia were temples of the healing cult and may be considered the first hospitals (Figure 1.1). In modern terms, these temples were essentially sanatoriums that had strong religious overtones. In them, patients were received and psychologically prepared, through prayer and sacrifice, to appreciate the past achievements of Aesculapius and his physician priests. After the appropriate rituals, they were allowed to enjoy “temple sleep.” During 3 1.1 THE EVOLUTION OF THE MODERN HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
- 26. Other documents randomly have different content
- 30. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Death and resurrection from the point of view of the cell- theory
- 31. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Death and resurrection from the point of view of the cell- theory Author: Gustaf Björklund Translator: Joens Elias Fries Release date: November 20, 2019 [eBook #60750] Most recently updated: October 17, 2024 Language: English Credits: Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEATH AND RESURRECTION FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE CELL-THEORY ***
- 32. DEATH AND RESURRECTION. GUSTAF JOHAN BJÖRKLUND
- 33. Death and Resurrection FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE CELL-THEORY BY GUSTAF BJÖRKLUND Translated from the Swedish by J. E. FRIES Chicago THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY LONDON AGENTS Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd. 1910 Copyright by THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. 1910
- 34. PUBLISHERS’ PREFACE. Never in the history of human thought has the interest in the soul and its immortality been greater and keener than now. The leading investigators of the Society of Psychical Research have taken up the problem of enquiring into the facts of spiritual experiences, telepathy, forebodings and kindred phenomena. The result has been rather negative, for, while we have received innumerable single facts, they all suffer from the common fault that they are too subjective in their nature to furnish a proof that could be objectively valid. Moreover, many reports come from witnesses whose mental constitution is under the suspicion of being pathological, and so their value is practically null. Of much greater importance would be an investigation as to the possibility of immortality on the basis of scientific data, but, strange to say, this method has been almost entirely lost sight of by leaders of the S. P. R. If we could form a definite theory as to the nature of the soul based on exact observation, we would be enabled, first, to explain man’s instinctive yearning for immortality; and, secondly, to form a definite idea of the condition of the soul after death. Thus we could exclude all the many mistakes which are now made, and which originate through an erroneous and partly superstitious notion of the relation of the dead to the living. The result is shown in the reports of the S. P. R., abounding in statements of ghost stories, which can be regarded only as a continuation of folk-lore. As a matter of fact, the work of the S. P. R. has so far provided very little help toward a better comprehension of immortality. Among the men who have done the work of a sympathetic reconstruction of the idea of immortality on the basis of science, there is to be mentioned, next to Fechner, Gustave Björklund, a Swedish scientist who is well known in his own country, but who has
- 35. been almost entirely ignored in other lands. The obvious reason of this is the inaccessibility of his writings, which have not yet been translated into English. We do not believe Björklund’s solution is the right one, but we do believe that he has made a contribution to the philosophy of religion which ought not to be ignored. His case is similar to Fechner’s. We have published Fechner’s book On Life After Death and we are glad to present the views of Björklund on Death and Resurrection. Dr. Carus has sketched his views repeatedly in The Soul of Man, in Whence and Whither, and two articles published in The Monist, with special reference to Fechner. They show also why Björklund’s belief is unacceptable. Nevertheless we publish Björklund’s book because we heartily sympathize with his endeavor to justify those sentiments which instinctively point out that death is not a finality, and that the purpose of life is not limited to the span of our days between the cradle and the grave, but that it has a further and fuller significance. We hope that Björklund’s book will be welcomed as the contribution of an earnest and prominent scientific thinker on the important question, “If a man die, shall he live again?” THE PUBLISHERS.
- 36. TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. Johan Gustaf Björklund was born the tenth of November, in the year 1846. His parents were farmers in very small circumstances. His father seems to have been endowed with a good business head and, ultimately, became a real estate owner on a small scale, first in one city and then in Upsala, the principal university town of Sweden. Poverty was familiar to Björklund throughout his life. Doubtless one reason for this was that his consuming interest in sociology and philosophy prevented him from taking those higher examinations, which in Sweden are indispensable for obtaining any official position. He studied, however, for several years at the University of Upsala, but followed no recognized course, and it was only because of the ardent persuasion of his friends that he took a degree as B. A. In 1884, Björklund moved to Stockholm, where he remained until his death, in 1903. At the University of Stockholm, he took the courses in biology and natural science, and won for himself the admiration and lasting friendship of many of the professors of that institution. During this time he mainly supported himself by teaching philosophy, and among other pupils, afterward renowned, was Ellen Key, the well-known Swedish writer on sociology and the woman question. The most absorbing interests during this period were, however, sociology and the peace movement. To broaden his views and study social conditions in general, Björklund undertook several protracted journeys to England, Germany, Belgium, and France. From 1887, Björklund began to publish the fruits of his untiring labor. His first work was, “The Fusion of the Nations.” In that, as in “The Anarchy of Evolution” and “Peace and Disarmament,” Björklund throws his overwhelmingly convincing statistical resources and solid scientific learning in favor of an ultimate universal, but more
- 37. especially European union of the nations. Toward this goal it is necessary to steer, according to Björklund, if a general “Anarchy of Evolution” is to be avoided; for that is the condition that will prevail, if the state neglects to carry out an organization of society that shall keep step with the degree of material culture reached. “Because during the most profound peace, a nation suffers from its own army the same impeding influences that in time of war is due to the hostile army.” The last mentioned book, “Peace and Disarmament,” at once made Björklund famous. It was translated into French, German, English, Polish, Dutch, Hungarian and several other languages, and would no doubt have brought its author a Nobel prize, had it appeared fifteen years later. Björklund was now elected an honorary member of the Swedish Peace Society. At the Peace Congress in Bern (1892) his treatise, “The Armed Peace,” was distributed in English, German and French, and the Italian Society, “Unione Operaia Umberto I,” subsequently elected him an honorary member. In his later years Björklund devoted less time to active work in the universal peace movement. He became more absorbed in scientific research and the problems of philosophy. An important impulse to his later development, he received from a book, “Significance of Segmentation in the Organic World” (Stockholm, 1890). Here he was brought to serious consideration of the nature of the cell and of its place in life. In the organization of the cells in a human body Björklund saw an example of a universal law, governing all life. With this thought as a starting point, he undertook to investigate the problem, all-important to his philosophy, of the awakening of self- consciousness in a cell-organization and the relationship between this newborn ego and the cells themselves, each of which, to a certain degree, leads an independent life. The result of his studies was first made known in 1894 in a treatise, “The Relation Between Soul and Body from a Cytologic Point of View.” In the year 1900, he published the volume herewith presented to the American public, in which he has partly rewritten
- 38. the former book, and further added his latest conceptions of the nature and evolution of life. This work is undoubtedly one of Sweden’s most remarkable and interesting contributions to contemporary philosophy. It is also the last work from Gustaf Björklund’s hand. In July, 1903, his earthly existence was brought to an end, and he was “fully translated” to that spiritual world, the existence of which he was so thoroughly convinced. It is true that the philosophical structure that Björklund so successfully commenced to upbuild is far from complete. But the basis he laid is solid and will serve as a foundation for many temples of the future, whether they who worship therein believe in Björklund’s God or not. This foundation is the fact overwhelmingly proved by Björklund, that life is not a quality in matter or physical force, but must be of immaterial origin and substance. Granting that time as well as space are forms in which matter and physical force are comprehended by man on his earthly stage of consciousness, Björklund has also demonstrated the immortality of life. For if life be a reality, which is not here denied, with no roots in matter or physical force, whether these are identical or not, this reality exists outside of the forms, time and space, in which matter appears. But whether matter and physical force exist per se, or are mere transient phenomena or what their origin and purpose is, these are questions that Björklund never was granted the time to discuss. Björklund’s grand conception of the relationship between all living beings and their organic upbuilding of larger conscious units, where each individual of higher order is the sum total of all its constituent members of lower order, is certainly a most helpful and inspiring addition to our theory of evolution. But the question why an evolution is necessary at all for beings that are constituent members in The Perfect Being, is hardly
- 39. satisfactorily answered by Björklund. His ingenious explanation, fully presented toward the end of this volume, still leaves us in a dilemma. Björklund holds that Perfect Love has left it to time- existent beings to become of Free Will what they of eternity have been to the All-Spirit; much as a child, unless considered merely a mechanical toy, must of free will, grow into the man that his father preconceived and all the time sees in it. But even so we are left between Scylla and Charybdis, for either this evolution has a purpose, which must be reached outside of time—that is, it will come to a standstill; an ending in Nirvana—or else evolution is everlasting, without final purpose, and its proper name—delusion. Again the time-bound mind meets in this, as well as in every ethical or metaphysical problem, if it be pushed to its ultimate consequences, the same conflict or irrationality that is destined to baffle the space-bound man, whether his microscope is restlessly at work to solve the riddle of the divisibility of matter, or his telescope sweeps the heavens in a vain search for the utmost star. This irrationality, that everywhere surrounds us, is a chasm that only religion can bridge. From a philosophical point of view, therefore, we must be satisfied if our workable hypotheses in philosophy and in natural science do not contradict each other; and Gustaf Björklund has shown us a road to reconciliation between idealism and natural science, that for a long time seemed entirely lost in the jungle of the materialism of the last century. J. E. FRIES. For the biographical data of Björklund’s life I am indebted to S. A. Fries, D. D., well known in continental theological circles as a scientist of rank and founder of the international Congresses in the interest of the History of Religion. (See Theologische Literatur Kalender 1906; Wer ist’s? 1908.) Dr. Fries, who is one of the leading ministers in Stockholm, has done more in speech and print than anybody else to introduce Björklund to the reading public.
- 40. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Old Conceptions of a Future Life 1 Man’s Spiritual Body 26 Source of Spiritual Knowledge 37 Importance of Spontaneous Generation 51 Materialistic Demonstration of Spontaneous Generation 67 How Is Organic Matter Produced? 87 Organic Matter as a Product of Art 107 The Soul and the Cells 124 Fundamental Qualities of an Organism 138 Organic Relationship Between the Soul and the Cells 147 Resurrection 166 Man and Infinity 174 Recapitulation 188
- 41. DEATH AND RESURRECTION. All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul; ... All Nature is but Art, unknown to thee; All Chance, Direction, which thou canst not see; ... And spite of Pride, in erring Reason’s spite, One truth is clear, Whatever is is Right. —Alex. Pope. Essay on Man, Epistle I.
- 42. CHAPTER I. Old Conceptions of a Future Life. A consciousness of immortality, sometimes dim and vague, sometimes vivid and clear, seems to be characteristic of the human race. However low man may stand he cannot consider death to be the end of his existence. The conviction that he is immortal is innate to him. Annihilation is contrary to the nature and demands of his spirit. It is true that uncertainty and doubt might arise, but man will never be able wholly to uproot either hope or fear as to the possibility of a future life. Experiencing such feelings and presentiments, man finds himself amidst a world where death and dissolution everywhere surround him. He sees the objects of his love or fear pass away, and he knows that sooner or later the same fate will befall himself. When he beholds the lifeless body of some near relative, his presentiment of immortality tells him that the selfsame soul that once animated that body is still alive. In such moments even the man of low cultivation is forced into more or less profound contemplation. The following reflection impresses itself with might and wonder upon him: “I feel convinced that the dead is living, but how can he live without his body and what form does his new life take?” In all ages and stages, men have asked the same or similar questions, and they will go on asking them as long as belief in a future life obtains. But man does not confine himself to questioning, he wants answers, and especially must this be true where the reply is so intimately connected with himself. And these answers have not been lacking; we find them formulated in those opinions and theories
- 43. respecting a future life which throughout the ages have gradually appeared and prevailed. The critically thinking public of the present day takes a decidedly skeptical attitude toward all these theories. They assert, and not without strong arguments, that it is impossible to know anything. But, however convinced the public may be of the fruitlessness of discussing the topic, no one will succeed in pushing it entirely aside. Time and again the same questions reappear as dark and threatening clouds on the horizon of our consciousness; they occupy our thoughts, take hold upon our feelings and color our sentiments. It would undoubtedly be sufficient at such moments to have, were it only one fixed point to stand upon; one established fact to start from and which we could trust would lead our thoughts in the right direction. But such a basis to set out from we have not hitherto been able to find. Will this remain the case forever? Will science concerning a future life always fail to attain aught but negative results? Let us say at once that humanity will probably be able to ascertain as much as it may be necessary or useful for us to know in this world. This hope is founded on our firm belief that at this time a basis such as that above mentioned really exists. Natural science has furnished this basis, though nobody as yet has happened to reflect that the facts upon which this basis rests may have any bearing upon our attitude toward a future life, much less give answer to questions such as the following: How, and in what way, is man to pass from this life into another? It will be the object of the following pages, then, to develop further the view just intimated. In prehistoric times men believed in a close relationship between the soul of the deceased and his body in the grave, and this purely instinctive faith is the more remarkable, as it prevailed during stages of civilization when differentiation between spiritual qualities and physical matter was almost unknown. The contradistinction between soul and body is certainly a fact, a general experience. But neither the individual nor the race realizes
- 44. this fact suddenly or all at once. The knowledge of the distinction between the physical and the spiritual sphere, with their different characteristics and qualities, proceeds step by step, being the result of slowly advancing evolution. The child and the savage remain unconscious of any discrimination between soul and body, and even for the more cultivated man, the border between the two is vague and undetermined. According to the psychologic order of man’s evolution we might therefore expect that the problem as to this relationship would appear at a comparatively late date, and even then be of importance only to a reduced number of more cultivated individuals. But, on the contrary, experience shows that this question occupies the thoughts of men in very low stages of civilization, and, in fact, that it is of the most general interest. The reason for this evidently lies in the instinctive belief that the body contains something which is immortal, and which in the life hereafter the soul cannot dispense with. In its first historic form the question concerning the soul’s relation to the body deals with this relation after, not before, the separation of the soul and body. This latter problem emerges only in very high stages of civilization, and even then is of scientific interest to an insignificant minority only, while the question of our existence after death is religious in its nature and of interest to all. In olden times men were more fully convinced of a continued personal existence after death than civilized mankind seems to be nowadays. The same vivid conviction we find even in our age among people in the natural state. From the prehistoric peoples we have no written communication, but from their graves they speak to the present day intelligibly and plainly of their belief in a life to come. Behold the monuments defying time and decay, which these people have erected in memory of their deceased. The sepulchres of the Egyptian kings to this very day arouse our amazement and admiration.
- 45. What was it, then, that induced these peoples of early times to bestow such extraordinary labor on the places of their last rest? It certainly was their belief that the graves contained not only the lifeless body, but also the living soul. The funeral ceremonies evidently show, as Fustel de Coulanges says, that when the body was laid in the grave it was thought that something yet alive was placed there at the same time. The soul was born simultaneously with the body; death did not separate them; they were both enclosed together in the grave. In olden times people felt so fully assured that a man lived in the tomb, that they never failed to bury with him the things of which he was thought to be in want. They poured wine on the grave in order to quench his thirst; they brought food to his tomb in order to appease his hunger; they killed horses and slaves, believing that, if enclosed with the dead, these would serve him in his grave as they had served him during his life. It was also in this conviction that the positive duty of burying the deceased originated. In order to bring rest to the soul in the subterranean dwelling that fitted its new existence, it was necessary that the body, to which, in some way or another, it still clung, should be covered with earth. The soul, denied a grave, had no dwelling. Drifting about, it sought in vain the desired rest after life’s fitful struggle. Without shelter, without offerings or food, it was condemned to everlasting wandering. Therefore, because the deceased was unhappy, he became ill-natured. He tormented the living; sent them diseases; destroyed their harvests; haunted them in uncanny visions in order to remind them of their duty to bury the body and thereby secure peace for himself. The old authors give evidence of the degree to which people were vexed by fear that proper ceremonies would not be observed at their burial. It was a constant source of grievous irritation. The fear of death was less prevalent than the fear of being left unburied. Naturally so, for it was a question of eternal happiness. It should therefore not surprise us so much when we see the Athenians execute generals, who, after a naval victory, had neglected to bury the fallen. These generals, disciples of the philosophers of their time,
- 46. did not believe that the fate of the soul was dependent on that of the body. They had therefore decided not to challenge the tempest for the empty formality of gathering and burying the fallen. But the masses, even in enlightened Athens, still clung to the old conceptions, and accused the generals of godlessness, sentencing them to death. By their victory they had saved Athens, but by their negligence they had brought perdition upon thousands of souls. “These conceptions,” says Fustel de Coulanges, “have governed man and society through many generations, and have been the source from which the larger part of ancient domestic and public institutions were derived.” But this is not all. The primitive ideas, referred to above, obtain even today among various nations and tribes all over the earth. From the islands in the Pacific Ocean all the way up to the Polar regions we meet with the same creeds among uncivilized peoples, the same or similar manner of burial as among the ancients. If we were going to illustrate this, the Chinese probably would be the first to attract our attention, not only because of the antiquity of their civilization, but because of their great numbers. As is well known, a third part of the world’s population is Chinese. Most of the characteristic peculiarities of this enormous community must be attributed to their death-cultus. Every family in China lives in continuous communication with its ancestors, upon whom are bestowed offerings of fruit, grain, rice or vegetables, according to the products of the soil of their home. The soul will lose none of its qualities through the separation from the body. In company with other souls of their kindred it hovers over the family, partakes of their sufferings, rejoices in their happiness. If forgotten, it grows melancholy and ill-natured, it complains in doleful voice and its moans are ominous. Woe unto him who ignores these obligations. The offerings to the souls of his forefathers must not be neglected. Their memory must not be allowed to fade away. But who is going to attend to these sacrifices and memorial observances if
- 47. the family dies out? Matrimony, therefore, becomes a sacred duty, the foremost of all duties. To the Chinese mind there is no grievance greater, no punishment more terrible, than expulsion from the family. What would become of a man’s soul if his nearest of kin would curse his memory? To rid himself of such a sickening dream he is ready to sacrifice everything, even life itself. But only when the body is brought to rest in the family grave can the soul enjoy the care of its kindred. It is obvious, then, that emigration is looked upon with great apprehension by the faithful Chinaman. He must either return home during his life or else arrange that his body be brought back if death should overtake him while abroad. We know that the big transoceanic steamship companies faithfully carry out this part of their contracts with those of their Chinese passengers who meet with unexpected death in America. Similar ideas are to be found among the negroes of Africa and Australia, and among the Indian tribes of America. These also supply their deceased with such tools and provisions as they are supposed to need in another world. Among the Arctic peoples the same customs and usages prevail. When an Eskimo is about to die, he is dressed in his best clothes and his knees are drawn up under him. The grave is lined inside with moss and a skin, over which stones and peat are spread. If the dead is a man, his boat, weapons and tools are laid beside the grave; if a woman, her knife and sewing utensils; if it is a child, the head of a dog is placed on top of the grave, that the soul of the dog may show the helpless child a road to the second life. If a mother dies while nursing a babe, it is, as a rule, buried alive with her. In a Samoyede grave, Nordenskold found among other things parts of an iron pot, an ax, a knife, a drill, a bow, a wooden arrow, some copper ornaments, etc. Even rolls of birch bark were found in the coffin, in all probability to be used for making fire in another world. Beside the grave a sleigh was placed upside down, evidently
- 48. in order to provide a vehicle for the deceased, and we may assume that reindeers were slaughtered at the funeral. The essential, fundamental thought in this conception which causes the uncultivated peoples in our days to treat their deceased in the same way as the ancients did, is the belief that the body contains something which the soul cannot do without in the future life. Soul and body are and remain a unit even beyond the grave. As death means a violent tearing apart of these two factors, the soul cannot be wholly satisfied without its natural relationship to the body. It is evident, therefore, that to the ancient world life in the lower regions seemed dismal and repulsive. Achilles would rather be a day- laborer on earth than king of the hosts in Hades. Life there passed in a shadowy inactivity amidst all wealth, a desolate emptiness in all superfluity, so that the soul could not help but suffer a ceaseless regret whether it moved in the halls of Valhalla or in the Elysian fields. Glorious meadows, crystal waters, streams of milk and honey, could not obliterate the craving of the soul for its corporeal existence. It returns time and again to the body in the grave to enjoy the sacrifices and cares of the surviving. This mourning for the body and continuous longing for the sunny life on earth made death seem something terrible that fretted and tormented men. Was it not natural, then, that the mental disharmony caused by the thought of death, should sooner or later bring about a reaction; give birth to the hope of a reunion of the soul with the body on a resurrection day of the dead? At some such conclusion several religions have arrived. We need mention only the Norse sagas, Islam, Parseeism and Judaism. A resurrection, everywhere taught in almost identical terms, is placed at the end of the present system of the world in connection with a cosmic catastrophe out of which new heavens and a new earth with an ennobled humanity will emerge. The bodily resurrection on the day of judgment is a doctrine also in the Christian faith, as it is interpreted by the orthodox creeds. But
- 49. this dogma has entirely lost its former authority. It is repeated at each Church burial, but the reading has now become a mere formality. We do not believe any more in a resurrection in the old sense. What factor in our time has been sufficiently powerful to overturn conceptions so deeply rooted in human nature? It is the scientific spirit as acknowledged even by faithful theologians. Science has shown that man’s body is renewed several times during life and that even the bones, placed in the grave, soon “arise” through nature’s forces themselves and take part again in the universal circulation of matter. In face of all the evidence for this truth, it is impossible to believe in the old doctrine of a physical resurrection. Another question is, whether this ancient belief could disappear without leaving traces in contemporary consciousness. Can man have changed so radically in a century, or rather in a few decades, that the conviction of the body’s importance to the soul after death will no longer find an echo in his religious instincts? By no means. We are the same human beings and have the same human nature as our forefathers. Forms of conception may go, but not the instincts to which they once gave a satisfactory expression. We may therefore rest assured that the important change of attitude in this question forcefully reacts on religious life in our day. The reaction does not necessarily mean progress at first. Evolution does not follow a straight line; a step forward is generally immediately followed by phenomena in the opposite direction. The religious instincts, underlying the conception of the body’s importance to the soul in a future life, must create new expressions, and the logic of the old conceptions themselves indicates what forms they would take. When the belief in a restoration of the union between the two factors in a human being was suddenly and almost violently shaken by natural science, there seemed at first no other way out of the
- 50. difficulty than to choose between them and declare either the soul or the body as the essential part. Those who felt inclined toward the former alternative evidently found themselves confined to a one-sided idealism of little vitality, because an existence without body seems as shadowy and unsatisfactory to man in the present as in ancient times. An increasing weakening of the intensity of religious life would be the natural consequence. Those again who, because of a more realistic tendency, insisted upon the essentiality of our body, were logically driven to a gross materialism. If science had proved that the belief in a bodily resurrection is untenable, why should it not be able to demonstrate that all religious doctrines were delusions? This reasoning seemed to many so natural that many scientific facts contributed evidence in their favor even when these facts pointed entirely in the opposite direction. There was, however, no necessity to think and reason as these two main schools in our age have done. One might also from the beginning, have taken the same road and arrived at the same conclusion as, for instance, Granfelt in his “Christian Dogmatic.” “It has been demonstrated beyond doubt by natural science,” says this prominent theologian, “that the matter of a human body is, even here on earth, in continuous circulation, so that in the course of a few weeks all atoms of the whole body are replaced by new atoms. The only lasting attribute of the soul during this process is the spiritual body, which assimilates, typically forms, and again secretes the earthly matter. It must be this spiritual body, then, that constitutes the combining element between man’s earthly body and his glorified body in the eternal life.” Christianity speaks not only of a material resurrection on the day of judgment; it also says that man possesses within him a spiritual body, which after death immediately arises to everlasting life. This latter conception is not confined to Christianity. In all religions we find two tendencies side by side, the one idealistic and the other
- 51. more realistic, which indeed are not really opposed to each other, inasmuch as the belief in a spiritual body may be said to constitute the basis even for the realistic conception that places the spirit in co- relation with the body in the grave. The idealistic tendency may be traced away back even to prehistoric times and has generally been connected with some other burial methods, among which cremation was the most common. The place cremation occupied in ancient thought and the connection fancied by our forefathers between the elements which make up man’s spiritual body, may be gathered from Victor Rydberg’s researches in Germanic mythology. “The popular ecclesiastical dualism of soul and body,” says Rydberg, “was as foreign to the Veda-Aryans as to the heathen Germanic race. According to the latter, man consisted of six different elements: First, the earthly element of which the visible body is made; second, a vegetative; third, an animal; fourth, the so-called liten (litr), an inner body shaped after the gods, and invisible to earthly eyes; fifth, the soul; sixth, the spirit.” The earthly and the vegetative elements were already joined in the trees, Ask and Embla, when the gods came and changed them into the first human pair. Each of the three gods gave them separate gifts. From Lodur they received la, that is the blood, and laeti, that is the power of intentional movement inherent in the blood, which attributes have been considered by all peoples as the characteristics that distinguish animal from vegetable life. Lodur gave them further the god-image, liter goda, by the power of which man’s earthly substance receives the form in which it appears to the senses. The Germanic race, like the Hellenes and the Romans, believed that the gods had human form, so that this form originally belonged to the gods. To the Germanic hierologists and bards man was formed in effigiem deorum and possessed in his nature a liter goda, a god image in the literal sense of the word. This image may for a short time be separated from the other human elements, so that a person may assume the appearance of
- 52. another without changing his spiritual identity. The soul, odr, is the gift of Höner, while the spirit, önd, is the contribution of Odin. Earthly death consists in the separation of the higher elements, spirit, soul and liten, which form a unity for themselves, from the lower elements and a removal of the former to Hades. The lower elements, the earthly, the vegetal and the animal, continue in the grave for a longer or shorter time to co-operate and form a certain unity, which, from the higher elements, retain something of the living man’s personality and qualities. This lower unity is the ghost, the wraith, which usually sleeps during the day in the grave, but in the night might wake either spontaneously or by other people’s prayers and sorcery. The ghost possesses the nature of the deceased; it is good and benevolent, or evil and dangerous, according to his disposition. Because animal and vegetal elements form part of his nature, he is tormented by a craving for nourishment if he wakes from his slumber. These conceptions of a dualistic life after death, common among the Veda-Aryans, as well as among the heathen Norsemen, were closely allied with the idea of cremation. Agni, the god of fire, removed the dead man to a better world, while the coarser body, with its faults and defects, was consumed by the flames. It was a matter of doubt, however, whether liten, the inner body, would suffer injury in the pyre. But this doubt was removed partly by certain formulas, believed to be protective; partly by burning a buck together with the body as compensation to the “flesh-eating fire,” the elementary Agni (the hymns distinguish between the two), so that he should not touch the subtler body of the corpse. Through the combustion, the lower elements were enabled to immediately follow the soul of the deceased, and it was thought that two advantages were gained thereby: First, the second ego of the dead was liberated from its grave-dwelling, which was monstrous if his sleep were disturbed either by craving for nourishment or through the acts of
- 53. Nirrtis and sorcerers; second, the surviving were relieved from their dread of evil ghosts.
- 54. CHAPTER II. Man’s Spiritual Body. If we survey the stages of evolution through which humanity hitherto has passed, we find that all peoples, from prehistoric times up to our own days, have believed in a spiritual body which is essential to the soul in a future life. Is humanity then mistaken in this universal manifestation of religious intuition? On this question we need no longer remain uncertain, no longer believe; we know that man possesses such a spiritual body. For many years, even centuries, this has been a fully demonstrated fact, which may be directly observed, and which also has been the subject of scientific research. But what do we mean by spiritual body? The term conveys something of a dim and vague, and at the same time unmistakable suggestion which characterizes all we comprehend by our emotional faculties. Spiritual body means what the words say, a spirituality derived from, or belonging to, the body. But as no spirituality exists which is not individualized or is not a quality of a living being, this spiritual body must be identical with either one single unit or with a multitude of living units. One single unit it cannot be, because this unity would then be identical with the soul, while on the contrary, the spiritual body should be independent, existing per se. It remains then a multitude of spiritual units, which is precisely what natural science has proved to be the case, and these units in man’s spiritual body are identical with the living cells. Before the discovery of the cell, our knowledge of the human body was confined to such phenomena as could be observed with the naked eye. The organism from that standpoint was necessarily a unit of members and organs whose functions, and even coarser anatomic structure, were beyond any accurate investigation. The elementary
- 55. parts of the organic tissues cannot, of course, be observed in this stage. They appear first under the microscope and it is therefore with the discovery of this epoch-making instrument that the science of organisms enters into a new era. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, Malpighi and Grew found that organic tissues, placed under the microscope, did not consist of homogeneous substance as they appear to the naked eye, but of small particles separated from each other, which particles have been called cells. But although the cells were discovered, their real importance was far from being understood, or even surmised. This was no doubt the reason for the small interest given to the cell during the eighteenth century, and the small progress cytology made during this whole period. From 1670 to 1830, or more than a century and a half, the cell was known mainly as a saccate body, resembling a hollow tube, and became the subject of more or less wild speculations. A wider interest for the substance and nature of the cell was evoked in the beginning of the nineteenth century by the works of Brisseau de Mirbel, Treviranus, Moldenhaver and several others. Many different parts began to be distinguished within the cells, such as membrane, protoplasm, chlorophyll, etc. These parts were later found to be as many organs in the cell performing different functions, which are at present to some extent defined. The cell previously considered as a saccate body proved to constitute a being endowed with organs, a living organism. According to modern cytology, the cell is a living individual; an elementary organism. Although these beings are so exceedingly minute that the naked eye can observe them only in combinations of thousands and millions, yet each and every one of them not only possesses individual life, but also the organs necessary for sustaining individual existence. Innumerable quantities of such tiny beings build up the organisms of plants and animals. As human individuals form the building material of the body of a community, so the cells form the building material of the bodies of plants and animals. Since the
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